Point of view

How to Write a Good Technical Paper

Learn how to write easy-to-read technical papers

BY RACHEL J. DETWILER AND DAVID DARWIN

he ability to communicate is a Because a technical paper should abstract. The abstract condenses T critical skill that not only reconstruct the process of the the main ideas of the paper into a affects our success as profession- investigation, the generic outline of single paragraph (or several als, but also determines how a paper closely resembles the steps paragraphs for a long report). An effectively lessons from the labora- of the scientific method: informative abstract includes a tory and field are transferred into 1. Identification of the problem summary of the investigation and general practice. As members of or question to be investigated; the main findings. ACI’s Publications Committee, and 2. Evaluation of previous work in The first sentence or two of the as authors ourselves, we offer some the field; abstract should give the context of guidelines on one form of communi- 3. Formulation of the hypothesis the investigation and the nature of cation: writing technical papers. or definition of the key aspects of the work. In other words, it tells You can apply the principles we the investigation; why the study is relevant and of discuss to formal technical reports, 4. Design of experiments, obser- interest and what you investigated. reports to clients, conference vations, or both; The next two or three sentences papers, and journal articles. Pub- 5. Gathering of data; should describe the scope of the lishing organizations prescribe the 6. Evaluation of data; and work; that is, how and how many. exact details of form and format. 7. Presentation of conclusions. Be specific without getting bogged The technical paper down in details. The concluding sentence or two should present the The opinions expressed in this point Writing the abstract main results and the implications of of view article are not necessarily those Concrete International doesn’t your findings. To pack so much of the American Concrete Institute. include abstracts in its articles, but content into a few sentences, be Reader comment is invited. virtually all technical reports and concise and avoid “padding.” Don’t journal papers lead off with an use sentences from the body of your 52 SEPTEMBER 2001 / Concrete international paper in the abstract; in most cases, most laboratory investigations, sure you present enough informa- they won’t be condensed enough. must be falsifiable; that is, it can be tion so a reader who isn’t familiar Although the abstract appears proven false by the type of evi- with the specific area of research first in a paper or a report, you dence you set out to gather. can understand the broad design should write it last. The reason is 4. A statement of the research of your efforts. It’s also wise to simple — most people continue significance: Most papers in the include key points that an expert formulating their ideas and conclu- ACI Structural and Materials Journals in the field would check to estab- sions while writing. Take time to include an additional section that lish the validity of your approach. write a good abstract. Because describes the significance of the Sketches and schematic diagrams most people have far too much to research. While this information is of apparatus are often more helpful read as it is, they read the abstract usually included in the discussion than photographs, if you need to to see whether they should bother of the problem, the use of a sepa- describe it at all. to read the rest of the paper. This rate section is part of ACI style. By Results may be your only chance to get indicating why the results are This section presents the results their attention. important, you have an extra chance and calculations. Consider how Introduction to grab the reader’s attention. best to present the data. Engineers The introduction gives the Experimental work tend to prefer graphs to tables of background information needed to This section describes the numbers, but you may have a good establish the context of the investi- procedure(s) and materials in reason to choose a table for your gation being reported. It normally enough detail to allow someone data. Pay attention to the way you includes: 1. A discussion of the problem, question, or controversy that led you to undertake the investigation: “Although the abstract appears first in Why did you investigate this particu- a paper or a report, you should write it lar issue in this particular way? 2. A review of the relevant last. The reason is simple — most people literature: The key word here is continue formulating their ideas and relevant. Be thorough, but include only those references that have a conclusions while writing.” direct bearing on your work. An exhaustive review is usually neither necessary nor desirable in else to duplicate your work. You present your results. Make sure a journal article, although a more may either provide the detail in the your tables are neatly laid out, extensive review may be appropri- paper or refer to other sources, clear, and easy to read, and that ate for a technical report. Show such as standard test methods they provide the information that how previous developments published by a recognized stan- the reader will need. Round off provide the basis for your work. Be dards writing body (ASTM, numerical values to the correct sure to re-read the articles you are AASHTO, CSA, EN, RILEM) or number of significant figures. citing to ensure that you quote another published article or report. Be reluctant to eliminate outli- them correctly, and don’t read If you deviate from a standard ers from your data. In general, data more into them than is supported procedure, you need only describe should not be removed or ignored by the evidence they present. the changes you made. If the unless there is a good reason for Avoid biased or selective interpre- procedures aren’t likely to be doing so. Mere deviation from your tation of results or conclusions; accessible to the reader (for expectations, the replicate speci- such interpretation is a disservice example, they are in a conference mens, or results previously ob- to both the authors you cite and proceedings available only to tained by you or others is not a your readers. those who attended the confer- justification for eliminating data. 3. A statement of the objective(s) ence), include the details. In ACI Examine the specimens and and purpose of your investigation: Journals you can place extended procedures to see if some anomaly The hypothesis you are testing and information on materials, proce- fully explains the results you the scope of your investigation dures, or apparatus in an unpub- obtained. Some types of measure- may be stated explicitly or simply lished appendix that’s available ments are prone to large scatter implied by the objective and from ACI. and require a large number of purpose. A hypothesis, needed for Under any circumstances, make repetitions to give confidence in Concrete international / SEPTEMBER 2001 53 “Don’t automatically consider unusual (and tedious) way possible. Just say what you want to say as simply, results to be bad.” clearly, and briefly as possible. If you have a choice (that is, the the result. In other cases, you may with the results of previous work? journal you are writing for doesn’t find that your experimental proce- What implications do they have for require it), prefer the active to the dures are not defined sufficiently the reader? passive voice. Active verbs are well to provide repeatable results; if Include the discussion with the livelier and call for simpler sentence so, your work is not ready for results or place it in a separate structure. While you are writing, be publication. section of the paper. In either case, it aware of the style you are using — Don’t automatically consider should follow logically from the and don’t switch styles in the unusual results to be bad. Often, results. The results and discussion middle of the paper. Be aware of when additional research was together should build toward the verb tense, and use consistent verb completed, unusual results have conclusions; that is, the conclusions tense when describing specific been fully explained based on should not be a surprise but should points in the study. aspects of material or structural be based firmly on the preceding One tense, however, isn’t always desirable. For example, the past behavior that were not initially text in the paper. tense is usually the most appropri- considered in the earlier investiga- Summary and conclusions ate when describing the behavior of tions. Hiding results will come back Your final section may contain a specific test specimens: “The to haunt you. Trust us! brief summary of the work, and the specimen failed in shear.” Make a Label graphs neatly and clearly conclusions may be presented in general statement about the (both axes and curves). In most either a paragraph or a numbered response of a material or structure cases, show data points explicitly, list. Conclusions should follow in the present tense if the experi- and draw curves smoothly. Don’t logically from the results and mental results appear to be broadly include so much information that it discussion (we are repeating our- applicable: “Members like this fail in becomes impossible to read. selves here). In most cases, it’s best shear.” Results also can be de- Use photographs that are clear to list your conclusions in the order scribed using the present tense: and large enough to allow the in which they appear in the paper or “The results demonstrate...” reader to see the details you are report. Occasionally, authors draw describing. Include a scale bar for conclusions based on data they After it’s done micrographs, not just the magnifica- can’t report publicly because of After you have completed your tion used, because the journal may confidentiality agreements or court document, set it aside for a few change the size to fit the space settlements. Reporting such conclu- days (or at least a few hours) and available on the page. Photographs sions is inappropriate because the then re-read it from the point of may also need some indication of reader can’t examine the basis for view of a reader. As authors, we scale. them. often become so intent on getting Use brief but complete captions Write concise and well-written the basic information down on for tables and figures, because conclusions. Of course, the whole paper that we forget that we’re readers often look at them without paper should be well written, but really writing for an audience referring to the accompanying text. there is a practical reason to pay made up of nonexperts (at least in In addition, tables and figures are special attention to the conclusions. the details of our work). Make sure sometimes extracted from the paper Busy readers generally look at the that these nonexperts can under- for use in other reports. Use cap- abstract first. If it attracts their stand what you are trying to get tions, legends, callouts, or foot- interest, they turn to the conclu- across. notes that contain all information sions next to see whether the As you re-read your paper, feel necessary for correct interpretation findings warrant a careful reading of free to cut extra words and add of the tables and figures. the rest of the paper. where amplification is needed. Discussion You probably will do far more The discussion is your evaluation Writing style cutting than adding. Change and interpretation of the data: What Good writing is clear and con- words such as “utilize” to “use,” do the results mean? How reliable cise. You don’t need to impress the and be ruthless with “in order to,” are they? Do they lend support to reader with the size of your vocabu- which can be changed to “to.” As existing theories? Do they tell us lary or your ability to express a reviewers of many, many papers, something new? Are they consistent simple idea in the most convoluted we can testify that a significant

54 SEPTEMBER 2001 / Concrete international number of authors appear never to have re-read their papers. If they had, they surely would have removed such phrases as “...utilize the use of...” and “...an exothermic Rachel J. Detwiler, FACI, is principal engineer at Construction chemical reaction occurs which Technology Laboratories, Inc. in Skokie, Ill. She is chair of ACI produces heat...” And finally, Committee 227, Radioactive and Hazardous Waste Management; always check for spelling errors. a member of 234, Silica Fume in Concrete; and the ACI Publica- As authors, reviewers, and tions Committee. members of the ACI Publications Committee, our goal was to provide some guidelines on how to write high-quality technical reports and papers. We described the informa- tion that should be included and the key points to consider when David Darwin, FACI, is the Dean E. Ackers Distinguished Professor writing each section. If you follow of Civil Engineering and Director of the Structural Engineering and these guidelines, your final product Materials Laboratory at the University of Kansas. He is a member and former chair of the ACI Publications Committee. will be greatly improved and well received by your readers. Selected for reader interest by the editors.

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