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Sarker, Md Masud.Pdf A University of Sussex PhD thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details US FOREIGN POLICY TOWARD INDIA AFTER 9/11 MD MASUD SARKER A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Sussex, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in American Studies SCHOOL OF HISTORY, ART HISTORY AND PHILOSPHY UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX MAY 2016 i Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis has not been, and will not be, submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Md. Masud Sarker ii Summary This thesis provides a critical analysis of shifting US foreign policy toward India. The study covers the period from the end of the Second World War up to the end of the first Obama administration. With Indo-US relations since India’s independence in 1947 used as a backdrop, the focus is on policy from the end of the Cold war and, specifically, from the time of the 9/11 attack. The thesis explores, in both conceptual and empirical terms, the reasons for United States growing involvement in the South Asian region and its enhanced engagement with India. The principle aim of the study is to determine whether the ramifications of 9/11 were mainly responsible for present state of Indo-US relations, or whether US policy toward India was driven by the broader changes in international affairs associated with globalisation, among which the rise of China is paramount. The approach taken is a critical historical analysis that has involved review of secondary literature and close examination of a range of primary US and Indian government material, supplemented by field work conducted in the US that involved interviews with policy makers and academics. This thesis shows that US policy toward India has two major dimensions: the first is the US adaptation of its foreign policy in response to the changed international political climate after the Cold War, a shift in which the question of its relative decline from sole superpower status was critical. The second dimension is India’s rise, which has given it growing geo-strategic importance in the 21st century and has created the potential for India to become an essential partner in US attempts to maintain the stability of the international order and its own hegemonic role with this order. The argument of the thesis is that US policy toward India is more one of continuity than change, and that the driving force behind recent Indo-US relations is not primarily the consequences of 9/11, but is rather the result of power shifts within a more globalised world. In this changed context both the US and India have looked for closer, strategic relationships with countries that share their interests. While far from being united in this respect, their interests are sufficiently common so that from the end of the Cold War the US and India have developed a closer partnership. The effects of 9/11 contributed to an environment conducive to this partnership, but they were not the primary factor. iii Table of Contents Summary ii Table of Contents iii Acknowledgments viii Chapter – One: Introduction 1-30 1.1 Background 1 1.2 The Argument of this Thesis 4 1.3 The Contribution of this Thesis 9 1.4 Methodology 15 1.5 Literature Review 19 1.6 Research Questions 27 1.7 Structure of the Thesis 28 Chapter – Two: Historical Background of US Foreign Policy – pre-9/11 31-69 2.1 Introduction: The Cold War Era 31 2.2 India’s Struggle for Independence (1945-47) and The US Relationship to Colonialism 32 2.3 Containment of the Soviet Union: US attitudes to India and Pakistan in the 1950s 35 2.4 Indian Foreign Policy 37 2.4.1 The Nehruvian Approach 38 2.4.2 The Policy of Non-alignment 40 iv 2.4.3 Policy after the Cold War 41 2.5 Historical Background of Indo-US Relations 42 2.5.1 The first Kashmir War, the Truman Administration, and India 42 2.5.2 The Eisenhower Administration 45 2.5.3 The Kennedy Administration and the Indo-China War of 1962 46 2.5.4 The Indo-Pak War (Second Kashmir War) of 1965 and the Johnson Administration 49 2.5.5 The Nixon-Kissinger Approach, the Bangladesh War, and India’s First Nuclear Test 50 2.5.6 The Ford Administration 54 2.5.7 The Carter Period and Soviet Intervention in Afghanistan 55 2.5.8 The Reagan Administration 58 2.5.9 George H. W. Bush 60 2.6 Policy Shift under the Clinton Administration toward the Region 63 2.7 Realism and Shifts of India’s Policy in Post-Cold War Period 66 2.8 Conclusion 68 Chapter – Three: Conceptual Thinking of the Bush Administration’s Foreign Policy in the Wake of 9/11 70-90 3.1 Introduction 70 3.2 Bush’s Foreign Policy until the Events of September 11 73 3.3 Basic Principles of Bush Foreign Policy – Enunciation of a New National Security Strategy 75 3.3.1 The Policy of Pre-emption 76 v 3.3.2 American Unilateralism 77 3.3.3 The War on Terror 79 3.4 9/11 and the US Policy Focus on South Asia 80 3.4.1 Recognising India as a Natural Ally, and the Strategic Partnership 81 3.4.2 The Policy of De-hyphenation: No Special Relations with Pakistan 84 3.4.3 Balancing China 86 3.5 Conclusion 88 Chapter – Four: The Bush Administration – Implementation of Policies toward India 91-122 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Next Steps in the Strategic Partnership - NSSP: A New Approach 92 4.3 Initiatives and Agreements between the US and India under the Bush Administration beyond the NSSP 94 4.3.1 Ten Years of Defence Relations 94 4.3.2 The Open Sky Agreement 96 4.3.3 Energy, Environment, and Public Health 97 4.3.4 US-India High Technology Cooperation 99 4.4 Expanding Defence Cooperation 102 4.4.1 Military Exercises 103 4.4.2 Arms Sales 104 4.4.3 Civil Space Cooperation and Missile Defence 105 4.5 Counterterrorism, Cooperation and Intelligence 106 4.6 Trade and Economic Cooperation 107 vi 4.7 The Nuclear Deal – Background 108 4.7.1 Implications of the Deal – Benefits for the US and India 110 4.7.2 Debate in India and in the US 114 4.7.3 Critical Assessment of the Nuclear Deal 118 4.8 Conclusion 120 Chapter – Five: The Obama Administration: Conceptual Thinking behind the Policy 123-154 5.1 Introduction 123 5.2 The Environment/Challenges Facing Obama in 2008 124 5.2.1 Bush’s Legacy: Obama’s War (Afghan and Iraq) 125 5.2.2 US Decline 128 5.3 Obama’s Foreign Policy - Views and Vision 132 5.3.1 Multilateralism 134 5.3.2 Non-proliferation – Tenets of Obama’s Nuclear Policy 136 5.3.3 Counterterrorism 138 5.3.4 Relations with the Islamic World 140 5.3.5 Relations with Rising Powers 142 5.4 Obama’s Pivot to Asia: India’s Place in the Setting 144 5.4.1 Obama’s Af-Pak Approach 146 5.4.2 India as a Counterweight to China – Commitment to Supporting India’s Rise 147 5.4.3 Obama’s Policy toward India and Legacies of Gandhism 151 5.5 Conclusion 152 vii Chapter – Six: Implementation of Obama’s Policies toward India 155-185 6.1 Introduction 155 6.2 Initial Technical Mistakes Made by Obama – Rookie Mistakes led to Strained Relations with India 156 6.3 Divergence of Approaches and Sources of Tensions between the US and India under the Obama Administration 158 6.4 Improved Relations with India as a Rising Global Player 161 6.4.1 Defence Relationships 163 6.4.2 Advancement of the Indo-US Nuclear Deal 164 6.4.3 Strategic Dialogue 167 6.4.4 Obama’s India Visit of 2010 – Announcement of US Support for UN Security Council Membership for India and its Impact 170 6.5 Winding down the Afghan War – Impact 175 6.6 Counterbalancing the Chinese Rise 178 6.7 Inauguration of Modi and the Obama Administration 182 6.8 Conclusion 184 Chapter – Seven: Conclusion 186-197 Chapters Summary 186 Comparison of Bush and Obama’s General Conceptual Approaches 189 Assessment of the Similarities and Contrasts in their Approaches to India 192 Bibliography 198-248 viii Acknowledgements First, I would like to thank the Almighty who has given me the opportunity and strength to complete this study. I would like to extend my gratitude and genuine appreciation to my supervisor, Professor Stephen Burman, without whose constant help and guidance this study would not have been possible. I am indebted to him not only for his support in the usual sense of a PhD supervisor, but also for his understanding regarding my circumstances, the interruptions that they caused and the impact of this on the time it took me to complete.
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