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Cultural Citizenship and the Politics of Censorship in Post-Colonial India

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Cultural Citizenship and the Politics of Censorship in Post-Colonial India Cultural Citizenship and the Politics of Censorship in Post-Colonial India: Media, Power, and the Making of the Citizen Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde Vorgelegt der Fakultät für Wirtschafts— und Sozialwissenschaften der Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg im Oktober 2013 von Lion König, M.A. Erstgutachter: Prof. Subrata K. Mitra, Ph.D. (Rochester) Zweitgutachterin: Prof. Dr. Christiane Brosius To the Citizens of India—legal as well as moral. Table of Contents List of Figures List of Tables List of Abbreviations Preface and Acknowledgments I. Introduction—Mapping the Field of Enquiry 13 1.1. Culture, Citizenship and Censorship: Building a Connective Structure 13 1.2. Core Question and Hypotheses 16 1.3. Citizenship and Cultural Citizenship: Conceptual Approaches 21 1.4. Overlaps between Citizenship and Culture in India 24 1.5. Culture: The Continuous Transformation of a Concept 28 1.6. Culture and Citizenship: Tracing Literary-Philosophical Linkages 29 1.7. Citizenship and the Media: Belonging through Representation 34 1.8. The Role of the Indian Mass Media in Nation-Building 37 1.8.1. Doordarshan and All India Radio 39 1.8.2. The Films Division 40 1.9. Media ‘from Below’: New Voices in the Discourse 42 II. Towards a New Paradigm—Bridging Political Science and Cultural Studies 46 2.1. Interdisciplinary Research: Opportunities and Challenges 46 2.2. Initiating a Dialogue between Political Science and Cultural Studies 48 2.3. Positivism: Striving for a Scientific Study of Politics 52 2.4. Beyond Positivism: A ‘Soft’ Political Science 55 2.5. Where Political Science and Cultural Studies meet: Sketching the Interface 59 2.6. Methodology: Overcoming the Quantitative/Qualitative Divide 63 2.7. Evaluating Specific Research Methods 66 2.8. Exploring New Avenues through New Interfaces 71 III. Cultural Flow—A Conceptual Exploration 73 3.1. Operationalizing ‘Flow’ 73 3.2. ‘Flow’: Earlier Explorations into the Idea 74 3.3. Citizenship as Conceptual Flow 79 3.4. Cultural Citizenship as the Product of Conceptual Flow 83 3.5. The Universality of Censorship 85 3.6. Flow of Policies: The Role of Structure and Agency 86 3.7. Locating Flow in the Social System: Micro-level and Macro-level Flows 93 3.8. When Does Flow Occur? Analysing ‘Conditional’ and ‘Unconditional Flow’ 96 3.9. Flow of Institutions and Culture: A Deep Entanglement 101 3.10. Questioning Eurocentric Narratives: Flow and Counterflow as Analytical Tools 106 IV. From Citizenship to ‘Cultural Citizenship’—The Genealogy of a Concept 109 4.1. Connecting the Past to the Present and the East to the West 109 4.2. Ancient Athens: The Cradle of Citizenship 110 4.2.1. Citizens and Non-Citizens: Defining the Self against the Other 112 4.2.2. Sealed with Blood: Creating Belonging through War 114 4.2.3. Belonging through Performance: Negotiating Citizenship in Terms of Culture 117 4.3. The Kau ilyan State: A Case of Ancient Non-Western Citizenship? 121 4.4. Citizenship in Ancient Rome: In Varietate Concordia 129 4.5. Citizenship in the Modern Era: Theorising Inclusivity and Cultural Participation 133 4.6. The Triadic Model of Citizenship by T.H. Marshall and its Critics 138 4.7. Citizenship in the Republic of India: The Road to the Nation 140 4.7.1. Tracing Conceptual Flow: The Constituent Assembly Debates 143 4.7.2. Recognising Diversity: The Counterflow Potential of Indian Citizenship 146 4.8. Cultural Citizenship: Conceptual Problems and Prospects 148 4.9. Exploring the Discursive Side of the Citizen: Cultural Citizenship as a Media Concept 152 4.10. Group vs. Individual: Different Theoretical Trajectories in Europe and India 156 4.11. Cultural Citizenship as Policy in the Democratic Context 161 4.12. India and Europe: Connected in Theory and Practice 165 V. Censorship in India—Power in and through Discourse 167 5.1. Defining Censorship in Diachronic Perspective 167 5.2. Different Forms of Censorship across Time and Space 171 5.3. When Official and Unofficial Censorship Intersect: A Case Study of the ‘Ramanujan Issue’ 176 5.4. Analysing the ‘Ramanujan Issue’ in Terms of ‘Discursive Crossing’ 181 5.5. Monopolizing Discourse: Joseph Lelyveld’s ‘Great Soul’ in Gujarat 186 5.6. Trapped in Culture? The Implications of Context for (Self)-Censorship 191 5.7. Censorship and Cultural Citizenship: The Case of Minority Protection 192 VI. Mass- and Non-Mass Media in India—Visions and Voices 197 6.1. Developing the Analytical Frame 197 6.2. Modern Media in India: From Jesuits to Gandhians 199 6.3. Media as Tools of Nation-building: Varying Roles 201 6.4.Comics: A Socio-Historical Account 209 6.5. India’s Mainstream Comic Scene: Discourse on Amar Chitra Katha and ‘Parmanu’ 212 6.6. Comics as Socio-Political Media: A Case Study of ‘Grassroots Comics’, India 217 6.7. Situating ‘Grassroots Comics’ in a Theoretical and Empirical Framework 233 6.8.The Modes of Display of ‘Grassroots Comics’ 238 6.9. Measuring the Impact of the Message: Persisting Challenges to Quantification 242 VII. Conclusion—Outlining Agenda Points for Future Research 251 7.1. What has been achieved and what remains to be done? 251 7.2. Counterflow: In Search of Local Knowledge 257 7.3. Transculturality: Product, Process, or Pleonasm? 260 Bibliography 265 Appendix I: National Unity and Emotional Integration of the People— Selected Documentary Films of the Films Division (1949-1961) 294 Appendix II: Ek Alag Chitra Katha (2009): Text Translation 296 Appendix III: Survey Questions: The Media, Censorship and Citizenship in India 308 List of Figures Figure 1.1 The Modern ‘Post-colonial’ State, Traditional Society and Citizenship: Overlapping Legal and Moral Categories 25 Figure 3.1 Vertical and Horizontal ‘Flows’ 89 Figure 3.2 Policy Flow at the Macro-level 98 Figure 4.1 Cultural Citizenship as Context in the Circulation of the Production of Cultural Meaning 154 Figure 5.1 Protests of Students and Academic Staff at Delhi University (DU) against the Removal of A.K. Ramanujan’s Essay ‘Three Hundred R m ya as’ 179 Figure 5.2 Screenshot of a CNN-IBN News Item 180 Figure 6.1 A Visual Introduction to the Concept of Grassroots Comics 219 Figure 6.2 A Grassroots Comic on the Social Exclusion of Homosexuals 225 Figure 6.3 A Grassroots Comic on Religio-Ethnic Discrimination 228 Figure 6.4 Display of a Grassroots Comic on a School Notice Board in Mizoram 238 Figure 6.5 Display of Grassroots Comics in Goa 240 Figure 6.6 Grassroots Campaign ‘Rights for Our Daughters’ in Rajasthan (2005) 241 List of Tables Table 2.1 Disciplines Related to Political Science and Intersecting Research fields 49 Table 3.1 Varieties of Terminology referring to Processes and Outcomes of Cultural Encounters 76 Table 4.1 Values and Institutional Arrangements in the Making of Citizens: A Typology of Indian Thinkers 142 Table 6.1 Citizen Duties and their Evaluation by Respondents (in percent) 206 Table 6.2 The ‘Un-Citizens’ as perceived by the Respondents (in percent) 207 Table 6.3 Amar Chitra Katha and Alag Chitra Katha in Comparative Perspective 227 Table 6.4 Racial Discrimination Cases Recorded by NESC & H 230 (in total and in percent) Table 6.5 Meaning of Democracy as understood by People in South Asia/Individual Countries in a Cross-National Comparison (in percent) 245 Table 6.6 Most liked Attributes of Democracy in Cross-National Comparison in South Asia (in percent) 246 List of Abbreviations ABVP Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad AC Academic Council ACK Amar Chitra Katha AIADMK All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam AICC All India Congress Committee AIR All India Radio AIMPLB All India Muslim Personal Law Board APSA American Political Science Association BJP Bharatiya Janata Party CA Constituent Assembly CAD Constituent Assembly Debates CBFC Central Board of Film Certification CID Criminal Investigation Department CSDS Centre for the Study of Developing Societies DD Doordarshan DU Delhi University EU European Union FD Films Division FIR First Information Report GC Grassroots Comics GoI Government of India IDSA Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses IFI Information Films of India IIMC Indian Institute of Mass Communication INC Indian National Congress INP Indian News Parade IPS Indian Police Service JNU Jawaharlal Nehru University LGBT Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender (Community) LPFM Low Power Frequency Modulation MAS Mizoram Artists’ Society MIB Ministry of Information and Broadcasting MPLB Muslim Personal Law Board MSM Men who have Sex with Men NAI National Archives of India NCERT National Council of Educational Research and Training NCT National Capital Territory NDA National Democratic Alliance NDTV New Delhi Television NESC & H North East Support Centre and Helpline NMC National Monitoring Committee OED Oxford English Dictionary PG Parental Guidance PPP Pakistan People’s Party PSA Political Studies Association RPI Republican Party of India RPI (A) Republican Party of India (Athavale) RSS Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh ToI Times of India UID Unique Identification (Scheme) UIDAI Unique Identification Authority of India UNDP United Nations Development Programme UPA United Progressive Alliance Preface and Acknowledgments Writing a doctoral dissertation is a crucial element in a larger identity-constituting process. It is usually during that phase in life that the writer crosses the threshold separating (academic) adolescence from adulthood. Before the writing process can start, the prospective author is confronted with an array of questions which require careful consideration, for the kind of answer which is given determines the future course of life to a not insignificant extent. In which subject does one write one’s thesis? In what language? Under whose supervision? And to what end? Not all of these questions can or should be posed as Yes-or-No questions, and even with regard to those that appear to be unambiguous, I have to admit that I am still undecided.
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