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Fish Circadian Rhythms Book Chapter CONTENTS CONTRIBUTORS ix PREFACE xi INTRODUCTION xiii 1. Cognitive Ability in Fish Victoria A. Braithwaite 1. Background 1 2. Cognition 4 3. The Teleost Brain 6 4. Perception and Brain Lateralisation 9 5. Learning in Fishes 11 6. The Lateral Telencephalic Pallium and Spatial Learning 27 7. Conclusion 29 References 29 2. Communication Gil G. Rosenthal and Phillip S. Lobel 1. Introduction 39 2. Visual Communication 41 3. Electrical Communication 50 4. Mechanical Communication 55 5. Chemical Communication 55 6. Acoustic Communication 60 7. Multimodal Communication 65 8. Communication in Fish: The Next Steps 67 References 68 v vi CONTENTS 3. The Physiology of Antipredator Behaviour: What You do with What You’ve Got Mark Abrahams 1. Introduction 79 2. The Probability of Death Once Detected by a Predator 81 3. Maximising the Probability of Detecting a Predator—The Detection Game 83 4. Time Spent Vulnerable to Predation 91 5. So What Do You Do With What You’ve Got? 99 References 102 4. EVects of Parasites on Fish Behaviour: Interactions with Host Physiology Iain Barber and Hazel A. Wright 1. Introduction 110 2. E Vects of Parasites on the Sensory Performance of Fish Hosts 117 3. Behavioural Consequences of Parasite ‐Imposed Constraints on Host Physiology 123 4. E Vects of Parasites on Host Control Systems 128 5. Physiological E Vects of Infection that Impair the Host’s Behavioural Capacity 133 6. Future Directions 138 7. Summary 139 References 140 5. Social Interactions Jo¨rgen I. Johnsson, Svante Winberg, and Katherine A. Sloman 1. Introduction 151 2. Competitive Interactions 154 3. Neuroendocrine Responses: Short ‐Term E Vects of Social Status 160 4. Longer ‐Term E Vects of Social Status 174 5. Environmental Factors and Social Relations 176 6. Genetic Factors A Vecting Social Relations and Stress 179 7. Conclusions 182 References 183 6. Circadian Rhythms in Fish Irina V. Zhdanova and Ste´phan G. Reebs 1. Introduction 197 2. Circadian Clock Genes 207 CONTENTS vii 3. Entrainment to Light 208 4. Entrainment to Other Environmental Cues 216 5. Circadian Rhythms and Development 221 6. Circadian Rhythms and Plasticity of Behavioural Patterns 222 7. Circadian Rhythms and Sleep 224 8. Summary 227 References 228 7. Behavioural Physiology of Fish Migrations: Salmon as a Model Approach Scott G. Hinch, Steven J. Cooke, Michael C. Healey, and A. P. (Tony) Farrell 1. Introduction 240 2. Migrations: Definition, Types, and Prevalence 240 3. Costs and Benefits of Migration 242 4. Salmonids as Model Species 243 5. Sockeye Salmon Migratory Phases 243 6. Phase 1: Larval Developmental Migration 244 7. Phase 2: Migrations to Larval Feeding Grounds 245 8. Phase 3: Vertical Migrations in Lakes 248 9. Phase 4: Smolting and Migration to Sea 251 10. Phase 5: Directed Coastal Migration 255 11. Phase 6: Open Ocean Migration 257 12. Phase 7: Directed Migration to the Coast and Natal River 259 13. Phase 8: Adult Upriver Migration to Natal Stream 265 14. Conclusions 284 References 285 8. Neuroendocrine Mechanisms of Alternative Reproductive Tactics in Fish Rui F. Oliveira 1. Introduction 297 2. Alternative Reproductive Strategies and Tactics 298 3. Sex Determination, Sexual Di Verentiation, and Alternative Reproductive Phenotypes 306 4. Sex Steroids and Alternative Reproductive Phenotypes 313 5. Neural Mechanisms of Alternative Reproductive Behaviours 334 6. Integrating Proximate and Ultimate Questions in the Study of Alternative Reproductive Tactics 341 References 344 viii CONTENTS 9. Reproductive Pheromones Norm Stacey and Peter Sorensen 1. Introduction 359 2. Terms and Concepts 361 3. Overview of the Fish Olfactory System 364 4. Bile Acid ‐Derived Pheromones of Sea Lamprey 367 5. Hormonal Pheromones 370 6. Summary 399 References 400 10. Anthropogenic Impacts Upon Behaviour and Physiology Katherine A. Sloman and Rod W. Wilson 1. Introduction 413 2. E Vects of Contaminants on Cognition 414 3. E Vects of Contaminants on the Senses 424 4. E Vects of Contaminants on Predator ‐Prey Relationships and Parasite Interactions 430 5. E Vects of Contaminants on Social Behaviour and Hierarchies 442 6. E Vects of Contaminants on Reproduction 452 7. Conclusion 457 References 458 INDEX 469 OTHER VOLUMES IN THE SERIES 479 CONTRIBUTORS The numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ contributions begin. MARK ABRAHAMS (79), Department of Zoology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada SIGAL BALSHINE (xiii) Department of Psychology, Neuroscience, and Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada IAIN BARBER (109), Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Wales Aberystwyth, Aberystwyth, Wales, United Kingdom VICTORIA A. B RAITHWAITE (1), Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Ashworth Laboratories, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom STEVEN J. C OOKE (239), Centre for Applied Conservation Research, Department of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada A. P. (T ONY ) F ARRELL (239), Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada MICHAEL C. H EALEY (239), Institute for Resources Environment and Sustainability, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada SCOTT G. H INCH (239), Department of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, 3022 Forest Sciences Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada JO¨ RGEN I. J OHNSSON (151), Department of Zoology, Go¨teborg University, Go¨teborg, Sweden PHILLIP S. L OBEL (39), Department of Biology, Boston University and Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts ix x CONTRIBUTORS RUI F. O LIVEIRA (297), Unidade de Investigac¸a˜o em Eco-Etologia, Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada, Lisboa, Portugal STE ´ PHAN G. R EEBS (197), De´partement de Biologie, Universite´ de Moncton, Moncton, Canada GIL G. R OSENTHAL (39), Department of Biology, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas KATHERINE A. S LOMAN (151, 413), School of Biological Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, Devon, United Kingdom PETER SORENSEN (359), Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota NORM STACEY (359), Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada ROD W. W ILSON (413), School of Biosciences, Hatherly Laboratories, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom SVANTE WINBERG (151), Evolutionary Biology Centre, Department of Comparative Physiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden HAZEL A. W RIGHT (109), Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Wales, Aberystwyth, Aberystwyth, Wales, United Kingdom IRINA V. Z HDANOVA (197), Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 6 CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS IN FISH IRINA V. ZHDANOVA STE ´ PHAN G. REEBS 1. Introduction 2. Circadian Clock Genes 3. Entrainment to Light 3.1. Centralised Circadian Oscillators 3.2. Peripheral Circadian Oscillators 3.3. Melatonin: Functional Significance 4. Entrainment to Other Environmental Cues 4.1. Temperature 4.2. Food Availability 4.3. Social Environment 4.4. Predation Risk 5. Circadian Rhythms and Development 6. Circadian Rhythms and Plasticity of Behavioural Patterns 7. Circadian Rhythms and Sleep 8. Summary 1. INTRODUCTION Circadian rhythmicity in behaviour and metabolism is a ubiquitous phenomenon in biology, documented in such diverse species as unicellular organisms, plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates. The reason is quite clear: the survival of all of these organisms depends on adapting to the regular changes of their environment, defined mostly by the 24 ‐hour period of earth’s rotation relative to the sun. Importantly, the organisms can immense- ly benefit from predicting when the day or night comes and, with it, changes in illumination, temperature, or food availability. Anticipating these envi- ronmental changes allows organisms to adjust all of their metabolic and behavioural processes in advance and to do everything ‘‘on time.’’ Hence, biological clocks have evolved, and even in the absence of any environmental 197 Behaviour and Physiology of Fish: Volume 24 Copyright # 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved FISH PHYSIOLOGY DOI: 10.1016/S1546-5098(05)24006-2 198 IRINA V. ZHDANOVA AND STE ´ PHAN G. REEBS cues they autonomously oscillate with a circadian ( circa ¼ about, dia ¼ day) period. The intrinsic period of circadian clocks can be somewhat shorter or longer than 24 hours and can be adjusted (reset) to the environment by gradually shifting the oscillation phase until it coincides with the environ- mental cycle and then stabilises (entrains). Such entrainment can be induced by di Verent environmental cues, called zeitgebers (‘‘ time givers ’’ ) or synchro- nisers . Light appears to be the strongest of these synchronisers and, as a result, a large amount of data characterising light ‐dependent intrinsic oscil- lations has been collected over the years. In addition, other critical environ- mental parameters changing daily or annually (such as environmental temperature, food availability, and predation risk) can also a Vect the phase of intrinsic clocks and, in some species, may even play a more important role than light. Conceivably, every cell in the body can contain an intrinsic clock mecha- nism. Although some cells may initiate oscillations only in response to speci fic internal or external factors, others constantly express this function.
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