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Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Opportunities for Reducing TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR REDUCING HUMAN-WOLF CONFLICTS IN MONGOLIA A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of Antioch University New EnGland In partial fulfillment for the deGree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by Tuul Sukhbaatar ORCID Scholar No. 0000-0002-3787-8058 October, 2020 TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR REDUCING HUMAN- WOLF CONFLICTS IN MONGOLIA This dissertation, by Tuul Sukhbaatar, has been approved by the committee members siGned below who recommend that it be accepted by the faculty of Antioch University New EnGland in partial fulfillment of requirements for the deGree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Dissertation Committee: James Gruber, Ph.D., Chairperson Jean Kayira, Ph.D. James Murdoch, Ph.D. CopyriGht © 2020 by Tuul Sukhbaatar All RiGhts Reserved i ABSTRACT TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR REDUCING HUMAN- WOLF CONFLICTS IN MONGOLIA Tuul Sukhbaatar Antioch University New EnGland Keene, New Hampshire Conflicts between humans and wolves occur anywhere these two inhabit the same area. This research explored traditional ecoloGical knowledGe (TEK) of MonGolians and potential opportunities that this knowledGe could offer to improve relationships between humans and wolves (Canis lupus) in MonGolia. Research questions include: what is the local understandinG of TEK as it applies to wolves; what are the perceptions of different stakeholder Groups on the wolves; and what opportunities are there to draw upon TEK to reduce human-wolf conflicts? This research, usinG the case study and mixed methods, involved 128 individuals who represented four stakeholder Groups (herders, urban residents, hunters, and environmental officials). Four sites were chosen for this research, Ulaanbaatar and three provinces that are within the forest-steppe or KhanGai reGion. FindinGs suGGest that MonGolians Generally viewed wolves from neutral to positive. Respect towards wolves was hiGh in all four Groups. The respect arose from various reasons, includinG the wolf’s role in the ecosystems, the wolf’s “intelliGence and bravery”, the spirituality of MonGolian people, and the history of MonGolia. ii Results included findings that most herders live in a type of balance, both harmony and rivalry, with wolves. I also found that there was a broad acceptance amonG herders that wolves can actually help them become more responsible and accountable in their practices. All stakeholder Groups consider the wolf as an ecoloGically and culturally iconic species and is perceived as a keystone species in keepinG the ecoloGical balance. Recommendations from across all stakeholder Groups support new comprehensive laws and reGulations for managinG the wolf population in an ecoloGically balanced manner. This dissertation is available in open access at AURA, http://aura.antioch.edu/ and OhioLINK ETD Center, https://etd.ohiolink.edu/etd.> Keywords: traditional ecoloGical knowledGe (TEK), pastoralists, herders, wolf hunters, stakeholder Groups, wolf management, adaptive wolf management, KhanGai reGion, forest-steppe zone, MonGolia. iii Acknowledgements I would like to express my Gratitude and appreciation to my dissertation advisor, Dr. James Gruber, for supportinG me throuGh this lonG journey. Thank you very much for always beinG kind and patient with me and more importantly thank you so much for believinG in me that I could finish this proGram. I also would like to thank Dr. Jean Kayira and Dr. James Murdoch for their Guidance, encouragement, revisions, and advice throuGhout the challenGinG process. I Greatly appreciate Patience Stoddard for her support. I am extremely thankful to the 128 individuals who participated in my research. I thank ShinechimeG Dagmar, RentsenbadGar SanGidorj, Bayarmagnai Bayaraa, ManaltoGtokh Batbold, BulGan Dalkhaa, Dalkhaa DashdondoG, TuvshintuGs Tsamba, Bold-OrGil Dalkhaa, Tserenkhand Purevdorj, Baldandorj Purevdorj and his family, and Bayarbat Battumur for their support to complete the data collection process smoothly in MonGolia. I also would like to thank the MonGolian people, who helped, fed, and hosted us, for their hospitality durinG the data collection. I am very Grateful to the people of Antioch University New EnGland, includinG my fellow doctoral students, the Environmental Studies Department faculty members, the WritinG Center staff, the library staff, and the administration. I especially thank Laura Andrews, Abagail Jones, Pippin Macdonald, John Dunham, Lizabeth Wiley, and Jean Amaral. Their constant support was invaluable. I would like to express my thanks to my dearest friend Yves Gakunde for his unlimited support and companion from the beGinninG until the end. Without his iv friendship, this entire journey miGht have been even slower than it was. I am also extremely thankful to many other friends. I am very Grateful to my love, Justin Witter, for always beinG there for me, sharinG all my happy and sad moments, listeninG to me patiently, and showinG me his endless support. I also am very thankful to his family, Carole RieGert, John RieGert, Tom Witter, Dana Witter, Jeremy Witter, Remy, and ZiGGy, for embracinG me and treatinG me as one of the family members. I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to my lovely family. To my father Sukhbaatar Tseden and my mother Chimedtseren Baldan. Thank you very much for believinG in me more than I believed in myself. I am extremely Grateful for my parents for beinG both mentally and financially supportive. I thank my brother Tsolmon Sukhbaatar for beinG the best brother that a sister could ask for. I also Greatly thank his fiancé HishiGbayar Bayandorj for supportinG me alonG the way. I am extremely thankful to my little niece TselmeG Tsolmon for keepinG a smile on my face even in difficult times. v Table of Contents ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ............................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ............................................................................................................. xi Chapter one. Introduction ........................................................................................... 1 Prologue ......................................................................................................................... 1 Research Goal and questions .......................................................................................... 2 Description of chapters and appendices ........................................................................ 2 Chapter Two. Literature Review .................................................................................. 5 Traditional EcoloGical KnowledGe .................................................................................. 5 Traditional EcoloGical KnowledGe in MonGolia .............................................................. 8 Conflicts between humans and wolves in MonGolia .................................................... 11 References to Chapter Two .......................................................................................... 15 Chapter Three. Methods ............................................................................................ 20 Case study approach .................................................................................................... 20 Site description ............................................................................................................ 21 Data collection methods .............................................................................................. 24 Data analysis ................................................................................................................ 25 Ethical considerations .................................................................................................. 26 Validity ......................................................................................................................... 26 References to Chapter Three ....................................................................................... 28 Preface to Chapter Four ............................................................................................. 30 Chapter Four. Manuscript A. Understanding of Traditional Ecological Knowledge as it applies to wolves in the Khangai region of Mongolia ................................................. 31 Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 31 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................. 32 2. Research desiGn ....................................................................................................... 36 2.1. Methods ................................................................................................................ 36 2.2. Study sites ............................................................................................................. 37 2.3. Research team ...................................................................................................... 39 2.4. Participant selection .............................................................................................. 40
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