The California Indian in Three-Dimensional Photography
PETER E. PALMQUIST
ARLY-DAY stereoscopic photographs humor; all became common knowledge E provide a truly unique and valuable through this pervasive medium. To study the resource for study of the California Indian. development of the stereoscope in the United Immensely popular during the nineteenth and States is to participate vicariously in the early twentieth centuries, the twin-imaged modes, aspirations, and other phenomena of stereograph card is much more than a quaint adolescent America. This article is intended to anachronism. When viewed today, such provide the reader with an overview of the images are often our only pictorial link with history of stereoscopy and a concise look at many cultural and historical aspects of Indian photo-stereoscopic imagery as it relates to the life during the past century. Most important, Indians of California. however, is the fact that the stereograph is the only early photographic medium able to THE STEREOGRAPHIC IMAGE recreate visual and spatial understandings that The principles of binocular vision—the approximate direct human vision. In this mental fusing of slightly dissimilar images, regard, the stereoscopic photograph is without seen separately by our two eyes, into one image peer. with three-dimensional characteristics—were Not surprisingly, stereoscopic photography known in ancient times. However, it was not was destined to become the most significant until 1832 that Sir Charles Wheatstone actu and influential mode of visual communication ally discovered how to produce this effect in the period between the mid-1850's and artificially by viewing two "flat" pictures World War I. Often likened to an early form drawn from slightly differing viewpoints of television, the stereoscopic viewer with its through an instrument called a stereoscope. accompanying basket of stereo cards, served At mid-century, the application of this split- the cultural and informational needs of Ameri image phenomenon to photography heralded cans during the years of rapid change which the onset of an enormously successful exploita followed the Industrial Revolution (Taft 1938: tion of the public's fascination with "real" 167-185). space (Lindquist-Cock 1970:361-362). The stereograph brought the "World" into The first published mention of a stereo the parlor. Far-away places and historic hap scopic photograph (stereodaguerreotype) penings; occupational modes and mechanical seems to have been made in the little-known innovations; renowned statesmen and stage English publication. The London Mining personalities; the fine arts and Victorian Journal. A little later, in an excerpt based on
[89] 90 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY this mention, the Scientific American of May ment, which began on November 21, 1853, 8, 1852, reported having seen "stereoscopic announced: ". . . Just received, per Wells, daguerreotypes at the establishment of Messrs. Fargo & Co. and Adams & Co. Expresses, a Voightlander and Evans at Knightsbridge," fine lot of Stereoscopic Cases . . . ." His adver explaining: tisement, however, goes on to imply that the . . . two distinct copies of the same image process was already in use in the San Francisco are simultaneously taken in two different area: ". . . we would say, do not condemn the cameras . . . the two daguerreotypes so Stereoscopic Daguerreotype until you pay us taken are placed in a peculiarly constructed a visit and see a PERFECT ONE, as many box, termed a stereoscope, which admits a taken in this city are very imperfect" (San view of one picture to the right eye only, Francisco Commercial Advertiser, November and the other to the left . . . [Scientific 21, 1853). American, May 8, 1852]. Soon the process was available in Sacra mento, San Jose, Marysville, and other nearby Also in 1852, the Boston firm of South- towns in the central California region. How worth & Hawes showed a stereoscopic ever, despite the great fanfare, the stereoscopic daguerreotype of the Greek sculpture "The daguerreotype was not a commercial success. Laocoon" in the Boston Athenaeum; the June Costing about $15 per sitting, the process was issue of the magazine To-day found "the beyond the means of the average patron. This, illusion . . . absolute." The success of this coupled with many new innovations and venture prompted them to build a "Grand improvements in photography, led to a rapid Parlor and Gallery Stereoscope" which decline in its popularity (Palmquist 1979). resembled a piano and contained a dozen By 1856, the stereoscopic daguerreotype pro pairs of stereoscopic daguerreotypes which cedure was all but obsolete and there are no the visitor changed by turning a crank known instances in which the process was used (Newhall 1976:46). to capture the features or environs of a Cali From its inception, the idea of daguerre fornia Indian. otype likenesses in stereo excited the imagina tion of the American public. Still, the process Another process to emerge during the was cumbersome and impractical for the mid-1850's was the stereograph on glass average client because of the difficulty of (albumin transparency). Cheaper than the arranging and viewing the twin daguerre stereo daguerreotype, the .glass stereograph otypes. Thus, the process remained moribund was produced by printing a collodion (wet- until the invention of a device known as the plate) negative onto sensitized glass. This Mascher Stereoscopic Case. Patented on process enjoyed some popularity until the March 8, 1853, this clever device enabled the early I860's. Still other processes related to gallery patron to conveniently house his wet-plate photography were also used for brief stereoscopic likeness in a case that also held periods, including views on porcelain and even its own built-in viewer. The development of stereo tintypes; however, they are very rare the Mascher Case made it possible for the (Darrah 1977:15-16). subsequent wildfire expansion of the stereo It was not until the advent of paper prints daguerreotype from coast to coast (Brey mounted on cards that stereo photography 1978:14-19). was able to reach its productive potential. San Francisco "daguerrean" Robert H. Introduced commercially by the Langenheim Vance may have been the first to advertise the Brothers of New York in 1854, the familiar new procedure in California. His advertise paper stereo view remained popular well into THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 91 the twentieth century. There were three basic graph had reached an incredible momentum. advantages of the card over the glass stereo Baudelaire, speaking at the Salon of 1859, may graphs which accounted for its immediate well have said it best: "A thousand hungry eyes success: ". . . it was cheaper, it was not fragile were bending over the stereoscope, as if they and it could be viewed comfortably" (Darrah were the peepholes of infinity." 1964:14). Or, as Oliver Wendell Holmes wryly observed, "Twelve glass views examined in THE AMERICAN INDIAN IN STEREO bright sunlight are good for one headache." Although later than sooner, it was inevi By 1858, paper stereographs were well on table that someone would turn his double-lens their way to becoming established in several of camera on the Native American. The first the major eastern cities. In New York, the known instance in which the American Indian Langenheim Brothers, long famous as the was pictured by a stereographer dates from foremost producers of glass stereographs, the Lander expedition in the summer of 1859. began to issue card stereos in greatly increased Sponsored by the Federal government, this numbers. Other firms now began to take exploring party was detailed to survey a wagon advantage of the easier and cheaper paper road in the mountainous territory west of the process and also entered the burgeoning Mississippi along a route often known as the market. The Edward Anthony Company (later northern branch of the Oregon Trail. The E. & H. T. Anthony Company) began its climb expedition was led by Fredrick West Lander, to preeminence as one of the most important a colonel in the United States Army and American stereopublishers in the summer of included a squadron of army troops for pro 1859. By the end of 1860, no fewer than two tection from Indian marauders. Rolling stock hundred United States photographers were consisted of mule and horse-drawn covered actively producing stereoscopic images wagons typical of the period (Snell 1958; (Darrah 1977:21-24). Hendricks 1964; Bendix 1974). The stereoscopic movement was world Albert Bierstadt, destined to become one wide. The principal cities of Europe were every of America's best known landscape painters, bit as anxious to obtain views of frontier joined the Lander expedition in St. Louis America as Americans were to revitalize the in April, 1859. Col. Lander's official report of binding links of culture and family origin. In the journey, describes Bierstadt's purposes: 1862, the London Stereoscopic Company sold nearly a million views, with Terrier of Paris A, Bierstadt, Esq., a distinguished artist a close second. In America, Edward Anthony, of New York, and S. F. Frost, of Boston, one of the many United States stereo pro accompanied the expedition with a full ducers, sold several hundred thousand stereo corps of artists, bearing their own ex graphs during the year 1861-62. At this point, penses. They have taken sketches of the more than a thousand photographers had most remarkable of the views along the entered the American marketplace to produce route, and a set of stereoscopic views of emigrant trains, Indians, camp scenes, an unbelievable output which numbered in the etc., which are highly valuable and would several millions (Darrah 1964:8). be interesting to the country. I have no In less than a single decade of stereo authority by which they can be purchased photography, there were photographers, or made a portion of this report [House manufacturers, promoters, salesmen, stereo Executive Document 64, 36th Congress, scopic emporiums, and of course—collectors. 2d Session, 1860-61: Maps and Reports of The craze for the stereoscope and the stereo the Fort Kearny South Pass]. 92 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY
Fig. 1. Lawrence & Houseworth/Thomas Houseworth & Co. #595—[California] Indian Hunter [ca. 1864]; uncut stereo half. Courtesy of the Society of California Pioneers. THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 93
Fig. 2. Lawrence & Houseworth/Thomas Houseworth & Co. #601—An Indian Rancheria in the Sierra Nevada Mountains [ca. 1864]; uncut stereo half. Courtesy of the Society of California Pioneers. 94 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY
It is a great shame that Lander could not Fort; also a group of eight Brulie Sioux and afford to obtain a set of Bierstadt's stereo six Ogholalla." Later, he accompanied an scopic views for his report.' Sadly, only eleven army train which was attacked by Indians and (10 different) examples of these views are Glover records that: "I desired to make some known to exist, although an I860 catalogue instantaneous views of the Indian attack, but lists at least 51 titles from this series (Snell our commander ordered me not to." Only a 1958:4-5; Bendix 1974). Approximately one- short while later this daring cameraman was third of these titles indicate that the subject killed by a war party of Arapahoes (Watson matter included Indians or Indian sites. 1951:13). Bierstadt, in a letter to the Crayon, substan The troubled years that accompanied the tiates his success in obtaining stereographs of Civil War saw a significant reduction in the Indians, and suggests that the "candid" number of photographers actively working in approach was best: the West. However, by 1866, a series of about We have taken many stereoscopic views, 40 stereographs were produced by the team of but not so many of mountain scenery as I Illingworth & Bill who had journeyed to could wish, owing to various obstacles Montana with Captain J. L. Fisk's exploring attached to the process, but still a goodly expedition. This series included "forts, number. We have a great many Indian Indians, and wagon trains" (Darrah 1977:92). subjects. We were quite fortunate in By the start of the I870's a rather large getting them, the natives not being very number of Federal geographical and geologi willing to have the brass tube of the camera cal surveying parties were active on the fron pointed at them. Of course they were tier. Nearly all included photographers as astonished when we showed them pictures valued members of their exploring teams. This they did not sit for; and the best we have taken have been obtained without the intense and detailed interest in the West led knowledge of the parties, which is, in fact, to the production of many memorable images the best way to take any portrait [Crayon, of American Indians, including a large number September 1859:287]. of important stereographs (Taft 1938:277-310; Darrah 1977:92-95; Oestreicher 1977; Grey In an earlier letter to the Crayon, Bierstadt 1978).- makes his sojourn sound like a pleasure jaunt: "We have a spring-wagon and six mules and EARLY PAPER STEREOGRAPH we go where fancy leads us." However, a note PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA of caution is evident as he continues, "We often meet Indians, and they have always been Before discussing the stereographs of kindly disposed to us and we to them; but it is Native Californians, it seems important to a little risky, because being very superstitious touch on the nature and extent of stereograph and naturally distrustful, their friendship may production in California after the daguerreo turn to hate at any moment . . ." [Crayon, type era. Although the wet-plate was used to July 10, 1859]. produce photographs on paper in the San This caution was well justified when we Francisco area no later than 1855, paper consider the fate of another cameraman of the stereographs in California are not known prior Plains Indians. In 1866, Ridgeway Glover, a to June, 1859. Charles Leander Weed (1824- young Philadelphia photographer, set out "to 1903), the photographer involved in producing illustrate the life and character of the wild men these early stereos was already experienced in of the prairie." At Fort Laramie, he wrote of producing images on paper, but was not his exploits, including "a good picture of the known to have used stereoscopic equipment THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 95 prior to his historic visit to Yosemite Valley published by Watkins (Turrill 1918:35;^ during the summer of 1859. Palmquist 1978). On June 18, 1859, at 11:25 A.M., Weed It should be noted that the correct attri made the "first ever" photograph to be taken bution of a specific stereograph to a particular in Yosemite Valley (Hood 1959:83). Fittingly, photographer is often difficult. This is espe he selected 2500-foot-high Yosemite Falls for cially true because so many of the commercial his initial subject before moving on to picture stereopublishers purchased, leased, or pirated many of the famous vistas and landmarks of their negatives from many different camera the valley. During this pioneering visit. Weed men without crediting them. Thus, Weed's is known to have produced at least twenty 1859 stereo views of California were published large glass-plate negatives and forty stereo by the New York firm of E. Anthony without views of the Yosemite area (Hood 1959:82).^ credit in 1860 (Naef e/ al. 1975:80). However, Although no Indian subjects are known for the most part. Weed's later images were for this series in Yosemite, Weed produced at published by the San Francisco firm of least one Indian view in 1859 or early 1860. Lawrence & Houseworth. This view, labeled "#64—The Pitt River Indians, Visiting San Francisco," is listed in CALIFORNIA INDIAN E. Anthony's catalogue of I860. The E. STEREOGRAPHS BEFORE 1875 Anthony Company was a New York stereo- publishing firm which acquired Weed's early The precise number of stereographs which negatives of Yosemite and the San Francisco show Indian life in California prior to 1875 is region.'' not known. However, with the exception of some miscellaneous examples, the vast major Another significantly-early California ity of such work appears under the imprint of stereophotographer was the renowned land the three big stereopublishers of San Fran scape photographer, Carleton E. Watkins cisco: Lawrence & Houseworth (Thomas (1829-1916). Probably inspired by Weed's Houseworth & Co. after 1867), Carleton E. efforts, Watkins made approximately one Watkins, and Bradley & Rulofson. As far as hundred glass stereoscopic views of Yosemite is known, these firms published the works of in the summer of 1861. Again, no views of A. A. Hart, E. J. Muybridge, C. E. Watkins, Indians are known, yet Watkins later produced Louis Heller, and C. L. Weed. stereo views of Indian activities in Yosemite, After 1870, three large eastern stereopub Mariposa, and Mendocino County regions. lishers issued stereo views of California includ Both Weed's and Watkins' Indian stereo ing examples of Indian activities: J. P. Soule graphs will be discussed shortly. (Boston), E. & H. T. Anthony (New York), and Still other California photographers Kilburn Bros. (New Hampshire). Soule appears turned to part-time stereo production in the to have used the same photographer(s) as mid-1860's. However, with the exception of Houseworth & Co. Thomas C. Roche photo Alfred A. Hart of Sacramento, few issued graphed on behalf of E. & H. T. Anthony while more than a limited quantity of such work. Edward Kilburn represented the Kilburn Bros. Hart was best known for his stereographic (Darrah 1977:98). views of the Central Pacific Railroad, taken The earliest stereograph of a California between 1863 and 1869. A number of Indians Indian appears to be the 1859 image of the (mostly Nevada-area families) appear in visiting Pitt River group, already mentioned. conjunction with many of Hart's railroad By 1864 a number of such views appear under stereographs. These same images were later the Lawrence & Houseworth imprint. These 96 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY
Fig. 3. Lawrence & Houseworth/Thomas Houseworth & Co. #603- -Washoe Indians—Lake Tahoe [ca. 1864]; uncut stereo half. Courtesy of the Society of California Pioneers. THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 97
Fig. 4. Lawrence & Houseworth/Thomas Houseworth & Co. #1284—The Old Dug-Out at the foot of Donner Lake [ca 1867]; uncut stereo half. An example of an early-day stereograph which was included in a pictorial series. but which contains an Indian artifact within its composition. Courtesy of the Society of California Pioneers. 98 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY
Fig. 5. Carleton E. Watkins #223—At the Rancherio, Mendocino County, California. Watkins' Pacific Coast [ca. 1867]; stereo halL Courtesy of the California State Library. THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 99 examples were probably taken by Weed and prevailing prejudices and ill-concealed con include a variety of Indians in groups. Indi tempt of the White establishment towards the vidual portraits and examples of Indian habi Native Californian, which is reflected even in tation are also found in this series. George S. these photographs by their demeaning titles. Lawrence (an optician and jeweler) opened his Other views picture various living environs first shop in San Francisco in 1851; and near Knight's Ferry in Stanislaus County Thomas Houseworth, also an optician, offi (Lawrence & Houseworth 1866). cially joined him in partnership on May 15, It appears likely that Lawrence & House- 1855 (San Francisco City Directory 1856). worth totally sponsored the 1864 expedition. It appears that a series of Sacramento flood It was an extensive tour designed to gather a stereographs (1862) constitutes Lawrence wide selection of California imagery for sale & Houseworth's earliest attempt at stereo- in their newly-opened branch office in New publishing. The firm prospered and soon York as well as local distribution. In many offered one of the finest inventories of Cali ways the trip was typical of the times, con fornia imagery, eventually boasting over 3000 sisting of a combination of travel accommoda titles. The firm also was highly respected for tions that included camping out as well as the excellent quality of its stereographs. stay-overs at rural inns. The principal mode Houseworth became the sole proprietor in of conveyance is pictured in stereo "691 — 1867, and the firm (Thomas Houseworth & Photographing in the Sierra Nevada Moun Co.) remained exceedingly vigorous until a tains," which shows the cumbersome photo general business depression stuck San Fran grapher's wagon typical of traveling gear used cisco in the mid-1870's. for on-site photography. In addition to the A total of ten Indian stereographs are stereo views, Lawrence & Houseworth also listed in the Lawrence & Houseworth cata offered mammoth-plate (17 x 22 inch) images logue for 1866.^ This group is numbered from of Yosemite which were taken by Weed during #595 to #604 (see Fig. 2), and comprises the the summer of 1864.^ only Indian stereographs issued by Lawrence Carleton E. Watkins' Indian stereographs & Houseworth/Thomas Houseworth & Co. are plentiful, but not well-documented. Active until about 1873. At that time, Houseworth in Yosemite as early as 1861, Watkins achieved issued a set of seven stereo views of "Arizona his greatest recognition for views showing Indian Chiefs." Taken indoors at House- California's natural landforms rather than worth's studio, these are listed as numbers human-centered phenomena. In 1864, he #1215 thru #1221 (Houseworth 1874).^ returned to Yosemite to photograph for the The 1864 (or earlier?) Lawrence & House- United States survey team led by J. D. worth stereographs were most likely photo Whitney. He revisited Yosemite in both 1866 graphed by Weed with one or more assistants and 1867, providing an enduring legacy of during an extensive tour of the Sierra Nevada mammoth-plate and stereo views of this foothills, Yosemite, etc. Several of the Indian magnificent region (Grenbeaux 1977; Hick stereographs offer splendid glimpses of man 1977; Naei et al. 1975:79-124). baskets, necklaces, clothing, implements, etc., In 1867, Watkins capitalized on his out as well as the physical characteristics of the standing reputation by opening his Yosemite subjects. At least two images, "595—Digger Art Gallery at 425 Montgomery St., San Indian Hunter" (Fig. 1) and "597—Digger Francisco. The establishment of this gallery Indian Squaw," exhibit an unexpected dignity was also marked by a deliberate program of and charm. This is unusual considering the stereograph publishing. Watkins counted on 100 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY
Fig, 6. Carleton E. Watkins #4438—Indian Huts, San Gabriel [ca. 1875 or later]; stereo half. Courtesy of the California State Library. THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 101 his commercial stereo card production to help This loss was very damaging to Watkins defray his day-by-day gallery and showroom because Taber immediately began to issue expenses (Palmquist 1978:242-243). these same views as his own. Consequently, Watkin's stereo views of Indian activities many of Watkins' Indian subjects may be in Mendocino are well-known. Other ex found under Taber's imprint. In desperation, amples include views of native life in Yosemite. Watkins re-photographed many of his most However, in an effort to bolster his stereo famous views and began a "Watkins' New trade, Watkins obtained photographer A. A. Series" (Palmquist 1978:256).' Hart's negatives of the Central Pacific Rail road which also included a number of views of Eadweard J. Muybridge (1830-1904), may Paiute and Shoshone Indians (Turrill n.d.).** well be California's master of stereography. In 1867, Muybridge spent five months pro A very interesting and valuable series titled ducing wet-plate negatives in the Yosemite "Hieroglyphic Rocks on the Yuba River, near area (Hood and Haas 1963:7-13; Hendricks Crystal Lake" by Hart was included among the 1975:17-19). Published under his pseudonym negatives acquired by Watkins. These are "Helios" these views (including over 100 particularly useful in stereo. Such views pro stereographs) were artistically provocative as vide modern scholars with an ideal comparison well as technically competent. of a site in pioneer times with the same setting today. At least one Indian stereograph resulted from this visit: "31—The Deserted Village" In like manner, Watkins became the even (Fig. 7). However, it was Muybridge's growing tual owner of a valuable set of stereo negatives reputation as a landscape artist which was to of the Modoc Indian War (1972-73) by Fort lead to the production of a fine series of Indian Jones photographer Louis Herman Heller stereos in 1872. At this time, photographer (1839-1928). These images form an important Muybridge and landscape painter Albert visual document of Indian activity in Cali Bierstadt became friends. They shared a great fornia. This series of views, together with a deal, particularly in the way that they per similar set produced by Eadweard J. Muybridge ceived nature and the western landscape. Like (published by Bradley & Rulofson) illustrate a painter, Muybridge concentrated on the the outstanding ability of the stereograph in more transient and romantic aspects of nature: documenting the terrain and relationships of "moonlight, mist, shadowy textures, reflec the battle sites of this tragic Indian/White tions, the effects of clouds, light and rainbow" confrontation. These images and the circum (Hood and Haas 1963:13). stances of their origin have been previously discussed (Palmquist 1977). Delighted with each other, the two men traveled together to the Yosemite and Mari During the mid-1870's, Watkins lost many posa regions in the summer of 1872. This fact of his negatives to Isaiah West Taber (1830- is clearly documented by two Muybridge 1912) due to a business debt (Palmquist 1978: stereographs showing Bierstadt at work 255-257). Watkins remembered this loss sketching an Indian village. A total of sixteen bitterly: images of Native Californians (#1571 thru The old negatives are gone ... as well as #1587) were made during their excursion everything else that I had. In other words (Bradley & Rulofson 1873:31) (Figs. 10, II). that d--- thief of a crook has got every These Muybridge views were published by thing away from me, and I don't propose to cry about it, but to give him h --- [corres Bradley & Rulofson, who began to issue pondence to his wife, Watkins' file, almost all of his work after 1872. By 1873, Yosemite National Park]. Muybridge's stereograph output had exceeded 102 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY
'\ '/'.:
Fig. 7. Eadweard J. Muybridge #31—The Deserted Village [1867]. Courtesy of the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
Fig. 8. Eadweard J. Muybridge #1573 —Indian Encampment on the Merced [1872]; stereo halL Courtesy of the Bancroft w^^rts?**"^ Library, University of Cali fornia, Berkeley. THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 103
1600 titles (Bradley & Rulofson 1873). This View Company in the I890's. A comparison of number also includes the outstanding Muy this Keystone image with the previously men bridge stereographs of the Modoc War. These tioned Soule image, clearly shows that they battle site views of April-May, 1873, well- were made at the exact same site (and camera illustrate Muybridge's mastery of stereophoto- position) and within a short time of each other. graphic techniques. The nature and circum This observation should serve as a warning in stances which surround the production of this our attempts to assign dates to such views important series of Indian stereographs has offered by stereopublishers who inherited been discussed by Palmquist (1977). Mention earlier works. should also be made of Muybridge's stereo In June 1871, Thomas C. Roche, photo graphs of Alaska's natives which were taken graphed in Yosemite for E. & H. T. Anthony in 1868. Company of New York. The resultant views When examining the Muybridge stereos of were marketed under the series title "Glories Indian life made in 1872, it is often difficult of Yosemite," and include some excellent views to move beyond the prejudicial and demeaning of Indian acorn storage methods in the captions and into the pictorial worth of the Yosemite region (Fig. 13). Such work was not images. Titles such as: "1577—A Log of Piute easy however. On June 10, 1871, Roche sent Bucks" or "1584—A Group of Mariposa a progress report concerning his work in the Belles" often obscure the fact that these photo Yosemite Valley which provides a most valu graphs provide a useful source of information able idea of the problems attendant to wet- concerning Indian sites and activities. For plate photography in the field: example, views such as: "1574—Piute Chiefs It is very difficult to work long with the Lodge" (Fig. 9) and "1585—Bath House in the same bottle of collodion, as it is very hot Yosemite" (Fig. 12) are finely detailed photo (110°) that it thickens up after you coat graphs of Indian structures. When viewed in a five or six plates, and flows like syrup. stereoscope, the added illusion of three- Collodion in this state becomes very dimensionality greatly adds to our under tender ... So far my work is all right, and standing of these scenes and allows for the plenty of it. I have about one weeks more perception of a meaningful relationship work in the valley, and then, if I can get a between these structures and surrounding good man and pack-mule, I will make a environs. trip to Lake Tenaya and the highest range of the Sierras, fifteen thousand feet above At the beginning of the I870's, several the sea. This will take time, out and back, large eastern stereopublishers began to seek nearly two weeks. I have had no less than California imagery. In 1870, John Payson six different men to help me. They will not Soule of Boston, published about 250 stereo work when it comes to starting at 3 A.M. photographs of California. These included and tramping all day long. They prefer to Yosemite, the Calaveras Big Trees, redwood pick up jobs around the valley [/I/?//7o/7)'i logging on the Mendocino Coast, and many Photographic Bulletin 2, 1871:268-269]. other subjects. However, fewer than ten of these views picture Indian activity. A few, The summer of 1871 saw the arrival of such as "1107—Digger Indians at Ten Mile several other eastern stereophotographers in River, Mendocino Co." provide a first-rate Yosemite. Not all of these newcomers were glimpse of a native village. Note should also successful in their attempts to capture the be made of view "23331—Digger Indian, Cali western scene, as shown by T. C. Roche's fornia," which was issued by the Keystone continuing report: 104 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY
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There is a Mr. Garrett of Wilmington, Camp Gaston was the principal military head Del., photographing here (Yosemite). He quarters for a large inland region and also came out by steamer ... He got his traps administered the Hoopa Indian Reservafion and big photo tent in here; but the pack- (Palmquist and Kilian 1978). train mule, in coming up at night, under took to ford the stream, when he rolled Beyond a doubt, many other photo over with all the photo traps, and was graphers produced stereographs of Indian drowned. A man swam out and tied him matters in the period prior to 1875. California to a tree until morning, when they went was aswarm with such activity and the problem out in the river and cut the boxes off. All of identifying the contributions of these early his things were soaking wet.... [Anthony's photographers is often limited only because Photographic Bulletin 2, 1871:268-269]. of the small number of copies which may have Many of these visitors produced a few been produced. views of the local Indians. Others, like J. J. CALIFORNIA INDIAN STEREOGRAPHS Reilly formerly of Niagara Falls, New York, AFTER 1875 came to stay. Reilly produced many stereo graphs of California Indians during the 1870's. The selection of 1875 as a date of change A well-organized and experienced stereo- in stereograph production is merely an arbi photographer, Reilly pitched his photo tent trary one. Some stereophotographers con in Yosemite and associated himself in a tinued their efforts for many years and number of liaisons in order to capture a wide produced thousands of stereo views. Others, market. Some of these associations include worked only for a brief time leaving a sparse Reilly & Ormsby, Reilly & Spooner, and (if any) legacy of their efforts. However, one Reilly & Hazeltine. When this latter partner significant trend does become evident by the ship dissolved, Martin Mason Hazeltine took mid-1870's. By this time, many of the earlier over from Reilly and continued the stereo photographers had lost, sold, or leased their graph business in Yosemite. negatives to successors. By whatever means, Although Yosemite was a principal focal- many of these previous stereographic nega point for stereograph production, such activity tives were being reissued under new imprints. was not limited to this area. Hazeltine, for This reprinting of older negatives is con example, made a number of excellent views fusing at best. New production becomes showing the Pit River Indians of northern mingled with the old. Often the same image California (Fig. 19). Likewise, Daniel Sewell can be observed on the cards of several dif of Sonora also produced some early examples ferent publishers and the identity of the of local natives in the mid-1860's. Interestingly, original photographer is lost. This process this particular view is not a true stereo, having became more complex as time passed, so that been made by a single-lensed camera. Sewell by the I890's giant stereopublishers such as may not have owned a stereo camera, and Underwood and Underwood had acquired merely traded on his clients' gullibility by hundreds of thousands of negatives from all mounting two identical images side-by-side periods of production. Dating of these works on the stereo mount. In early-day photography becomes very difficult. Even worse, the proper such tricks were not uncommon. subject identification of an earlier view was Another interesting (and very rare) set of often misplaced or deliberately altered. nine stereographs showing Camp Gaston In California, after 1875, Watkins con (Humboldt County) was produced by Amasa tinued to issue new titles while I. W. Taber Plummer Flaglor (1848-1918) about 1874. continued to issue Watkins' earlier works THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 107
l-fi.—Coshes, or Incltan Acorn StorfiboujfPS. Fig. 13. E. & H. T. Anthony & Company #128—Cashes [sic], or Indian Acorn Storehouses [1871]. Courtesy of Mr. Lou Smaus.
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)S .Viiiiuel t;argo, ami Cbatjuilla Indians.
Fig. 14. William N. Tuttle #38—Manuel Largo, and Coahuilla Indians [ca. 1874]. Courtesy of the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. 108 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY
Indian Oamp,Lakc county, Cal.
Fig. 15. R. E. Wood stereograph—Indian Camp, Lake County, Cal. [ca. 1880's]; stereo half. Courtesy of the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 109
Fig. 16. C. W. Mills stereograph—[Basket making on the Hoopa Indian Reservation] [ca. 1905]; stereo half. Mills was a physician with a hobby of stereophotography. He produced many views of Humboldt County, including many scenics and genre scenes such as this one. Author's collection. 10 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY
POKOTUCKET, thelndisn Chiol whofirjt led the AmeJiMns into Yo-Somite,
Fig. 17. M. M. Hazeltine—POKOTUCKET, The Indi[a]n Chief who first led the Americans into Yo-Semite [ca. 1870's]. Courtesy of the Society of California Pioneers.
Fig. 18. M. M. Hazeltine—[Indians in Yosemite] [ca. 1870's]. Courtesy of the California Historical Society. THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 111
Fig. 19. M. M. Hazeltine—[Pit River Indians] [ca. 1870's]. Courtesy of the California Historical Society.
Fig. 20. J. T. Boysen—[Basket making in Yosemite] [ca. 1890's]. Courtesy of Mr. Lou Smaus. 112 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY
Fig. 21. George Wharton James—[Mohave man with pierced nose] [ca. 1890-1905]; uncut stereo half. Courtesy of the Southwest Museum.
Fig. 22. George Wharton James—[Ramona at grave of Allessandro] [ca. 1890-1905]. Courtesy of the Southwest Museum. THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 113 under the Taber imprint. Hazeltine continued abuse, and dishonorable government subjuga in Yosemite and Stockton. S. C. Walker and tion. With the exception of a handful of early Gustav Fagersteen operated a partnership in photographs showing American Indians still Yosemite during the 1880's. Many other on their tribal lands, most Indian photographs photographers visited Yosemite and elsewhere are caricatures of a national racist attitude to produce views for the insatiable needs of towards Indians. Often Indians were photo the giant national and international stereo graphed like caged animals, and later when the publishing firms. threat of retaliation was past, as curiosities: To the south, W. N. Tuttle produced Indian stereographs in the Santa Barbara area [The photographers] . . . lent themselves, about 1875. A wide-ranging photographer, even eagerly in some cases, to the creation Tuttle produced views throughout California of numerous stereotypic Indian images . . . and in many partnerships: Tuttle & Muzzall, The "Carnival Indian" as an acceptable Tuttle & Lee, Tuttle & Fitzgerald, and Tuttle photographic stereotype grew in popular & Johnson to name only a few. esteem; it was after all safe. It became almost faddish for photographers to Joseph C. Parker, another photographer attempt endless, patronizing variations of with an intense proclivity for associating him the defeated antagonist .... [Weinstein self in a wide variety of partnerships, operated 1978:4]. in San Diego. His stereo trade list includes views such as: "138—Lower California Indians However, as increasing public sympathy Dressed for Feast Dance." Others include for the plight of the Native American devel A. C. Varela in Los Angeles, Hayward & oped during the 1870's and I880's, certain Muzzall in Santa Barbara, E. A. Bonine in humanistic feelings began to surface in photo Pasadena, and J. C. Brewster in San Buena graphic depiction. Among these were the ventura.'" idealized concepts of Rousseau's "Noble Another fine stereophotographer of Cali Savage" which postulated "man at harmony fornia Indians was R. E. Wood of Santa Cruz. with Nature." Photographers showed an Wood ranged over a large area that extended awareness of this trend by posing their Indian from Mono County through Siskiyou County, subjects in heroic (if ludicrous) poses. Others and included a wide range of subject matter. began to document the inevitable demise of a Several views of "Indian Camps" taken in decimated population whose end was Lake County exist from the early 1880's imminent. (Fig. 15). Some members of this latter group were not photographers in the traditional sense, As the nineteenth century waned, a new but used photography to document the rites concept of the status of the American Indian and customs of Indian culture. Writers, began to emerge. As always, the photo romantic adventurers, evangelists, and the graphers of the time produced images that like often vacillated in their perceptions of the were reflective of prevailing attitudes. In many mystical aspects of the Native American: cases, the earlier photographs had served to perpetuate the myth of Indian savagery and Chauvinistic feelings and cheap roman depravity. These attitudes toward the Ameri ticism dominated many Indian photo can Indian in the 1850's and 1860's had led to graphers' images after 1885. There were a determined program of annihilation and floods of dreary, albeit popular views of wholesale destruction. What military might "Lo! the poor Indian" astride his tired could not accomplish was finished by disease, pony, feathered, buckskinned, weary 114 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY
warriors, engaging toothless papooses, etc. west, including numerous examples which [Weinstein 1978:4]. were intended solely for the illustration of Not all romantics were so insensitive to the basket designs and the Hke. meanings of Indian culture. Southwestern In the long run, most of James' stereo writer George Wharton James (1858-1923) negatives did not end up as finished stereo is one of those who recognized the value of graphs—probably because they did not have scientific investigation and who (for the most enough popular sales potential. An excep part) skirted the pitfall of romantic mytho tion was a series of stereographs which illus logical plunder. James spent decades writing trate the very popular and romantic story of and lecturing about the wonders of the South "Ramona" (Fig. 22). Taken as a group, James west, especially Indian life. Photography was may well have produced the single largest one of his most valued means of gathering and body of California Indian stereographs. displaying the multiple facets of Indian At the turn of the century, stereo photo culture: graphy diminished in popularity. This was due largely to an intense competition in the With his camera James recorded the cus marketplace caused by mass-production toms, manner of life, ceremonies, arts, methods. The economic promise that had occupations, and games of the Hopi, Wallapi, Yaqui, Navajo, Mojave, Yuma, attracted so many early-day photographers Apache, Chemeheuvi, Havasupai, Pima, was gone. About this time, with the exception Zuni, Pueblo, and Paiute tribes. The of the largest companies, stereophotography former preacher also made a fine photo became more of a pastime than a serious graphic study of the mission Indians living undertaking. at Temecula, Pala, and the Cahuilla Truly, the phenomenon of stereoscopic rancherias near Palm Springs [Kurutz photography has provided an important 1978:193]. "window" to the events and customs of times James commonly employed a stereoscopic long-past. The fact that stereographs were so camera as well as a larger field-type instru widely published (and therefore widely avail ment. The stereo negative was useful in several able), together with their unique ability to ways: first to produce stereographs, and render the illusion of three-dimensionality, second for printing lantern-slide transpar has provided a valuable pictorial resource encies which he often used in his public lec which has been too long neglected or over tures. James was eclectic and prolific. looked—in a sense, they really are "the peep Hundreds of twin-imaged prints and negatives holes of infinity." taken by James are known, many of which provide useful glimpses of native cultures Humboldt State University. Areata between 1890 and 1905 (Fig. 21). Also valuable is the fact that James took views of ordinary situations as well as posed NOTES photographs. These "casual" photographs are 1. There is some disagreement as to whether certainly not as esthetically handsome as the Albert Bierstadt actually photographed the Lander stylized works of Karl Moon or Edward S. Expedition stereographs, or whether they simply Curtis, yet such works are often much more represent ". . . the artistic taste of Mr. Albert valuable to students of Indian cultures because Bierstadt, who selected the points of view." The of their lack of artifice. James, of course, used best discussion of this argument is found in many of these views in his books on the South Lindquist-Cock (1967:69-81). THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 115
2. A listing of stereophotographers noted for 10. For a comprehensive listing of possible their stereo views of American Indians between stereophotographers of California Indians, see 1860-1892 is found in Darrah (1977:167-168). Darrah (1977:197-198). 3. It is possible that Weed's first set of 1859 Yosemite stereographs were printed on glass, and REFERENCES that the same wet-plate negatives were later used to prepare paper stereograph prints under the Bendix, Howard E. auspices of the Edward Anthony Co. of New York 1974 Discovered!! Early Bierstadt Photo in 1860 (Pauline Grenbeaux, Personal Corres graphs. Photographica 6(8):4-5; 6(9);7+; pondence). 6(10):7; 7(1 ):4. 4. The I860 Anthony catalogue contains a Bradley & Rulofson (publisher) total of 77 California views taken by Weed. Num 1873 Catalogue of Photographic Views Illus bers 1 though 41 picture Yosemite, while the trating the Yosemite, Mammoth Trees, remainder show San Francisco, Sacramento, and Geyser Springs, and Other Remarkable environs. It has been suggested that this catalogue and Interesting Scenery of the Far West, was actually issued in May of 1860. by Muybridge. San Francisco. 5. It is uncertain whether these views were Brey, William taken prior to 1864, in 1864, or 1865. Nor is it 1978 John F. Mascher's Stereoscopic Cases. known whether they were all taken by the same Stereo World 5(1):I4-19. photographer. Darrah, William Culp 6. Houseworth produced a number of Indian- 1964 Stereo Views: A History of Stereographs related photographs on cabinet cards during the in America and Their Collection. Gettys I870's. These were apparently not issued as stereo burg: Times and News Publishing Co. graphs. Lawrence & Houseworth, however, did Darrah, William C. issue many of its stereo halves on carte de visile 1977 The World of Stereographs. Gettysburg: mounts called "Album Views." These latter used Published by the Author. the same catalogue number and title as the stereo originals. Gray, John S. 1978 Itinerant Frontier Photographers. 7. A great deal of mystery still surrounds the Montana, the Magazine of History, identity of the photographers who worked for the Spring: 2-15. Lawrence & Houseworth/Thomas Houseworth & Co. firm. C. L. Weed, C. E. Watkins, E. J. Muy Grenbeaux, Mary Pauline bridge, or even A. A. Hart, are all suggested as 1977 The Early Yosemite Photographs of having produced photographs for this publisher. Carleton E. Watkins. Master's Thesis. University of California, Davis. 8. Although Hart was established in Sacra mento, many of his views were taken in Nevada. Hendricks, Gordon Many of these tribal families were nomadic and 1964 The First Three Western Journeys of moved back and forth between Nevada and Albert Bierstadt. The Art Bulletin 46: California. 333-365. 9. It is difficult to determine how many of the Hendricks, Gordon "Watkins' New Series" actually picture California 1975 Eadweard Muybridge: The Father of the Natives. Although Watkins produced a large Motion Picture. New York: Grossman/ number of stereographs at this time they are scarce, Viking. and listings of these views by title is not particularly Hickman, Paul helpful—#4438 Indian Huts, San Gabriel, is one 1977 Carleton E. Watkins (1829-1916). North- of the few exceptions. light, January issue. 116 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY
Hood, Mary V. Oestreicher, Pam Holcomb 1959 Charles L. Weed, Yosemite's First 1977 Stereographs of American Indians. Photographer. Yosemite Nature Notes Stereo World 4(4): 12-17. 38(6):76-87. Palmquist, Peter E. Hood, Mary V. Jessup, and Robert Bartlett Haas 1977 Imagemakers of the Modoc War: Louis 1963 Eadweard Muybridge's Yosemite Valley Heller and Eadweard Muybridge. Journal Photographs, 1867-1872. California of California Anthropology 4:206-241. Historical Quarterly 52(l):5-26. 1978 Watkins—the Photographer as Pub lisher. California History 57(3):252-257. Houseworth, Thomas, & Co. (publisher) 1869 Catalogue of Photographic Views of 1979 The Stereo Daguerreotype in San Fran Scenery on the Pacific Coast. (5th cisco: A Short and Unsuccessful Career. edition). San Francisco. Stereo World 6(2): 12-16. Houseworth, Thomas, & Co. Palmquist, Peter E., and Lincoln Kilian 1874 (Stereographs of California and Nevada). 1978 The Boss Photographer — Amasa Album (3 vols.). San Francisco: Society Plummer Flaglor. (unpublished manu of California Pioneers. script). Author's collection. Kurutz, Gary F. Snell, Joseph W. 1978 Courtesy of Title Insurance and Trust 1958 Some Rare Western Photographs by Company . . . California History 57(2): Albert Bierstadt Now in the Historical 186-194. Society Collections. The Kansas Histori cal Quarterly 24(1): 1-5. Lawrence & Houseworth (publisher) 1866 Catalogue of Lawrence & Houseworth Taft, Robert Opticians ... (3rd edition). San Francisco. 1938 Photography and the American Scene. New York: Macmillan. Lindquist-Cock, Elizabeth Turrill, Charles B. 1970 Stereoscopic Photography and the 1918 An Early California Photographer: Western Paintings of Albert Bierstadt. C. E. Watkins. News Notes of California The Art Quarterly 33(4):361-378. Libraries l3(l):29-37. Naef, Weston J., with James N. Wood and Therese Turrill, Charles B. Thau Heyman n.d. List of Alfred A. Hart Stereos—C.P.R.R. 1975 Era of Exploration: The Rise of Land (typescript). California State Library, scape Photography in the American Sacramento. West, 1860-1885. New York: Albright- Watson, Elmo Scott Knox Art Gallery/ Metropolitan 1951 Shadow Catchers of the Red Man. Museum of Art. Westerners Brand Book, pp. 5-28. Newhall, Beaumont Denver: University of Denver Press. 1976 Daguerreotype in America. (3rd edition, Weinstein, Robert revised). New York: Dover. 1978 Silent Witnesses. Photo Bulletin 1(4).
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