sign in sign up
<<
Home , Lot Smith, Mormon Lake, State of Deseret, Tuba (chief), United Order

archaeology southwest CONTINUE ON TO THE NEXT PAGE FOR YOUR magazineFREE PDF

(formerly the Center for Desert Archaeology) is a private 501 (c) (3) nonprofit organization that explores and protects the places of our past across the American Southwest and Mexican Northwest. We have developed an integrated, conservation- based approach known as Preservation Archaeology.

Although Preservation Archaeology begins with the active protection of archaeological sites, it doesn’t end there. We utilize holistic, low-impact investigation methods in order to pursue big-picture questions about what life was like long ago. As a part of our mission to help foster advocacy and appreciation for the special places of our past, we share our discoveries with the public. This free back issue of Archaeology Southwest Magazine is one of many ways we connect people with the Southwest’s rich past. Enjoy! Not yet a member? Join today! Membership to Archaeology Southwest includes:

» A Subscription to our esteemed, quarterly Archaeology Southwest Magazine » Updates from This Month at Archaeology Southwest, our monthly e-newsletter » 25% off purchases of in-print, in-stock publications through our bookstore » Discounted registration fees for Hands-On Archaeology classes and workshops » Free pdf downloads of Archaeology Southwest Magazine, including our current and most recent issues » Access to our on-site research library » Invitations to our annual members’ meeting, as well as other special events and lectures Join us at archaeologysouthwest.org/how-to-help

In the meantime, stay informed at our regularly updated Facebook page!

300 N Ash Alley, Tucson AZ, 85701 • (520) 882-6946 • [email protected] • www.archaeologysouthwest.org Archaeology Southwest

Volume 19, Number 2 Center for Desert Archaeology Spring 2005

Mormon History and Archaeology in Northern Alan Ferg, Arizona State Museum Richard W. Lord

N EARLY 1876, , president of the his company established Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, called a meet- Sunset, on the northeast Iing in , , to select men and their families side of the river (see page to travel south and establish several Mormon colonies in 9). George Lake and Wil- the Little River Valley of . Two liam C. Allen went farther earlier attempts had been unsuccessful, but a recent scout- upstream and started ing report had described the Little Colorado as full of clear Obed (see page 8) and Jo- water, with rich soil and plentiful pasture. seph City (see page 4) on Young stated that the purpose of this venture was four- opposite sides of the river. fold: to take possession of the land for the State of ; Jesse O. Ballenger arrived Beehive from the cover of a Mor- mon text published in 1869. to establish and develop the United Order; to proselytize in April and began the among the , , and ; and to create fort opposite Sunset that would become Brigham City (see settlements that would serve as havens for polygamous page 6). By June, all four settlements were building forts to families who were protect themselves from Indian being persecuted attacks that never came, and by the United building dams on the river to States government irrigate crops. in Utah. In this issue of Archaeology “Deseret” is Southwest, we celebrate the per- from the Book of severance, industriousness, and Mormon and is vision of these Mormon colo- generally said to re- nists. Various authors explore the fer to honeybees historical and archaeological and industrious- heritage of in ness, with a beehive Mormon sites and modern towns mentioned in this issue of Archaeology northern Arizona, including ex- having long been Southwest. cavations at three of the original associated with the four Little Colorado colonies; Mormon Church and appearing on the Utah state seal; the short-lived Mormon occupation of the Forestdale area; the State of Deseret was to be an independent Mormon the Mormon Lake sawmill, dairy, and tannery; historic homeland in the West. The United Order was an experi- petroglyphs near Joseph City; the colonies’ lime kiln; Fort ment in social organization, with cooperation, rather than Moroni near Flagstaff; and the history and meaning of competition, as its basis, in which all community mem- Mormon town plans. In addition, Benjamin Pykles and bers shared resources. Karen Wilhelm discuss the significance of these sites to In response to Young’s call, more than 200 men, themselves. women, and children headed south in the middle of win- For this issue, the Issue Editors: Alan Ferg ter, crossing the “Big” at Lee’s Ferry. In Center for Desert Archae- and Karen Wilhelm March, the lead members of the wagon train reached Sun- ology has become, tempo- Archaeology Southwest set Crossing on the Little Colorado (roughly where Inter- rarily, the Center for is a Quarterly state 10 crosses the river east of Winslow). Lot Smith and Deseret Archaeology! Publication of the Center for Desert Archaeology Mormon Heritage and Archaeological Sites Benjamin C. Pykles, University of Pennsylvania

O MEMBERS OF THE Church of Jesus Christ of not only to Latter-day Saints. These places are significant Latter-day Saints, sites like those discussed in this to all Americans because they are the surviving reminders Tissue of Archaeology Southwest are of inestimable valuable. of a crucial time in our country’s history. They represent For some, these sites are where their great-grandfathers, some of the earliest American settlements in the great-great-grandmothers, and other ancestors lived, wor- and symbolize the westward expansion of

Courtesy of Karen Wilhelm America in the last half of the nine- teenth century. This was America’s most expansive period, when the boundaries of the United States were extended across the continent to the Pacific. The emi- grants who came to occupy these lands spread Euro-Ameri- can culture through- The town of St. Johns, Arizona, has deep Mormon roots. This photograph, taken around 1899, shows typically wide, out the region. Chief right-angle streets and numerous trees planted for shade and windbreaks. among these emi- grant groups were shipped, and died (see page 3). As such, these sites occupy the Mormons, who, unlike their contemporaries, were not a significant place in the personal and familial heritage of primarily motivated by the economic prospects of the West,

these individuals. For Courtesy of Karen Wilhelm but instead, were im- many other Latter-day pelled by a desire to prac- Saints, however, these tice their religion in peace places are meaningful be- and in isolation from cause they are where the those who had denied Mormon faith was pre- them this right. The suc- served and perpetuated in cessful expansion of Mor- the everyday lives of the mon colonies during this pioneers who willingly period, stretching from made sacrifices for their southern Canada to religious beliefs. The val- northern , has left ues, attributes, and charac- a lasting imprint on the teristics embodied by the land. con- Mormon archaeologi- tinue to be held up as stan- cal sites should be pro- dards that Latter-day tected and preserved for Saints today strive to The 1912 J. P. LeSueur house in Eagar, as it looks today. all Americans, Mormon emulate. Therefore, these and non-Mormon alike. sites are significant not only to the direct genealogical de- These sites are the tangible evidence of a people’s endur- scendants of the pioneers who lived there, but also to the ing faith during a period of history that forever changed millions of twenty-first-century Mormons. America. May we all feel a sense of ownership and respon- The archaeological heritage of Mormonism in Ari- sibility for these important places, and protect and pre- zona, and of the entire West, for that matter, is important serve them for future generations.

Page 2 Archaeology Southwest Volume 19, Number 2 Mormon Memories Karen Wilhelm

T ALL BEGAN with a simple request from my grand- excavations I began to feel closer to my ancestors; being mother. We had been talking about archival storage for there, I could picture what their life had been like. ourI photographs, and Grandma wanted help in redoing My great-great-grandmother Anna Amalia Anderson her photo albums. I had never been very interested in my Peterson was one of the cooks at the Brigham City Fort. ancestors, but as I assisted my grandmother, I became cu- When she arrived from Denmark, she spoke hardly any English, and said later that her time as a cook helped her learn the language. My great-great- grandfather Marcor Hansen Peterson was the shoemaker at the fort and had his own little shop. I could envision their daughter, my great- grandmother, Annie Johannah (Hannah) Peterson Davis, running around the fort play- ing with the other children. I could imagine their voices as they played their games and I could see her clutching the little doll she re- ceived one Christmas—the doll’s ceramic head made by the resident potter, Brother Behrman, and the doll’s body sewn together by her mother. After a four-year search through old records and conducting interviews with local area residents, I was able to discover the loca- tion of Obed Fort, which my great-grandfa- Top left: Edmond Nelson, who helped to build ther, Edmond Nelson, had helped build nearly the Obed Fort, in a 1920s photograph. Top right: 130 years ago. I was gratified to be able to stand The man and the woman in the middle of this photograph are Marcor Hansen Peterson, who where he had stood and look across the land- Richard W. Lord ran the shoe shop at Brigham City, and his wife scape from the same vantage point. Great- Anna, who is holding their daughter (Karen grandfather Nelson was in charge of the bull Wilhelm’s great-grandmother); taken shortly be- teams that hauled the rock used in building fore they left Utah (photographs courtesy of Obed Fort. As I gazed across the area, I pic- Karen Wilhelm). Left: Avocational archaeolo- tured him scouting for the best places to find gist Karen Wilhelm in the colonies’ lime kiln. the rock, using a pick to quarry it, loading the rious about the strangers wagons and hauling rock to the fort site, then building the looking out at me from the walls of the fort. After a two-week stint spent helping lay pages of her albums. up rock walls at Brigham City, I gained a lot of respect for I began to search these hard-working people, some of them my ancestors. through old, dusty records for more in- formation. One set of great-great-grand- parents and a great-grandfather were among the first Mormon colonists sent to Arizona in 1876 to settle along the in the area of Sunset Crossing near present-day Winslow and Joseph City, Arizona. When the opportunity arose, I became involved in efforts to excavate and restore one of those settlements, Brigham City (see page 6). Working at the Brigham City Bull Teams at the Obed Fort, by John Wilhelm, 1997.

Spring 2005 Archaeology Southwest Page 3 Joseph City Alan Ferg, Arizona State Museum

UILDING A 10-FOOT EARTHEN DIKE atop the worked at ASM when I was writing a report on the Old site of one of the oldest Mormon forts in northern Fort, I was introduced to Paul H. Peterson’s 1972 Master’s BArizona did not seem like a good idea. As Interstate 40 was thesis, An Historical Analysis of the Word of Wisdom. I being completed near Joseph City, the Arizona Depart- learned that the doctrine expressed in the Word of Wisdom ment of Transportation agreed to move its flood-control was viewed by Mormons as divine revelation, but that doc- feature away from trine had also been the site, and spon- modified over the sored limited ar- decades by subse- chaeological test ex- quent revelations. cavations outside This was historically the fence that pro- interesting to me in tects it. That is itself; I had won- where, in 1979, dered about the ori- while working for gins of the Mor- the Arizona State mons’ avoidance of Museum (ASM) alcohol, caffeine, Highway Salvage and tobacco when I program, I was in- was a student the troduced to Mor- previous summer at mon archaeology. the University of I learned that Arizona archaeo- the Old Fort at Jo- logical undergradu- seph City was built ate field school in in 1876, as were its Snowflake, a Mor- Sketch of the Old Fort by Jack Pickett, done in 1947, from a description furnished by companion forts at Sophie D. McLaws (from Unflinching Courage, by Adele B. Westover and J. Morris mon community. Sunset, Obed, and Richards [1963]). But it also involved Brigham City. Un- a revelation of an- like these, however, the Old Fort was a U-shaped arrange- other kind: there was no reason that artifacts related to ment of three rows of rooms. A fourth side was never built, these substances—such as bottles for alcohol and patent as it became clear that the Indian attacks were not forth- medicines, coffee or tea containers, and smoking pipes— coming, and families started to build individual homes would not be found in nineteenth-century Mormon sites. near the fort. The Old Fort saw various uses over the years I also learned that discerning ethnicity in the archaeologi- and was finally completely abandoned in 1896, having cal record was not as simple as I had at first thought it served its purpose as the birthplace of a permanent Mor- might be: the mere presence or absence of these kinds of mon settlement in the Little Colorado River Valley—the artifacts in an artifact assemblage was not a reliable way to only one of the four colonies to survive. Around 1906, the differentiate Mormon and non-Mormon sites. last of the fort’s structures was accidentally burned down However, perhaps the most important thing I learned by children trying to roast a rabbit they had shot. was that even though there is not much left of the Old Today, the Old Fort consists of a fenced property on Fort, the location is still important to the Mormon com- the north side of old Route 66 and it is easily accessible munity. I am not a Mormon, but I think everyone consid- from the interstate. Nothing shows on the surface because ers certain places special and has some understanding and it has been repeatedly plowed and planted, and ultimately, appreciation of such matters. The Old Fort may look like a covered with 18 inches of fill. Nevertheless, I have learned flat piece of real estate with a three-strand wire fence around several important lessons from the Old Fort over the years. it, where visitors stop to read the bronze plaque in the I came to understand that much of the Euro-Ameri- petrified wood monument, but the site gets weeded, is oc- can portion of east-central Arizona’s territorial-era history casionally planted with corn, and remains the very real was Mormon history. Thanks to Nephi Bushman, who heart of Joseph City.

Page 4 Archaeology Southwest Volume 19, Number 2 Irrigation in Joseph City: Mormon Persistence on the Little Colorado River Jon S. Czaplicki, Bureau of Reclamation

OMETIMES THINGS DON’T go the way they are supposed to. In 1876, farmers at the Sfledgling Mormon settlement of Joseph City (first known as Allen’s Camp), on the Little Colorado River in northern Arizona, built a dam to divert water into a new irrigation system. The first Mormon dam was washed out not long after it was completed, was re- built, and washed out again. This cycle was repeated at least seven times between 1876 and 1924, as the Little Colorado River seemingly dared the Mormon farmers to settle along its banks. But settle they did. They rebuilt the dams when they washed out and made repairs when floods damaged, but did not de- stroy, the dams. Almost 130 years after it was built, the Joseph City Top: Government Land Office map surveyed in July irrigation system is still in 1879, showing Joseph City use today and is operated (“St. Joseph”), its irrigated by volunteers from the Jo- fields (stippled areas), and seph City Irrigation Com- the main canal (dashed pany. Over the years, por- line) that drew water from tions of the irrigation sys- behind an upstream dam. tem have been upgraded Obed, shown at the bottom of the map, was already and improved, work that abandoned at this time. continues to this day. The Left: 1894 Joseph City community of Joseph City Dam. and the irrigation com- pany are working to pipe expensive commu- and bury approximately nity investments in 60 percent of the system that runs through the town. The productivity along with other Mormon settlements in the remaining portion of the canal system that extends beyond Little Colorado River Basin throughout the nineteenth the town will remain open canal. century.” Joseph City, among other Mormon communi- The Bureau of Reclamation recently provided grant ties, played an important role in the early history of Mor- money to the irrigation company to assist it in piping an- mon colonization in the middle Little Colorado River Val- other portion of the canal system. By providing federal ley. Today, Joseph City is the oldest Mormon community funds, the Bureau of Reclamation, under the National in County. Mormon settlement at Joseph City is Historic Preservation Act, had to determine if the irriga- intimately tied to the struggle to harness water of the Little tion system was eligible for nomination to the National Colorado River and deliver it through an irrigation system Register of Historic Places. Through its contractor, Ar- to the fields that supported the community. The Bureau of chaeological Consulting Services, Ltd., the Bureau of Rec- Reclamation, working with the Joseph City Irrigation lamation undertook an eligibility assessment of the irriga- Company and the Arizona State Historic Preservation Of- tion system that concluded the system was indeed eligible fice, will conduct additional archival research and develop for inclusion in the National Register. an appropriate format to commemorate this historic irri- According to anthropologist William S. Abruzzi, the gation system and the persistent Mormon farmers who Joseph City irrigation system “constituted one of the most built their town around it.

Spring 2005 Archaeology Southwest Page 5 Brigham City, Winslow, and Prospects for Renewal Alan Ferg, Arizona State Museum

ALLENGER’S CAMP, one of the four Mormon in 1977, when Archaeological Research Services, Inc., and colonies along the Little Colorado River in north- the historical architectural firm of Gerald A. Doyle and ernB Arizona, was formally named Brigham City in 1878 in Associates conducted test excavations and documented the honor of Mormon leader Brigham Young. Brigham City remaining structures at the site for the City of Winslow. In was reasonably prosperous and could boast a school, grist- 1988, the Brigham City Restoration Committee was formed mill, pottery, tannery and blacksmith’s shops; it also par- to restore the site to its original appearance. Between 1991 ticipated in the operation of a sawmill and and 1995, members of dairy (see page 10). But the country was hard the Arizona Archaeo- and the river capricious, repeatedly wash- logical Society con- ing out numerous dams over the years. Fami- ducted additional test lies began to move to other settlements, and Richard W. Lord excavations here (see in 1881 the Mormon Church released the page 7). Although remaining families from their obligations. they hoped to excavate Virtually abandoned by its settlers, Brigham the potter’s living City was used briefly as the local headquar- quarters and the ters during construction of the Atlantic and shoe shop operated Pacific Railroad, and with the by Marcor Hansen arrival of the railroad, the City Peterson (see page 3), of Winslow was born. The testing showed both rooms were destroyed Brigham City property then when the entire southwest quarter of the fort changed hands twice before Richard W. Lord was plowed for farming. being purchased by Fernando There were hopes that Brigham City Thornton La Prade in 1890. could become another tourist destination in Over the next 57 years, the the Winslow area, along with Homolovi Ru- La Prade family farmed and ins State Park, La Posada Hotel, a Hubbell operated the Sunset Dairy on Top: Janice Griffith, director of the Old Trails trading post, and local attractions related to the old fort and surrounding Museum (in blue shirt), watches (left to right): State Route 66 and the nearby mesas. properties. Most of the fort’s Marty Tagg, Lori Hawthorne, Bill Davis, and Winslow businessman and Mormon Church buildings were dismantled Alan Ferg excavating Behrman’s workshop, kiln, Elder Harry Hancock began a reconstruction and the northeast bastion in 1991, with the old and the stone recycled into dining hall in the background. Bottom: The of the southwest bastion and the walls of the new structures, including the northeast corner of the fort after excavations fort, but this personal effort has stopped for huge La Prade barn. In 1947, were backfilled and low walls built to show the the time being. And in spite of general com- the property was acquired by locations of the buried features. munity interest, neither public nor church the City of Winslow and then funding has been forthcoming to totally re- leased out as part of the City Farms. The remodeled west- build the Brigham City Fort. ern two-thirds of the fort’s communal dining hall had Ironically, as the original Brigham City has deterio- served as a private home, first for the La Prades and then rated over the decades, reduced-scale replicas of its walls for the families that followed, up to 1980. and circular bastions live on in the heart of Winslow. Ar- The Brigham City Fort was built as a square, about chitect Mary Coulter, famous for her Harvey Company 200 feet per side, with an eight-foot-tall exterior wall made hotels and complex of buildings at the Grand Canyon, of locally quarried Moenkopi sandstone. It had bastions at used extensive sandstone walls—some say they were con- the northeast and southwest corners, wide gates in the cen- structed using the actual stones of Brigham City—to en- ter of each side of the fort, and a variety of outbuildings close the lawn and gardens on the west side of the La and corrals. Today, the only standing portions of the origi- Posada Hotel complex north of the railroad. Built in 1929, nal fort are part of the dining hall and portions of the east both La Posada and its garden walls are still there. What wall, which was incorporated into the La Prade barn. the future holds for the Brigham City Fort is hard to fore- Archaeological investigations at Brigham City began tell.

Page 6 Archaeology Southwest Volume 19, Number 2 Brother Behrman’s Pottery Alan Ferg, Arizona State Museum

HE WORKSHOP AND KILN of Brigham City’s recovered, including raw clay, unfired sherds, sherds from potter, Wilhelm Frederick Otto Behrman, was ex- successfully fired vessels, vessels broken in firing, charcoal, cavatedT in 1991 as a joint project of the Arizona Archaeo- and ash. Neutron activation analysis, conducted by Patrick logical Society, the D. Lyons of the Center for Desert Archaeology on a few Brigham City Restoration fired and unfired sherds and on a sample of raw clay from Committee, and the Old directly underneath the northeast bastion, shows that the Tobi Taylor Tobi Trails Museum in Win- clays in all are very similar, and that is distinct from clays slow. (The kiln’s location used by prehistoric Native American potters in the area. had been discovered dur- Behrman’s pots are low-fired utilitarian redwares with ing test excavations by Ar- a greenish-yellow glaze on one or both surfaces. His vessel chaeological Research Ser- forms include various sizes of crocks with lids, small plates vices, Inc., and Gerald A. or saucers, probable water pitchers, and—perhaps his most Doyle and Associates in common product—large, slant-sided bowls (known as 1980.) Behrman, who was “milk-settling pans”) probably destined for the dairy at born in Denmark, worked Mormon Lake. as a potter in Ephraim, Behrman’s pottery, with its very short period of pro- Utah, around 1870, and duction—1876 to 1879—would be useful to archaeolo- was among those Mor- gists attempting to date sites in which it was found. How- mons called to Arizona in ever, his wares have only been found at Brigham City, Jo- Glazed and unglazed milk-settling 1876, pre- seph City, and Millville at Mormon Lake. pan rim sherds. sumably so In fact, the presence of these distinctive he could supply the Little Colorado colo- green-glazed redware sherds was critical nies with crockery. In 1879, he moved to to archaeologists’ identification of the site

Colorado and apparently never made pot- Richard W. Lord of Millville (see page 10). tery again. Finally, the excavation of Behrman’s Behrman’s workshop was 18 feet square, kiln had an unusual application. Samples with a flagstone floor, opening into the 10- from the kiln bricks were submitted to an foot-diameter bastion on the northeast cor- archaeomagnetic laboratory, producing ner of the fort (see page 6). The kiln, which one of the most tightly clustered sets of was built of unfired bricks of local clay, was readings yet run for the Southwest. In a about 6 feet wide and 10 feet long; it was reversal of the usual situation, the archae- apparently the only nineteenth-century Eu- ologists were able to tell the laboratory ropean-style kiln in Arizona. Behrman was technicians that the samples were fired probably firing his pieces with wood (and between 1876 and possibly coal), and he achieved temperatures 1879, which helped hot enough to partially melt and vitrify the them to calibrate the re- inner faces of bricks in the kiln walls. When cent historic portion of excavated, the remains of the kiln’s founda- the curve used to cal- Richard W. Lord tion measured only about a foot high, but culate archaeomag- the foundation did contain some details of netic dates. This has the ventilation system. In the southeast cor- improved the accuracy ner of the room was a dense pile of broken of dates that can be pro- pottery and kiln furniture—probably lying vided to other archae- where Behrman discarded them after his last ologists using archaeo- use of the kiln 125 years ago. magnetic samples to In addition to the kiln itself, virtually Top: Melted inner faces of kiln bricks. Bottom: A misfired date historic sites in the every step in the pottery-making process was crock lid. Southwest.

Spring 2005 Archaeology Southwest Page 7 Obed: Death of a Mormon Colony Alan Ferg, Arizona State Museum Richard W. Lord

N APPARENTLY IDEAL LOCATION turned were working at Brigham dangerous not long after the Mormon colonists City (see page 6), they of- choseA the site on which to build the Obed Fort in 1876. ten heard about Obed, but The site was located next to two freshwater springs feeding no one could pinpoint a lush cienega, full of cattails and fish, that the Mormon where it was located. Re- colonists named Obed Meadow. With a source of easily search using historical quarried sandstone nearby, the colonists, including documents and maps led Edmond Nelson (see page 3), built a stone fort in about to the “rediscovery” of six weeks in the withering heat of the summer. Colonists’ Obed in 1995 (see page 3), journals recorded that it was 12 rods (198 feet) on a side, about three miles south with bastions on the northeast and southwest corners, and of Joseph City. It was bi- walls 9-10 feet tall that were two to three feet thick at the sected by a Navajo County base and tapered toward the top. It is unclear if the south road adjacent to De- wall was ever built to its intended height. Spain’s LX Ranch. With Then people started getting sick. In the fall of 1877, permission from the land- the settlers recorded an outbreak of “Malaria fever and owners—the Aztec Land Looking down on the foundation of ague,” with so many falling ill that there were not enough and Cattle Company, Ari- the southwest bastion, with an inte- healthy people to care for the sick. By December, the most zona Public Service, and rior diameter of 10 feet, and the 3- foot-wide western wall extending to massive of the Little Colorado forts lay abandoned, the the Navajo County High- the north. majority of the survivors moving to Brigham City. way Department—and What happened? The mosquito species known to the encouragement of Milton and Jay DeSpain—test ex- carry malaria, Anopheles freeborni, is present in the area cavations over the next three years by Arizona Archaeo- today, and could also have logical Society members revealed most of the foun- been present in the 1870s. dations of the Obed fort. But nearby Joseph City did It was exciting to prove that the historical de- not suffer from this outbreak, scriptions of the fort were extremely accurate, in- and it has been argued that Richard W. Lord cluding the improbable-sounding three-foot-wide the culprit was more prob- foundations. The layout of Obed was virtually ably typhoid, resulting from identical to those of the Brigham City and Sunset inadvertent contamination forts: a square with circular bastions on the north- of the springs. Obed was the east and southwest corners. Evidence for only one only colony that used surface internal structure was found. Because the struc- water for domestic use; the ture was so well preserved, it may have been built other three all used wells. later by the Hashknife cowboys, though its fire- Whatever the cause, Obed’s place was identical in construction to those found proximity to its springs and at Brigham City and to a nineteenth-century Mor- Obed Meadow was its undo- mon house in nearby Woodruff. Artifacts were ex- ing. tremely scarce; with such a short occupation, and After 1884, the aban- systematic abandonment, probably few items were doned fort was reportedly left at Obed. used as a corral by the The southeast corner of the fort, looking Obed Meadow dried up after the 1960 con- Hashknife cowboys of the down the length of the south wall, with Ari- struction of the Cholla Power Plant lowered the Aztec Land and Cattle Com- zona Archaeological Society volunteers local water table. The mosquitoes are gone, but so pany and was later torn spaced every 20 feet. are the cattails and fish. Now this part of the valley down. Its stones were first reused to line a farming reser- is like much of the rest—a marginal pasture for cattle voir, and then utilized as riprap for the bridge across the browsing among the camelthorn, with fourth- and fifth- Little Colorado River to Joseph City. When archaeologists generation ranchers hoping for rain.

Page 8 Archaeology Southwest Volume 19, Number 2 Sunset Fort and the Sunset Pioneer Cemetery Kenn Evans, Homolovi Ruins State Park

LL THAT REMAINS of Sunset Fort, one of four at that time and by 1933, had washed down the Little Colo- Mormon settlements in northern Arizona, is the rado as the river repeatedly shifted its channel. SunsetA Pioneer Cemetery, now inside the boundaries of The Sunset Pioneer Cemetery survived because it was Homolovi Ruins State Park. situated on a hill near the fort. The majority of the indi- Life along the river was far from easy. Despite the warn- viduals buried there were associated with Sunset Fort. Al- ings of nearby Hopi farmers, all four Mormon colonies though some of the cemetery’s original gravestones are in were initially built in the floodplain. The river frequently flooded, wash- ing out the dams the Mormons had built and destroying their crops be- fore they could be harvested. The colonies of Obed, St. Joseph, and Sunset relocated to higher ground, and on Christmas Eve 1876, Sunset’s leader Lot Smith and his followers moved into the newly built fort of Sunset. Sunset Fort was built of upright cottonwood logs and measured 321 feet square. Inside were 31 14-by-16 foot dwellings, a dining hall, a school- room, a kitchen, two storerooms, a granary and a corncrib. The stone for some of the fort’s walls was collected from the nearby ancestral Hopi site of Homolovi. The United Order system was practiced at Sunset, whereby all property that the colonists possessed, Plan view map of Sunset Fort, drawn by George A. McClellan in 1881 (courtesy of Gerald A. Doyle and Lyle M. Stone). their labor, time, and talent were to be given to the community for the greater good. There was place, many others have been removed by vandals through- also supposed to be an appraisal of property and a separa- out the decades and some headstones have been replaced tion of duties and responsibilities. However, some settlers by descendants of the settlers. Over the past 13 years, a list complained about Smith’s han- of those interred at the cemetery dling of the bookkeeping and has been compiled by examining other matters, and an investigative headstones, reviewing the jour- committee was established. In nals of the settlers, and working 1881, the settlers were released closely with the local Mormon from their calling to the Little community. Colorado River settlements and Of the 23 people I have been moved to other missions in able to identify, one was a non- Manassa, Colorado, and Safford Mormon. The others consisted and Graham, Arizona. In 1888, of six adults, seven children, and Smith himself was released from nine infants or newborns—sev- The first post office in the Little Colorado area was estab- his calling and moved to lished at Sunset on July 5, 1876, and closed on November eral of whom appear to have suc- Moenkopi, near Tuba City, Ari- 23, 1887. This envelope was canceled on July 6, 1885, cumbed to the area’s harsh win- zona. Sunset Fort was abandoned when Lot Smith was postmaster (courtesy of Kenn Evans). ters.

Spring 2005 Archaeology Southwest Page 9 The Mormon Lake Dairy, Sawmill, and Tannery Pat H. Stein, Arizona Preservation Consultants Richard W. Lord

S PART OF AN EFFORT to become more self- other articles, but it was in sufficient, Mormon colonists from Brigham City, chronic short supply Obed,A Sunset, and Joseph City collaborated during the among the Little Colo- 1870s to establish home industries, which included a dairy, rado colonies. Therefore, a sawmill, and a tannery. the Mormon camps col- The Mormon pioneers sited these communal indus- laborated in the fall of tries in and near Pleasant Valley (Mormon Lake), about 1879 to set up a tannery at Looking west across Mormon Lake at Mormon Mountain, with Dairy 45 miles southwest of Sunset (see page 1). The valley of- the sawmill (by then Spring at its base, February 2005. fered plentiful water, lush summer pasturage, and vast called Millville). After stands of ponderosa pine. The upland paradise was an much effort and experimentation, the Millville tannery area that the Mormons were eager to claim but not colo- succeeded in producing only an inferior grade of leather. nize on a year-round basis because of the high altitude, The failure of the tannery was attributed to inexperienced with its short growing workers and poor raw materials. season. The disbanding of the colonies in the early 1880s

Ed Riggs The portable, steam- brought the demise of the three home industries. Only the powered sawmill was sawmill experienced an afterlife. Church officials trans- donated to the Little ferred the machinery to Pinedale, Arizona, in 1882 and to Colorado camps by the Pinetop, Arizona, in 1890. By the early 1900s, the mill was Mormon Church, and in Lakeside, Arizona, providing lumber for the homes of was delivered to them at Mormons and non-Mormons alike. The mill eventually Lee’s Ferry in the late burned down at that location. summer of 1876. The In the late 1930s, the U.S. Forest Service was conduct-

Ed Riggs mill was installed about ing a timber sale near Mormon Lake when the operation five miles southeast of was visited by L. S. Kartchner, the ranger in charge of the Mormon Lake, and by sale, and his father. The elder Kartchner, then approach- early November, it was in ing his seventy-fourth birthday, recalled how he had gone full production. to the sawmill as a teenager in 1879 to get lumber. He The mill, which was pinpointed the location of the former mill site, by then Masonry foundations found at capable of processing reduced to rubble foundations. From old stumps and newer Millville, September 2002; the higher about 10,000 board-feet trees surrounding the site, Forest Service staffers deduced piles of stones are the remains of fire- per day, ran by means of a that the pioneers had clear-cut the forest for several miles places. quarter-mile-long flume in all directions. that delivered water from a spring. Carpenter John McLaws The remains of the mill site were first recorded by fashioned the rough lumber into millwork, doors, cup- archaeologists in 1978. Forest boards, and other furnishings that made life in the forts archaeologists revisited and recorded the site in greater more bearable. detail in 1987. The occurrence of green-glazed redware— The nearby dairy, established in September 1878 by the unmistakable handiwork of Brother Behrman of Lot Smith, was equally successful. Forty-eight men and Brigham City (see page 7)—confirmed the connection of 41 women from the Little Colorado forts soon staffed the the site to the Little Colorado camps. The exact location of facility, tending a herd of about 115 milk cows and mak- the old dairy is unknown, although it may be under the ing butter and cheese. The livestock grazed on the mead- waters and mud of Mormon Lake itself. ows during the day and were driven to corrals at night. Although short-lived, the communal industries of the The herd not only supplied the forts but also produced a Mormon Lake area helped the Mormon camps become surplus for markets beyond the Little Colorado. more self-sufficient. Today, place names such as Mormon The third home industry in the Pleasant Valley local- Lake, Mormon Mountain, Dairy Spring, Smith Spring, ity was the least successful. Leather was an indispensable and Sawmill Spring each bear witness to the determined material for shoes, boots, harnesses, saddles, and many efforts of the early colonists.

Page 10 Archaeology Southwest Volume 19, Number 2 Mormon Petroglyphs at Tanner Wash Richard W. Lord Peter J. Pilles, Jr., Coconino National Forest

FEW NAMES in English letters, a few small pan- helped care for the els of prehistoric petroglyphs, and some elements colony’s cattle. C. M. thatA may be modern copies of the petroglyphs are scat- Peterson is probably tered among the large boulders of Moenkopi sandstone Charles Mauritz Peterson that define the western edge of Tanner Wash, just east of Jr., rather than his father; the Old Fort at Joseph City (see page 4). In contrast to the it seems likely that the The names of “C. M. Peterson” and “A. W. Allen” are barely discernible Native American glyphs, which were pecked through the young Andrew Allen on a boulder on the western edge of darker surface patina of the stones, the names were lightly would have been friends Tanner Wash, near Joseph City. scratched in, with single lines, leaving block-printed “call- with someone closer to his ing cards.” These names are nearly invisible, yet they con- own age rather than with the elder Peterson, particularly if stitute another aspect of the historical archaeology of the these glyphs were made while Andrew was tending cattle. Little Colorado. They may also be a tangible reminder of Charles was five years younger than Andrew, was also born an early friendship. in Draper, and he accompanied his parents to Arizona The clearer of the two inscriptions is “A. W. Allen,” three years after the Allens arrived. Andrew left the Old and the name above it is “C. M. Peterson.” Andrew Fort in 1884, and the Peterson family left in 1891. If the Wainsley Allen was the son of William C. Allen, one of the two boys were together when they carved their names on leaders of the Mormons’ expedition to northern Arizona. this boulder, it must have been sometime between 1879 Born in Draper, Utah, in 1869, Andrew accompanied his and 1884. However, they met again back in Draper, where father to Arizona in 1876. While at the Old Fort, Andrew Andrew married Charles’s older sister Hannah, in 1894.

The Little Colorado Colonies’ Lime Kiln Karen Wilhelm Alan Ferg, Arizona State Museum

OOD, FIRE, AIR, AND LIMESTONE: not an construction. When alchemist’s formula for some arcane substance, but the fire had burned Winstead, the recipe for making lime. Although all of the out, and kiln cooled, early stone masonry at the four original Little Colorado a hole was broken in forts used mud mortar, cement (to do brick construction) the flat face of the and white paint were soon in demand—and lime is the kiln and the lime Alan Ferg and avocational archaeologist critical ingredient in both. To haul in lime from elsewhere shoveled out. This John Wilhelm look at artifacts next to the Mormon lime kiln. would have been prohibitively expensive. To maintain the type of kiln is referred colonies’ self-sufficiency, men from Brigham City (see to as a semicontinuous vertical kiln because firings have to page 6) and Sunset (see page 9) built their own lime kiln be done serially by replenishing the materials, usually from near limestone outcrops to the south of the colonies. the top. The access hole in the flat side of the kiln had to be The kiln stood about nine feet tall, with a D-shaped broken open and then re-closed with masonry each time a foundation of large limestone blocks and upper walls of load of lime was burned and removed. thin sandstone slabs. Inside the kiln, multiple layers of This intriguing artifact of nineteenth-century tech- crushed limestone were alternated with loosely stacked nology now sits alone in the forest, apparently undisturbed wood fuel (to allow airflow) and set alight. The lower lime- since the last time it was used, with the final load of lime stone walls were lined with bricks (probably made at still sitting in the bottom. Its remarkable preservation is Brigham City by Brother Behrman; see page 7) so the burn- due to its sturdy construction and—perhaps more impor- ing would not convert the walls themselves to lime; had tantly—to the protective attitude of the private landowner some other type of large stones been available nearby, the on whose property it rests, as well as the diligence of the Mormons would not have used limestone in the kiln’s ranch foreman who keeps an eye on it.

Spring 2005 Archaeology Southwest Page 11 Mormon Settlement of the Forestdale Valley Lauren Jelinek, University of Arizona

BANDONED LESS THAN SIX YEARS after its the settlers decided to abandon Forestdale. founding, the Mormon settlement in the One consultant related a different account of ForestdaleA Valley, on what is now the Fort Apache Indian the events in Forestdale. He recalled that the Mormon Reservation in east-central Arizona, continues to raise settlement had many houses near plum orchards and corn- questions. The settlement in the Forestdale Valley, 60 miles fields and that the local Apache chief told the Mormons to south of Holbrook, near present-day Show Low, was one leave the valley. The Apache families then divided the Mor- of the earliest attempts to expand Mormon colonization mon homes and fields among themselves, while the chief farther south in . When the Mormon colo- took possession of the only two-story house. One Septem- nists arrived in Forestdale in 1878, they settled an area they ber, all of the Apache families went to nearby Whiteriver believed was public for a big fair. While land. The Mormons in- they were gone, an vited several Apache Apache set fire to all of families to return to their the houses, but appar- farms, in hopes of con- ently not the church, verting them to Mor- which was the only monism. These mis- building remaining in sionary attempts failed, 1901 when archaeolo- and the Apache families gist Walter Hough, of demanded the removal the Smithsonian In- of the settlers. stitution, visited the Because the Apa- valley. ches had used the valley In 1939, the build- before the Mormons ar- ing locally known as rived, Indian Agent Tif- the “temple” was still fany at the then White standing, and Freder- Mountain Indian Reser- ick Scantling, a Uni- vation, ruled that the versity of Arizona stu- valley was part of the res- dent of archaeologist ervation and, in 1879, The Forestdale “temple” in 1941 (photograph by Emil W. Haury, courtesy of the Emil Haury, collected asked the Mormons to Arizona State Museum, Negative No. 665). samples from four of leave. In contrast, D. E. the logs in its walls, all Adams, one of the Mormon colonists in Forestdale, sug- of which proved to be from ponderosa pines cut in 1881, gests that Corydon Cooley, a wealthy local rancher and which corroborated its reported construction during the farmer, was responsible for the Mormons’ removal because second attempt to colonize the valley. At some point, this Cooley feared the Mormon production of corn in building also disappeared, perhaps scavenged for its tim- Forestdale would spoil his own market in Fort Apache. bers, which may yet be found incorporated into other his- Adams felt that the Apaches became hostile because of toric structures in the area. Although none of the original Cooley’s influence. Mormon structures remain at Forestdale, it is possible to In 1880, General Carr, the new commanding officer recognize some of the areas where they were located. Oral at Fort Apache, assured the Mormons that the colony was history and documentary evidence show that the Mormons not inside the boundary of the reservation and that they were farming near water sources, and two plum orchards could return to Forestdale. The next year, 20 Mormon fami- frame the eastern end of the valley. Apache and Mormon lies returned to Forestdale and built a church. There is consultants have said that the Mormons planted these or- some indication that increased tension on the reservation chards. There is also a scatter of Mormon-era artifacts be- had made the colonists fearful. When the Apaches re- tween these two orchards. The plum orchards now stand turned to the valley in 1882 to plant their summer fields, as the most visible evidence of what proved to be the brief officials at Fort Apache ordered the Mormons to leave, and Mormon occupation of the Forestdale Valley.

Page 12 Archaeology Southwest Volume 19, Number 2 Finding Fort Moroni Robert A. Coody

HE ONLY DEFENSIVE STRUCTURE of its kind in northern Arizona, Fort Moroni— builtT in 1881—was torn down in 1920, and its exact location became a mystery over the next 60 years. The winter of 1879–1880 was one of extreme A reconstruction of what Fort Moroni probably looked like in 1881. The fort was food shortage for the Mormon colonies along the a true frontier-style defensive structure, with grand entry gates, walls constructed of Little Colorado River. The settlers needed money upright sharpened posts in which there were loopholes for firing, and bastions on the diagonal corners (drawing by Robert Coody, courtesy of the Museum of Northern to buy provisions until their crops were more suc- Arizona). cessful. John W. Young, son of the Latter Day Saints’ president, Brigham Young, and counselor in the Mormon hands of the Arizona (or A One Bar) Cattle Company and Church’s hierarchy, saw the coming of the Atlantic and was renamed Fort Rickerson in honor of the company’s Pacific Railroad to northern Arizona as a way to provide treasurer. I was allowed to borrow Forrest’s original cam- employment and income to the colonists. He secured a era and glass-plate negative from MNA in Flagstaff. I set grading and tie-cutting contract with the railroad, and in up the camera near the spot where I believed the photo- 1881, his crew encamped at Leroux Spring, six miles north- graph had been taken and inserted Forrest’s negative. Look- west of Flagstaff. Years earlier, John Young had foreseen ing through the view finder, I matched the landmarks and the value of the spring and in 1877 laid claim to it by build- determined that the fort was located beneath a driveway ing a cabin there with men from Sunset and Joseph City and a trailer home. Because I could not obtain permission (see pages 4 and 9). In to excavate in these areas, June 1881, Fort Moroni I decided once again to was built as a shelter for use Forrest’s camera and the railroad construc- the negative to estimate tion crews and defense the fort’s dimensions. for local settlers against While I looked through anticipated Apache the negative, I directed a raids, which never oc- volunteer to place pin curred. Today, the area flags at various points on is known as Fort Valley. the ground. This tech- In the mid-1980s, nique may be inaccurate I conducted an ar- to some degree, but it chaeological survey of produced measure- the Fort Valley area, ments that matched the with the support of the fort’s description of 90 Museum of Northern feet on a side. Determin- Arizona (MNA) and This photograph of the fort was taken in 1906 by Earle R. Forrest, by which time ing the height of the the Arizona State Parks, it had been renamed Fort Rickerson (courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society/ stockade wall was an- to determine the loca- Tucson, 48633). other challenge. After tions of historic sites, including Fort Moroni. In 1987, a doing some documentary research, I learned that the testing project was conducted in the vicinity of the fort. double-length railroad ties used for the walls were about Instead of finding evidence of the fort’s original stockade, 16 to 18 feet long and set about four feet into the ground, we encountered coal and worked metal, suggesting that for a height of 12 to 14 feet. we were excavating the northwest corner of the fort, where What started out as an archaeological survey evolved there had been a shed containing a forge attached to the into a quest to find Fort Moroni and reconstruct what it north wall. looked like in 1881. Unfortunately, no early photographs At this time I decided I would do an experiment. In documenting the original appearance of the fort have been 1906, cowboy and author Earle R. Forrest took a photo- found, and no further archaeological work on the fort has graph of the fort. By then, the fort had passed into the yet been attempted.

Spring 2005 Archaeology Southwest Page 13 Mormon Town Plans Mark P. Leone, University of Maryland

HE WAY IN WHICH MORMON PIONEERS set up vided the visible villages, farm sites, and house plans is closely tied distinction be- withT what they knew their social and religious systems tween individual would accomplish. It was obvious to the Mormon leaders property holdings. that the way the physical environment was managed had Fences drew the direct effects on behavior. literal line between The plan for laying out a town, called the Plat of the closeness and pri- City of , was drawn up by the Prophet vacy. The Mor- and came to have a status not unlike revelation. The key mons put people feature of the plat was the equal size of all plots in the city. more closely to- The plat, which was a grid, guaranteed equal access to gether than any irrigation water. Each parcel was chosen using a lottery Anglo group in the system. Choosing lots by chance meant that water rights West but separated Drawing showing the layout of a Mormon could not provide a basis for social inequality. them by using town, created according to Joseph Smith’s Plat of Zion, with equally sized lots for all resi- The plat specified that the city be comprised of large fences. dents. square blocks with wide streets between. Each block was The number subdivided into equally sized rectangular house lots. To of gates in a fence, like the number of doors in a house, create the subdivision, an indicated the number of axis was drawn down the wives in a man’s household middle of the block. At right and hence his status. The angles to this property line church maintained elaborate were drawn four or five other rules about the equivalent lines that divided up the treatment due to a man’s block into smaller equal rect- plural wives. Gates and angles. A house was to be doors serve as examples of centered in each rectangle how technological items facing the street. With such served to accomplish some a setup, houses would be social tasks. back-to-back facing in oppo- Mormons have lived by site directions. The plat al- the Little Colorado River for ternated the central axis on more than a century. They every other block. This are still building fences. The meant that every street had materials are different now: people facing it in equal cinder blocks, chain-link numbers. It also meant that fences with and without alu- nobody looked into anybody minum slats woven into else’s front yard. It made all them, and prefabricated streets equal and simulta- wooden fences that are al- neously heightened the level most walls. Despite over- of privacy. whelming changes in Mor- In addition, every house mon culture, there is an un- in a Mormon town had a changed relationship be- fence around it, usually a tween a key set of artifacts and picket fence. Although a set of religious symbols. streets and irrigation ditches Top: Marcor and Anna Peterson’s home. Bottom: The home of the Fences still keep the same separated blocks in a town Peterson’s daughter and her husband, Hannah and Alma Davis. Both things in and the same from each other, fences pro- in St. Johns, Arizona, around 1930 (courtesy of Karen Wilhelm). things out.

Page 14 Archaeology Southwest Volume 19, Number 2 Brigham City and Sunset Cemeteries

Karen Wilhelm at the monument marking the The Sunset Cemetery Brigham City Cemetery in Homolovi Ruins (photographs by Richard State Park with old W. Lord). and new stones (pho- tographs by Kenn Evans).

See the Center for Desert Archaeology website for more information:

HE CENTER FOR DESERT ARCHAEOLOGY, a private, nonprofit organization, promotes stewardship of archaeological and historical resources through active research, preservation, and public outreach. The Center is a 501(c)(3) organization and is supported through Tdonations, memberships, and grants from individuals, foundations, and corporations. Center members receive an annual subscription to Archaeol- ogy Southwest, substantial discounts on other Center publications, opportunities to participate in archaeological projects, and invitations to special lectures and events. For more information or to join, contact Linda Pierce, Programs Manager, at 520.882.6946, or [email protected]. Board of Directors: William H. Doelle, Ph.D. (President and CEO), Benjamin W. Smith (Vice President), Diana L. Hadley (Treasurer), and Gary A. Hansen (Secretary). Advisory Board: Hester A. Davis (Arkansas Archaeological Survey, retired), Don D. Fowler (University of , Reno), William D. Lipe (Washington State University), Margaret Nelson (Arizona State University), William J. Robinson (University of Arizona, retired), James E. Snead (George Mason University), and Elisa Villalpando (Centro Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia , Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico). Administrative Staff: Linda J. Pierce (Programs Manager), Sally A. Thomas (Office Manager), and Tobi Taylor (Content Editor, Archaeology Southwest). Preservation Archaeologists: Jeffery J. Clark, Ph.D.; Chip Colwell-Chanthaphonh, Ph.D.; Jacquie M. Dale, M.A.; Douglas W. Gann, Ph.D.; Brett Hill, Ph.D.; Patrick D. Lyons, Ph.D.; and Paul F. Reed, M.A. Preservation Fellows: Anna A. Neuzil, M.A., and James M. Vint, M.A. Archaeology Southwest (ISSN 1523-0546) is published quarterly by the Center for Desert Archaeology. Copyright 2005 by the Center for Desert Archaeology. All rights reserved; no part of this issue may be reproduced by any means without written permission of the publisher. Subscription inquiries: 520.882.6946.

Spring 2005 Archaeology Southwest Page 15 Back Sight

ANY LOCAL STORIES come into fo- Center for Desert Ar- cus in this issue of Archaeology South- chaeology staff have re- Mwest. When considered on a larger geographic cently begun to work with and longer time scale, however, it is clear that local stakeholders to estab- the history of Mormon settlement in the Little lish a National Heritage Colorado River Valley has national as well as Area in the Little Colorado local significance. Valley. The Mormon his- The Mormon religion developed during a tory in this valley will be period in the early nineteenth-century United one of several key themes States referred to as the Second Great Awaken- of national significance ing. It was a time of increasing religious fervor that will be documented with distinctive regional expressions. The Mor- over the next two years. The mon prophet Joseph Smith was born in Ver- ways that the Mormon ag- mont in 1805. In 1830, he published The Book ricultural communities of Mormon and founded his own church in up- colonized and adapted to state New York. By 1838, a revelation to Smith a harsh new environment, brought about the name change to Church of the deep Native American Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Seeking relief history in the region, the from persecution, Smith soon moved his church historical roles of east-west west to Ohio, then to Missouri, and by 1839, to transportation corridors Nauvoo, Illinois. It was there, in June 1844, that such as the Southern Pa- Smith was attacked and killed by a mob while cific Railroad and Route in jail awaiting trial. Brigham Young then took 66, and the vast open over church leadership, moving the Mormons spaces and natural re- to Nebraska in 1846, and later establishing Salt The Mormon colonists of 1876 who trekked south- sources, such as Sunset Lake City in what is now Utah, in 1847. Still ward in wagons to the Little Colorado River Val- Crater, Petrified Forest, part of Mexico at that time, it was within the vast ley were isolated, but their travel route was also a and the Painted Desert, network of Mormon communities that linked them area ceded to the United States by the Treaty of back to their religious center in Salt Lake City, are all part of this nation- Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. The Mormon set- where political and economic power was increas- ally distinctive landscape tlers at Salt Lake City were seeking isolation to ingly centralized. that merits wider recogni- pursue their religious practices, but by 1869, the tion and celebration. first transcontinental railroad was completed. It passed through Ogden, Utah, back sight (b|k s§t) n. 1. a and Brigham Young en- reading used by surveyors to sured that a trunk line was check the accuracy of their work. built, connecting Salt William H. Doelle, President & CEO 2. an opportunity to reflect on Lake City with the new Center for Desert Archaeology and evaluate the Center for Desert Archaeology’s mission. railroad by 1870.

Center for Desert Archaeology NONPROFIT Archaeology Southwest ORGANIZATION 300 E. University Blvd., Suite 230 U.S. POSTAGE PAID Tucson, AZ 85705 TUCSON, AZ Permit No. 878