PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

Dear Readers, I take immense pleasure to present the Prayas - An international journal of multidisciplinary studies, PIJMS II (1). This peer-reviewed journal is the first attempt of its kind in the state of Tripura. I hope this journal will enthuse high quality research activities in the state and will encourage the readers as well. I feel mere gathering knowledge is not sufficient unless and until there is ample endeavour to apply the gathered knowledge. Finally I congratulate the whole team led by Mr. Basu Maan Daas that made the journal PIJMS a grand success. I hope you all will appreciate the achievement and wish the journal a great future.

Dr. Sambhunath Rakshit Principal, Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, Tripura, India.

PIJMS II (1) – 2015 ONLINE ISSN No. : 2348-618X

PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

Dear readers, Prayas - An international journal of multidisciplinary studies (PIJMS) is the first open access, international, peer-reviewed, annual research journal of multidisciplinary studies from Tripura intended for Professors, academicians, scholars, professionals and students engaged in research. The main purpose of the journal will be to encourage research publication and provide an international forum to disseminate knowledge. The initiative is taken by the Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, Tripura. As the Editor-in-chief of the journal, I accepted the challenge and put in my utmost efforts to make the journal possible. I thank my Principal, Dr. S. Rakshit and other colleagues, who had shown immense faith in me. I acknowledge other members of the Literary Committee, who gave me full freedom to shape the journal as I could. Finally, I would like to thank the all eminent advisers and referees, who responded to my request, encouraged me and bore the strain to pick the right manuscripts and help the authors to edit them, whenever necessary. Without the support of each and every one associated the journal would have been impossible. I congratulate the authors whose papers are eventually selected by the blind referees and I am deeply sorry to those whose papers we couldn’t include. I hope in near future PIJMS would attain high impact factor and good number of citations. Kindly wish the journal success. Let the spirit never die … Let it consistently dive and fly … With no sign whatever of any sigh … In the overhanging, looming sky … With gloomy clouds passing by ...

Basu Maan Daas Editor-in-chief PIJMS Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, Tripura, India.

PIJMS II (1) – 2015 ONLINE ISSN No. : 2348-618X

PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT FEATURE VECTOR FOR RECOGNITION OF ISOLATED ASSAMESE AND BODO WORDS C. Saloi, Page 1

A STUDY ON THE TREND OF ENROLLMENT AND PERFORMANCE OF THE FEMALE STUDENTS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNICAL COURSES OFFERED BY DIFFERENT TECHNICAL COLLEGES OF AGARTALA B. Saha, H. Mukherjee & M. M. D. Biswas, Page 16

ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI IN TROPICAL FOREST ECOSYSTEMS – POTENTIALS AND APPLICATIONS K. N. Singh, S. Ahanthem & D. K. Jha, Page 22

COMPARISON OF EXPLOSIVE LEG STRENGTH BETWEEN FEMALE TRIBAL AND NON - TRIBAL STUDENTS OF TRIPURA A. Sinha , Page 34

INTRODUCING ICT IN EDUCATION - HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES TO THE CHANGING CLASSROOM PRACTICES S. Paul & S. K. Rath, Page 37

MICRO-INSURANCE - A STEP TOWARDS INCLUSION OF ECONOMICALLY POOR TO THE UMBRELLA OF INSURANCE P. Shil & B. D. Nath, Page 49

NARRATIVES OF GABRIEL GARCÍAMÁRQUEZ BETWEEN CENSORSHIP AND SCANDAL M. Boro, Page 58

OBESITY – THE ESCALATING GLOBAL EPIDEMIC - A REVIEW S. Chatterjee, Page 67

PARTICIPATION OF MUSLIM WOMEN IN HIGHER EDUCATION S. Ahmed & N. Sultana, Page 78

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMAN IS A BURNING ISSUE - A SOCIAL CRIME S. Pal & M. Paul, Page 85

WOMEN SECURITY IN MODERNISED SOCIETY B. Paul, Page 99

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT FEATURE VECTOR FOR RECOGNITION OF ISOLATED ASSAMESE AND BODO WORDS Chandan Saloi, Department of Instrumentation & USIC, Gauhati University, Guwahati. Abstract Feature extraction process is a technique of acquiring a priori knowledge used to transform an input in the signal space to an output in a feature space to achieve some desired criteria. If lots of clusters in a high dimensional space must be classified, the objective of feature extractor is to transform that space such that classifying becomes easier. The feature extractor block designed in speech recognition aims towards reducing the complexity of the problem before the next stage start to work with the data. This chapter describes how to extract information from a speech signal, representing in the form of feature vectors. LPC Cepstral coefficients are used to detect the basic phonemes of a language. To recognise any words of Assamese & Bodo language, it is very important to detect the various features of both Assamese & Bodo languages. But before recognition, the correct cepstral information is very important. But we have seen that while we are recognizing the phoneme of the Bodo language, it is observed that only LPC cepstral coefficient is not sufficient to detect the phonemes that have similar spectral features but distinct energy contents and pitch period. This is a common phenomenon in tonal languages. Bodo is a tonal language and therefore, to recognize the tone, frame energy and first order derivatives of frame energy along with pitch period and its first and second order derivatives are used. Keywords: LPC cepstral coefficients, pre-emphasis ******* Feature extraction The purpose of feature extraction in speech recognition is to transform speech signals into a set of vectors essential for speech recognition while discarding unreliable parts. The transformed vector is called a feature vector. Several representations of feature vectors have been used for speech recognition, which usually belong to one of the following four categories [1]: linear predictive coding (LPC)-related parameters, parameters from the filter bank analysis, phonetically important parameters such as formants, energy, zero crossing rates, voice on-set time, and parameters based on the auditory modelling. In the present work, LPC-based cepstral coefficients and phonetically important parameters are used as feature vectors. The schematic diagram of feature extraction method is shown in Figure 1.

Fig 1: Feature Extractor schematic diagram

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

Speech sampling A speech signal is first low-pass filtered to prevent the aliasing effect in sampling and removing parts of speech spectrum which are not important and may contain noise. It might be argued that a higher sampling frequency, or more sampling precision, is needed to achieve higher recognition accuracy. However, if a normal digital phone, which samples speech at 8,000 Hertz with an 8 bit precision, is able to preserve most of the information carried by the signal [2], it does not seem necessary to increase the sampling rate beyond 11,025 Hertz or the sampling precision to something higher than 8 bits. Another reason behind these settings is that commercial speech recognizers typically use comparable parameter values and achieve impressive results. In this work, the incoming signal is sampled at 8 kHz with 16 bits of precision shown in Figure 2. This is because the speech to be recognized by the proposed system includes not only voiced speech but also unvoiced such as /s/. Therefore, higher sampling frequency and more sampling precision is a must. The speech is recorded and sampled using an off-the-shelf relatively inexpensive dynamic microphone and a standard PC sound card by using the software CoolEdit 2000.

Fig 2: Speech signal for the word ‘aalu’ (top-Assamese, bottom-Bodo) sampled at 8 kHz with a precision of 16 bits. Pre-emphasis In general, the digitized speech waveform has a high dynamic range and suffers from additive noise. For this reason, pre-emphasis is applied to spectrally flatten the signal in order to make it less susceptible to finite precision effects (such as overflow and underflow) later in the speech processing. The most widely used pre-emphasis is the fixed first- order system. The calculation of pre-emphasis is shown in equation (1). H (z) = 1− az-1 0.9 ≤ a ≤ 1.0 (1) The most common value for a, is 0.95 (Deller et al., 1993) [3]. A pre-emphasis can be expressed as given by equation (2). Š(n) = s(n) – 0.95 s(n-1) (2)

Fig 3: Pre-emphasised signal in Time & Frequency domain for the Assamese word ‘aalu’

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

Fig 4: Pre-emphasised signal in Time & Frequency domain for the Assamese word ‘maina’

Fig 5: Pre-emphasised signal in Time & Frequency domain for the Bodo word ‘aalu’

Fig 6: Pre-emphasised signal in Time & Frequency domain for the Bodo word ‘maina’ Frame blocking The speech signal is dynamic or time-variant in the nature. According to Rabiner (1993), the speech signal is assumed to be stationary when it is examined over a short period of time. In order to analyse the speech signal, it has to be blocked into frames of N samples, with adjacent frames being separated by M samples as shown in Figure 7. In other words, the frame is shifted with M samples from the adjacent frame. If the shifting is small, then the LPC spectral estimated from frame to frame will be very smooth. If there is no overlapping between adjacent frames, the speech signals will be totally lost and correlation between the result LPC spectral estimates of adjacent frames will contain a noisy component. The value of N can range from 100 to 400 samples at 8 kHz sampling rate.

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

Figure 7: Blocking of speech waveform into overlapping frames with N analysis frame length and M shifting length.

Windowing Each frame is windowed to minimize the signal discontinuities at the beginning and ending of each frame or to taper the signal to zero at the beginning and ending of each frame. If we define the window as w(n) , then the windowed signal is x (n) = x(n) w(n), 0 ≤ n ≤ N-1 (3) A typical window used is the Hamming window, which has the form  2  n    (4) w(n)  0.54  0.46cos ,0  n  N 1  N 1  The value of the analysis frame length N must be long enough so that tapering effects of the window do not seriously affect the result.

Fig 8: Windowed signal in Time & Frequencydomain for the Assamese word ‘aalu’

Fig 9: Windowed signal in Time & Frequency domain for the Assamese word ‘maina’

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

Fig10: Windowed signal in Time & Frequency domain for the Bodo word ‘aalu’

Fig11: Windowed signal in Time & Frequency domain for the Bodo word ‘maina’ Autocorrelation analysis The windowed signal is then auto-correlated according to the equation N 1m~ ~ R(n)   x(n)x(n  m) ,m=0,1,2,……,p (5) n0 where, p is the order of the LPC analysis. The selection of p depends primarily on the sampling rate. A speech spectrum can be represented as having an average density of two poles per kHz. Thus, one kHz of sampling rate corresponds to one pole. In addition, a total of 3 – 4 poles are needed to adequately represent the source excitation spectrum and the radiation load (Rabiner, 1993) [4]. For a sampling rate of 8 kHz, the value for p can ranges between 8 and 20. Linear Predictive Coding (LPC) Linear Predictive Coding (LPC) is one of most popular speech feature extraction methods. It is basically the prediction of present speech sample from a linear combination of the past speech samples [4]. It is widely applied as the speech feature extraction algorithm because it is mathematical precise and simple to be implemented as well as fast computation [5, 6, 4]. Besides, it provides a good model of the speech signals. It is often used in the speech feature extraction of isolated words, syllables, phonemes, consonant and even vowels. The basic principle behind the LPC is that the current speech sample can be predicted as a linear combination of the past speech samples, as shown in the Figure 12.

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

Fig 12: The current speech sample is predicted as a linear combination of past p samples. (n = total number of speech sample)

(6) sˆ(n)  a1s(n 1)  a2 s(n  2)  a3 s(n  3)  ......  a p s(n  p)

p (7) sˆ(n)   ak s(n  k) k 1

Where ak are the coefficients, which are assumed to be constant over the speech analysis frames and p is the number of past speech samples. A speech analysis frame is defined as short segment of the speech waveform to be examined or analysed. The prediction error is defined as the difference between the actual speech samples, s(n) and the predicted samples, ŝ. e(n)  s(n)  sˆ(n) (8)

p

 s(n)   ak s(n  k) (9) k1

The purpose of LPC is to find these predictor coefficients, ka which are said to match the speech waveform within an analysis frame [5]. The predicted coefficients have to be determined in a way that minimizes the mean squared prediction error over a small analysis frame. Mean squared prediction error is defined as

M E  e2 (n) (10) n0

2 M  p  E  s(n)  a s(n  k) (11)    k  n0  k 1  where M is the analysis frame length. The minimization of mean squared error is done by setting the partial derivatives of mean squared error, E with respect to ka simultaneously equal to zero. E  0 k=1,2,3,……..,p (12) ak M  p  2 s(n)  a s(n  k) (-s(n-j))=0, j=1,2,3,…,p (13)    k  n0  k1 

M M p (14)  2 s(n)s(n  j)  2 s(n  j) ak s(n  k)  0 n0 n0 k 1 Realizing that the autocorrelation function can be written in the forms as follow:

M R( j)   s(n)(n  j) (15) n0

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

M R(k  j)   s(n  j)s(n  k) (16) n0 As a result, the Equation (15) can be reduced to a simple autocorrelation function as shown in Equation (17).

p (17) R( j)   a k R(k  j) k 1

The predictor coefficients ka can be determined by solving the Equation (17). This can be done by either using autocorrelation or covariance method. The autocorrelation method is preferred over the covariance method because the former is simple and fast in computation [7, 4]. In autocorrelation method, we have to pre-determine a range for parameter n, so that speech segment, s(n) is set to zero for which the speech segments are outside the range. The range is expressed as 0 ≤ n ≤ M −1. This setting is simply done by applying a window to the speech segment. The typical weighting window is Hamming window. The purpose of windowing is to taper the signal near n = 0 and near n = M - 1, so as to minimize the errors at the speech segment boundaries. Based on the windowed signal, the mean squared error becomes

M 1 p E(n)   e 2 (n) (18) n0 and the Equation (18) can be expressed as

M 1 p R(k  j)  s(n  j)s(n  k) ,1≤ j ≤ p, 1≤ j ≤ p (19) n0 or,

M 1(k  j ) R(k  j)   s(n  k  j) , 1≤ j ≤ p, 1≤ j ≤ p (20) n0 Since the autocorrelation function is symmetric, for example, R(j)=R(− j) and R(j− k) = R(k − j) , the LPC equations can be rewritten as

p , (21)  R( k  j )ak  R( j) k 1 The Equation (21) can also be expressed in matrix form as

R(O) R(1) R(2) ……… R(p-1) a1 R(1)

R(1) R(0) R(1) ……… R(p-2) a2 R(2)

R(2) R(1) R(0) ……… R(p-3) a3 = R(3)

R(p-1) R(1) R(2) ……… R(0) a4 R(p) (22) The matrix is a special matrix known as Toeplitz matrix, where all the diagonal elements are equal. The solving of the matrix can be done efficiently by iterative method known as Levinson-Durbin algorithm [8], which will yield the

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies predictor coefficients. This algorithm is used to solve equation where the elements across the diagonal are identical and the matrix of coefficients is symmetry. LPC analysis LPC analysis converts the autocorrelation coefficients R into the LPC parameters. The LPC parameters can be the LPC coefficients. Levinson-Durbin recursive algorithm is used to perform the conversion from the autocorrelation coefficients into LPC coefficients.

E 0  R0 (23)

 i1  i1 , 1≤ i ≤ p (24) ki  R(i)   a j R(i  j) / Ei1  j1 

i ai  k i (25)

i i1 i1 a j  a j  k i a i j , 1≤ j ≤ i-1 (26)

2 Ei  1 ki Ei1 (27)

The set of equations (23 – 27) is solved recursively for i = 1,2,..., p, where p is the order of the LPC analysis. The ki are the reflection or PARCOR coefficients. The aj are the LPC coefficients. The final solution for the LPC coefficients

( p ) is given as a j  a j , 1≤ j ≤ p (28) Cepstrum analysis LPC cepstral coefficients can be derived directly from the LPC coefficients. The conversion is done using the following recursive method: c0  a0 (29) m1  k  cm  am   ck amk , 1≤ m ≤ p (30) k1  m  m1  k  cm   ck amk , m>p (31) k1  m  where ck is an LPC-based cepstral coefficient Endpoint detection The purpose of the endpoint detection is to find the start and end points of the speech waveform [8, 9, 10]. The challenge of the endpoint detection to locate the actual start and end points of the speech waveform. A 3-level adaptive endpoint detection algorithm for isolated speech based on time and frequency parameters is developed in order to obtain the actual start and end points of the speech. The concept of Euclidean distance adopted in this algorithm can determine the segment boundaries between silence and voiced speech as well as unvoiced speech. The algorithm consists of three basic modules: the background noise estimation, initial endpoint detection, and actual endpoint detection. The initial endpoint detection is performed using rootmean-square energy and zero-crossing rate, and the actual endpoint detection is performed using Euclidean distance within cepstral coefficients.

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

Parameter weighting The lower-order cepstral coefficients are sensitive to overall spectral slope whereas high-order cepstral coefficients are sensitive to noise. In order to reduce these sensitivities, the cepstral coefficients have to be weighted with a standard technique [11, 12]. If we define the weighting window as w(m), then the general weighting is Q   m  w(m)  1 sin , 1  m  Q (32) 2  Q  where Q is the order of cepstral coefficients. In addition to the cepstral coefficients, their time-derivative approximations are used as feature vectors to account for the dynamic characteristic of speech signal. The time derivative is approximated by a linear regression coefficient over a finite window, which is defined as [13, 14]

 K   cˆ (m)   k cˆ (m).G, 1 m  Q (33) l   lk  k K  th where ĉl(m) is the m weighted cepstral coefficient at time l and G is a constant used to make the variances of the derivative terms equal to those of original cepstral coefficients. In this work, we use N=240, P=12, Q=12, K=2 and G=0.316 [14]. The weighted cepstral coefficients including frame log energy and the corresponding time-derivatives are concatenated, resulting in a 24-dimensional observation vector [14], which is given by: U(t)=[ĉ1 ĉ2 ĉ3….. ĉ12 Δĉ1 Δĉ2 Δĉ3…… Δĉ12] (34) In practice, to reduce the computational cost some of the less useful cepstral features can be discarded. After discarding the less useful cepstral features, the following feature set with only 13 elements are considered for the recognition of basic phoneme. U(t)= [ĉ1 ĉ2 ĉ3 ….. ĉ8 Δĉ2 Δĉ3 Δĉ4 Δĉ5 Δĉ6] (35) The weighted cepstral coefficients are then normalized in between -1 and +1. The normalization is expressed as Pitch related features detection Basically all Sino-Tibetan languages are tonal language. Bodo language also belongs to this group. When a word utters with different tone gives different meaning; this particular characteristic of a language is called the tonal language. A tonal word carries same phonetic structure with different meaning. Since tone is associated with pitch and cepstral coefficient based feature vector discard the pitch related information, the cepstral coefficient based feature vector is not sufficient to recognize tonal words. Again, it has been observer that if pitch related feature is used, the performance of the system degrades considerably for non-tonal languages like Assamese. Therefore, in our present study, a new approach has made to combine cepstral features with pitch related features. The pitch related features are normalized to work effectively and efficiently with tonal as well as non-tonal language. A pitch detector algorithm is used to extract the pitch related acoustic features which includes frame energy, the probability of voicing and pitch period. The same window size and frame rate are used to make the extracted pitch features more consistent with the original cepstral coefficient based features. The speech signal s(n) is first divided into frames. For each frame decisions are made for (a) speech vs. non-speech, (b) voiced vs. unvoiced and (c) the pitch period. The algorithm is worked as follows:

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

To discriminate the differences between speech and non-speech, the signal energy level is computed using autocorrelation and it is then compared with fixed threshold. Cepstral coefficients are computed. In cepstrum domain, first peak (R0) is zero cepstral coefficients, which is partly depends on the frame energy. In voiced speech the second peak (R1) is present showing the energy of F0. For unvoiced frame, no predominate 2nd peak is present. Therefore, the ratio of R1 against R0 denoted by Rc is compare with a fixed threshold t. If Rc is longer than t, the frame is classified as voiced and the position of R1 is reported as pitch period. For the features to be useful for speech recognition, it is better to make soft decision instead of hard decision for both speech silence differentiation and voiced/unvoiced differentiation. By using autocorrelation value e as a feature, we can estimate the conditional distribution Pr (e | non-speech) and Pr (e | speech) empirically using non-parametric estimation techniques (such as histogram). By using Bayes rule and empirical estimation of Pr (speech) and Pr (non- speech), we can estimate the probability, Pr (speech | e), for each frame. A similar modification is also applied for voicing decision. First phonetic alignment is obtained by using well known

Discriminative Learning Algorithm [15, 16]. Second, the distribution of Pr (Rc|voiced, speech) and Pr (Rc|unvoiced, speech) is estimated. Then, instead of comparing Rc with a fixed threshold, the probability Pr (voiced | Rc, speech) which can be computed using Bayes rule are:

Pr(Rc |V, S)*Pr(V,S) (36) Pr(V| Rc ,S)  Pr(Rc |V, S)*Pr(V,S)  Pr(Rc |U,S)* Pr(U,S) where V=Voiced, S=Speech, N=Non-speech, Rc=Rl/R0. Finally, the probability of voicing is computed by the following equations:

Pr(V )  (1 Pr(N))*Pr(V | Rc ,S) (37)

The algorithm stated above generates three pitch related features for each frame, namely, the transfer energy En(t), the probability of voicing Pr(V) and the pitch period. For using these features in real speech recognition application some normalization is required which is stated below: The energy of the voicing region is higher than that in unvoiced region and so it is intuitively a useful feature. However, the energy can be affected by loudness which is irrelevant to phonetic identity. In our work, we use the transformed energy En(t), which is given by:

E(t)  Echannel En (t)  (38) Emax  Echannel where E(t), Echannel and Emax are energy at frame t, average energy in the silence period and maximum energy across the whole utterance respectively. In our study, we consider two type of transformation of En(t) which are given by log

(En(t)) and ∆log(En(t)).

Pitch period or F0 is the most important feature because it directly relates to tone. However, because pitch period is only defined in the voiced region, depending on the pitch extraction algorithm, it is sometimes set to 0 during unvoiced and silence region. This problem is similar to problem of probability of voicing that can have zero variance if a hard 0/1 decision is made during feature extraction. Different solutions have been proposed to deal with this

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies problem [17]. In our present work, it has been observer that pitch period of unvoiced frame are useable by itself and no special treatment is required. Therefore, the pitch period is normalized using the sentence mean using the equation (39)

F0 Fn (t)  (39) F0 Since tone is actually a segmental feature, modelling the pitch per frame may not be sufficient in determining the tone pattern and derivations are a known approach for modelling frame dependency. Therefore, we include first order and second order derivation of the normalized pitch period, i.e., ∆Fn (t) and ∆2Fn(t). Further, it has been observed that pitch period itself contains voiced/unvoiced information, therefore, we discard the probability of voicing feature parameter. Thus, the pitch related features vector for frame t is given by: Up (t)

=log(En(t)), ∆log(En(t)), Fn (t), ∆Fn (t) and ∆2Fn(t) (40)

Frame Number Fig 13: Pitch period, First and Second order derivative of the pitch period for the Assamese word “aalu”. Combining these pitch related features with the cepstral features, we get a feature vector with 18 elements, which are suitable for recognizing tonal as well as non-tonal languages. The feature vector is given by:

U(t) = [log(En(t)) ∆log(En(t)) Fn (t) ∆Fn (t) ∆2Fn (t) ĉ1 ĉ22...ĉ8Δĉ2 Δĉ3 … Δĉ6] (41) The plot of the cepstral coefficients of Assamese and Bodo vowels are shown below. Again, the first and second order derivatives along with weighted cepstral are also shown in Figures:

Ceptral coefficient extracted from a frame Fig 14a: Cepstral coefficients of Assamese vowel “a”-male utterance from the 44th frame

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

Ceptral coefficient extracted from a frame Fig 14b: Cepstral coefficients of Assamese vowel “u”-male utterance from the 39th frame

Ceptral coefficient extracted from a frame Fig 15: Cepstral, weighted cepstral coefficients and first & second order derivatives of Bodo vowel “o”-female utterance

Ceptral coefficient extracted from a frame Fig 16: Cepstral coefficients of Bodo vowel “o”-female utterance from the 59th frame

Ceptral coefficient extracted from a frame Fig 17: Cepstral, weighted cepstral coefficients and first & second order derivatives of Bodo vowel “e”-female utterance

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies

Cepstral value (db) value Cepstral

Ceptral coefficient extracted from a frame Fig 18: Cepstral coefficients of Bodo vowel “e”-female utterance from the 59th frame

Delta Log Enrgy (db) (db) Log Enrgy Delta Log Energy Frame Number Fig 19: Log & Delta log energy of Bodo vowel “e”-female utterance

Delta Log Enrgy (db) (db) Log Energy Delta Log Frame Number Fig 20: Log & Delta log energy of Bodo vowel “o”-female utterance It has already been mentioned that to recognise any word of Assamese and Bodo language, it is important to collect

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies the correct cepstral information. Since Bodo belong to the group of the tonal language, cepstral coefficients are not just sufficient to detect phoneme, since tone plays an important role and to recognize tone, frame energy, first and second order derivatives of frame energy along with pitch period are used. Fig. (13) depicts the pitch period, first & second order derivatives of the pitch period for the Assamese word “aalu”. The plot of the cepstral coefficients of the Assamese vowel “a” and “u” for male utterance has been shown in Fig. (14a) and Fig. (14b) extracted from 44th frame and from 39th frame. In Fig. (15) and in Fig. (17), cepstral, weighted cepstral and first & second order derivatives for the same frame for Bodo vowel “o” & “e” for female utterances has been depicted. Again, in Fig. (16) & Fig. (18), cepstral coefficients for Bodo vowel “o” & “e” for female utterances extracted from the 59th frame has been plotted. Also, the plot of log & delta log energy of the Bodo vowel “e” & “o” for female utterances has been depicted in Fig. (19) & in Fig.(20). Thus it is found that cepstral coefficient, log & delta log energies and pitches depend on the utterances and genders. However, the energy can be affected by loudness too. Thus for phonetic identity, these results are most useful. References D. R. Reddy (1966). “An Approach to Computer Speech Recognition by Direct Analysis of the Speech Wave”, Tech. Report No. C549, Computer Science Dept., Standford Univ. Deller, J., Proakis, J. and Hansen, J. (1993). Discrete-Time Processing of Speech Signals. McMillan Publishing Co. Furui, S. (1986). Speaker-independent isolated word recognition using dynamic features of speech spectrum, IEEE Trans. Acoustic Speech, Signal Processing, 34: 52–59. Juang, B. H., Rabiner, L.R. and Wilpon, J.G. (1987). On the use of bandpass liftering in speech recognition, IEEE Trans. Acoustic, Speech, Signal Processing, 35: 947–953. Kohonen, T. (1995). Self-Organizing Maps. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. L. R. Rabiner, S. E. Levinson, A. E. Rosenberg and J. G. Wilpon (1979). “Speaker Independent Recognition of Isolated Words Using Clustering Techniques”, IEEE Trans. Acoust. Speech. Signal Proc., ASSP-27: 336-349. L. R. Rabiner, B. H. Juang (1993). “Fundamentals of Speech Recognition”, Prentice Hall, Englewood cliffs, New Jersey. ISBN 0-13-015157-2. Lee, C. H., Rabiner, L. R., Pieraccini, R. and Wilpon, J. G. (1990) Acoustic modelling for large vocabulary speech recognition, Computer Speech and Language, vol. 4: 127–165. Parsons, T. W. (1986). Voice and Speech Processing. New York: McGraw-Hill. Picone, J. (1993). Signal Modelling Techniques in Speech Recognition. IEEE Proceedings. 81(9): 1215-1247. Rabiner, L. R. and Sambur, M. R. (1975). An Algorithm for Determining the Endpoints of Isolated Utterances. The Bell System Technical Journal. 54(2): 297. Savoji (1989). A Robust Algorithm for Accurate Endpointing of Speech Signals. Speech Communication. 8: 45-60. Tohkura, Y. (1986). A weighted cepstral distance measure for speech recognition, Proceeding IEEE Int. Conf. Acoustic, Speech, Signal Processing, Tokyo, Japan: 761–764. V. M. Velichko and N. G. Zagoruyko (1970). “Automatic Recognition of 200 words”, Int. J. Man-Machine Studies, 2: 223.

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Vintsyuk, T. K. (1968). “Speech Discrimination by Dynamic Programming”, Kibernetika, 4(2): 81-88. Weible, A.; Hanazawa, T.; Hinton, G., Shikano, K. and Lang, K. (1989). Phoneme recognition using Time Delay Neural Network, IEEE Trans. Acoustics, Speech, Signal proc., 37: 328-339. Yiying Z., Xiaoyan, Z. and Yu, H. (1997). A Robust and Fast Endpoint Detection Algorithm for Isolated Word Recognition. IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Processing Systems. 4(3): 1819-1822.

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A STUDY ON THE TREND OF ENROLLMENT AND PERFORMANCE OF THE FEMALE STUDENTS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNICAL COURSES OFFERED BY DIFFERENT TECHNICAL COLLEGES OF AGARTALA *Binapani Saha, ** Hillol Mukherjee & *** Mun Mun Das Biswas *Assistant Professor, Directorate of Distance Education, Tripura University **Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education, The ICFAI University Tripura ***Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education, The ICFAI University Tripura Corresponding author: Mun Mun Das Biswas Abstract Women education in India plays a very significant role in the overall development of the country. It not only helps in the development of the women but also improves the quality of life at home as well as outside. Women have a significant role in the socio-economic development of a country. Thus, for educating them several attempts have been taken. Despite of these attempts the share of women in science and technology is low as compared to their male counterpart. The present study aims to ascertain the enrollment and performance of female students in Science and Technical Courses offered by different Technical Colleges of Agartala. Sample: For the present study purposive sampling has been employed, as the sample has been selected purposefully. Data has been collected from two technical institutions of Agartala.viz Tripura Institute of Technology, Narsingarh and The ICFAI University Tripura. For this study only secondary data has been collected. Findings: The results of the study revealed that the enrollment of female students’ in science and technology is very low as compared to male students’ probably female students’ are even not getting that much of the support from the society what actually is required. Key words: Enrollment, Performance and technical colleges ******* Introduction “Education commences at the mother’s knee And every word spoken within the hearsay of little Children tends towards the formation of character” (Hosea Ballou) Education is the most significant instrument which can improve the status of women in any society. Education enables women not only to gain more knowledge about the world outside of her home but also helps her to get status, positive self - esteem and self - confidence, necessary courage and inner strength to

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies face challenges in life. According to Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru by educating a woman we can educate the whole family, as because a woman has the responsibility of the whole family on herself. An educated woman not only tends to promote education to her children but also is capable of taking care of the health, nutrition of her children and can help in reduction of infant mortality rate and growth of population. Hence, she can become an active member in the social and economic development of the country. Several studies have shown that there is a strong correlation between women education and several developmental indicators such as increased economic productivity, improvement in health, delayed age at marriage, increased political participation and effective investments in the next generation. Thus women education in India plays a very significant role in the overall development of the country. For the extension and expansion of women education several attempts have been taken. As a result women literacy rate has been increased in recent years. There has been tremendous expansion of educational opportunities for women in the field of higher education both general and technical (Nandita Singh, 2008). The enrollment of women in higher education has been increased from 40,000 in 1950-51 to about 14, 37,000in 1990-91 and 3,971,407in 2004-05. The proportion of women in higher education was 10.9 percent in 1950-51 which has been increased to 41.6 percent in 2003-04. In case of science & technology also the enrollment of women has increased remarkably. The enrollment of women in technical and professional courses has shown marked increase from 6000 in 1950-51 to 1.46 lakhs in 1986-87 and 4.9 lakhs in 2006-07. The number of women in per 100 males in Engineering was 0.3 percent in 1950-51, which has been increased to 1.1 percent in 1970-71, 8.1 percent in 1985-86, 16.6 percent in 1995-96 and further increased to 20.4 percent in 1998-99 whereas in the same period the enrollment of men was 79.6 percent as according to the Fourth world conference on women 1995. Hence, though the enrollment of women in science and technology has increased but their percentage is still much lower as compared to that of men.(Malti.et.al.2004). Several studies suggest different reasons for the lower admission rate of women in science and technology. From the studies it has been found that majority of the girls are interested in Humanities and Arts subjects. Moreover, in some cases girls are not getting chance to select subjects of their choice in school as most of the time parents are taking decisions about the academic stream. This decision is guided by the consideration that girls are not expected to work or earn before marriage and education is only an investment to fall back upon in case of the daughter becoming a widow or being deserted (Chanana 1998). The expenditure on science and technology subjects is more. The parents who are economically poor are not interested to invest for their daughter in these subjects. They are often interested to spend money on education of their son rather than daughter. They are giving priority to marriage and even on dowries of their daughter but not in science and technology education which requires long term investment of time and other resources (Nandita Singh 2008). Another study on women has

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies shown that science and technology education for girls makes it difficult for finding a suitable match for them. There is an implicit rule, which is rarely broken that the boy should be at least as highly educated as the girl. Sometimes the women pursuing higher studies in science and technology are facing threat of negative social reputation. Thus education in this field is associated with fear of ‘spoiling a girl’s character’ (Nisha Singh 2001). The present study is conducted to see the trend of enrollment and performance of female students in science and technology courses as compared to male students. Significance of the study The movement for improving women’s status all over the world has always emphasized. Education is the most significant instrument for changing the position of the women in the society. Education not only helps in the development of the women but also improves the quality of life at home as well as outside. Women play a significant role in the socio-economic development of a country. Thus, for educating them several attempts have been taken. As a result though the enrollment of women in education has been increased but their share in science and technology is very low as compared to their male counterpart. Thus, the present study aims to see the trend of enrollment and performance of the female students in science and technology as compared to male in the final examination. Delimitation of the study Due to time constraint and unavailability of data the study has been confined to only two science and technology institutions of Agartala viz Tripura Institute of Technology, Narsingarh and The ICFAI University Tripura. Objectives of the study The main objectives of this study are: • To see the trend of enrollment of female students in science and technology as compared to male students. • To find out the performance of female students in science and technology as compared to male students Design of the Study The present study is based on survey method, which is concerned with the present status of the phenomena under investigation. Sample For the present study purposive sampling has been employed, as the sample has been selected purposefully. Data has been collected from two technical institutions of Agartala.viz Tripura Institute of Technology, Narsingarh and The ICFAI University Tripura. For this study only secondary data has been collected. Statistics employed

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For the present study descriptive statistics have been used. Findings of the study Objective 1: To see the trend of enrollment of female students in science and technology Table 1: Table showing the total number of admission in the 1st year YEAR Name of the Institution 2008 - 2009 2009 - 2010 2010 - 2011 Male Female Male Female Male Female The ICFAI UNIVERSITY 170 41 11 03 133 31 TRIPURA TRIPURA INSTITUTE 343 97 308 103 294 120 OF TECHNOLOGY

The above table reveals that the enrollment trend of women is increasing in both the institutions whereas the enrollment trend of male students is decreasing. In case of The ICFAI University Tripura the enrollment of girls in 2008-09 was 19.43 percent which has increased to 21.43 percent in 2009-10 but decreased to 18.9 percent in 2010-11. In case of Tripura Institute of Technology the enrollment of women in 2008-09 was 22.05 percent which has increased to 25.06 percent in 2009-10 and further increased to 28.99 percent in 2010-11. It is a fact which is evident from the data that though the trend of enrollment of women is increasing but as compared to men it is very low. PIJMS II (1) – 2015 ONLINE ISSN No. : 2348-618X Page 19

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In The ICFAI University Tripura the enrollment of women in 2008-09 was 19.43 percent whereas in the same time the enrollment of male students was 80.57 percent, in 2009-10 women enrollment was 21.43 percent whereas male enrollment was 78.57 percent and in 2010-11 the women enrollment was 18.9 percent whereas in case of the male students the enrollment was 81.1 percent. Similarly in case of Tripura Institute of Technology the enrollment of women in 2008-09 was 22.05 percent whereas in the same time the enrollment of male students was 77.95 percent, in 2009-10 women enrollment was 25.06 percent whereas male students enrollment was 74.94 percent and in 2010-11 the women enrollment was 28.99 percent whereas in case of the male students the enrollment was 71.01 percent. Table 2: Table showing Mean and SD of the Final year Result YEAR 2008 - 2009 2009 - 2010 2010 - 2011 Male Female Male Female Male Female Name of the M M M M M M Institution e e e e e e SD N SD N SD N SD N SD N SD N a a a a a a n n n n n n TRIPURA INSTITUTE OF ------7.34 0.78 119 8.1 0.92 124 6.94 0.62 344 7.47 0.41 281 TECHNOLOGY The ICFAI UNIVERSITY 6.7 0.68 5 7.46 0.94 2 6.77 1.1 53 7.38 0.738 15 5.56 0.89 114 7.68 1.67 26 TRIPURA

From the above table it can be said that the performance of female students in the final examination is better than the male students. In case of Tripura Institute of Technology the mean score of female students’ performance in 2009-10 is 8.1 whereas the mean score of male students’ is 7.34. Similarly in 2010-11 the mean score of female students’ performance is 7.47 but mean score of performance of the male students’ is 6.94. In case of The ICFAI University Tripura, the mean score of female students’ performance in 2008-09 is 7.46 whereas the mean score of male students’ is 6.7. Similarly in 2009-10 the mean score of female students’ performance is 7.38 but the mean score of performance of male students’ is 6.77 and in 2010-11 the mean score of female students’ performance is 7.68 whereas the mean score of male students’ is 5.56. The social and cognitive Psychologists are of the opinion that females are typically superior in verbal

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies abilities, arts, and crafts and in items concerned with social relations. They perceive details more quickly and accurately and do better on tests of memory. Males, on the other hand, surpass women on items that involve spatial, numerical, and mechanical performance. The abilities in which males surpass female are very vital in the field of science and technology. This is also true that these differences in some of the aspects of intelligence are however due to the childhood practices and in scores of overall intelligence, the two sexes seem to be about equal. So the present study focuses on the fact that since the society is changing, the attitude towards female education in science and technology is also changing and the result is the enhanced and consistent performances of the female students in the science and technology courses as compared to the male students. Still the female students are not getting that support from the different units of the society and the result is the poor ratio of the enrollment of the female students’ as compared to male students’. It shows that till now the stereotype feelings and thoughts exists and even today male students’ enrollment in the field of science and technology education are much more socially acceptable than the female students’. Conclusion From the above discussion it can be concluded that the enrollment of female students’ in science and technology is very low as compared to male students’ probably female students’ are even not getting that much of the support from the society what actually is required. Hence to increase the number of enrollment of female students in science and technology girls should be properly motivated to pursue these courses. Lack of encouragement and social support are actually leading to the poor enrollment of girl students in this field despite of the fact that they are actually doing wonders equally in the field of science, technology, arts and commerce. References Chanana, K. (1998). “Socialisation, Education and Women: Explorations in Gender Identity”. Orient Longman New Delhi. Chanana, K. (2004). “Gender and Disciplinary Choices: Women in Higher Education in India”. Paper presented in Colloquium on Research and Higher Education Policy Knowledge, Access and Governance: Strategies for Change, 1-3 December, 2004, UNESCO. Goel, M.& Singh, N. (2004). Women in Science and Technology in India: Access and Equity in Higher Education, Association of Indian University, New Delhi Singh, N. (2008). “Higher Education for Women in India—Choices and Challenges”. Forum on Public Policy: A Journal of the Oxford Round Table. Retrieved from http://forumonpublicpolicy.com/archivespring08/singh.nandita.pdf

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ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI IN TROPICAL FOREST ECOSYSTEMS – POTENTIALS AND APPLICATIONS *Kh. Nripendra Singh, **Sucheta Ahanthem & ***D.K. Jha *, **, *** Department of Botany, Gauhati University, Guwahati – 781 014, Assam, India Corresponding author: Kh. Nripendra Singh Abstract Tropical mycorrhizae of the arbuscular type are one of the most widely distributed symbiotic associations in the tropical forest ecosystems of the world. Their ecology and diversity in different tropical forest ecosystems is not known properly though this might improve the overall knowledge of the symbiosis in nature. Still with the present knowledge, the potential of this symbiosis is remarkable because of its’ multifaceted functions. More attention to this association is given, of late, to exploit its’ potential and apply for human welfare particularly in the restoration biology – reclamation of degraded, polluted and desert ecosystems, etc. in addition to its’ application in agriculture, horticulture, silviculture, forestry, etc. The functional characteristics manifested by this symbiotic association accounts for the great array of interest vested upon this group of fungi. Keywords: Arbuscular mycorrhizae, tropical forests, ecology, diversity Introduction Arbuscular mycorrhizae are the most significant of all the endomycorrhizal associations that occur in nature. This is because of the presence of the arbuscules, the site where exchange of metabolites or nutrients take place (Harrison, 1999). The uptake of P, N, Zn, etc. by this group of fungi is well documented (Smith and Smith, 1989). Their influence on plant diversity and hence ecosystem diversity and function are also well established (O’Connor et al., 2002). It has been recognized that mycorrhizal symbioses play a key role in nutrient cycling in the ecosystem and protect plant against environmental and cultural stress (Barea and Jeffries, 1995). The role of this association is more significant in the P-deficient soils of the tropical regions where P is a limiting nutrient. Arbuscular mycorrhizae are formed by members of the Glomeromycota, a new monophyletic phylum (Schubler et al., 2001). This new group gives these fungi their proper status, and provides the basis for a new and natural systematics of these fascinating, yet largely hidden organisms. These fungi are one of the most ancient groups and are known to have existed for more than 460 Myr (Redeckeret al., 2000). The tropical forest is one of the most diverse and stable ecosystems. Nevertheless, unwanted human intervention had lead to the decline in the forest cover due to excessive deforestation and irrational extraction of forest produce. These forest may harbour some of the most promising or potential source of mycorrhizal inoculum still unknown to us. Moreover, tropical forest is fast depleting and may disappear by

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies the middle of this century and exploration of the diversity of these fungi is the need of the hour in order to conserve them for future use. The result of this may be applied for the welfare of humankind. A number of diverse plant types of economic interest are related to arbuscular mycorrhizal activity. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are now exploited for their potentialities in such plant production systems (Tilman et al., 1996; O’Connor et al., 2002,). This is largely because of the growth benefits such as increase in uptake of nutrients (Smith et al., 1994), limiting the uptake of toxic heavy metals such as Cd, etc from soil (Gildon and Tinker, 1983), improvement of water relations (Cooper and Tinker, 1981; Tilman et al., 1996), increase resistance to pathogens, particularly pathogenic root-infecting fungi, etc. There is an increasing trend in the manipulation of the rhizosphere of the seedlings by inoculation with efficient arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. This “rhizosphere technologies” is important in degraded soils where nutrients are immobile or less available and hence for restoration, introduction of these fungi in the seedling stage is a prerequisite. Tropical soils have phosphorus that is unavailable to the plants. Hence, mycorrhization of the plants is the vital solution to this problem. Arbuscular mycorrhizal technology finds application in a wide array of plant-management practices such as forestry, agriculture, horticulture, silviculture, etc. However, it is important to have a good knowledge of the different factors that influence the biology of the mycorrhizas before attempting to use them in environmental conservation (Allen, 1991), biotechnology (Mulongoy et al., 1992; Varma and Schuepp, 1995) or in sustainable agriculture (Bagyaraj and Varma, 1995; Benthlenfalvay and Lindermann, 1992). Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi in Tropical Forest Ecosystems Tropical forest ecosystems are the richest in terms of species composition on the earth. Usually there are 60 to 400 tree species per square kilometer. Woody climbers (lianas), epiphytes of different types such as that of aroids, bromeliads, ferns, orchids, mosses and lichens are abundant (Janos, 1987). Numerous endemic flora are also confined to these forest ecosystems. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi form one of the great arrays of symbiosis in these ecosystems. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi A formal taxonomy of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is hardly 30 years old. Thaxter (1922) provided the basis for the taxonomy of these fungi. Many taxonomists (mycorrhizologists) have proposed different systems of classification. Classification proposed by Morton and Benny (1990) is widely accepted. They proposed the order Glomales to include all soil-borne fungi which form arbuscules in obligate mutualistic associations in plants. Morton et al. (1995) emphasized the obstacles encountered in a formal taxonomy of the mycorrhizal fungi which includes – (i) the necessity of growing the fungi on whole plants or explants; (ii) reliance on subcellular morphological characters of spores that are difficult to see and interpret and (iii) lack of training of the majority of working scientists. Recently, Schubler et al. (2001) have created a new

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies phylum – the Glomeromycota, a monophyletic one to include all the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. This new phylum gives a proper status and provides a basis for a new and natural systematics of these fungi. The order Glomales, which is widely accepted and followed, comprises of five recognized families – the Glomaceae – with single genus Glomus, Acaulosporaceae – with Acaulospora and Entrophospora, Gigasporaceae – with the genus Gigaspora and Scutellospora (Smith and Read, 1997) plus the recently described Archeosporaceae – with single genus Archeospora and Paraglomaceae – with single genus Paraglomus (Morton and Redecker, 2001). These two new families, Archeosporaceae and Paraglomaceaeae were considered to belong to the genera Glomus and Acaulospora on the basis of their morphology (Daniell et al., 2001). In the natural tropical forest ecosystems Glomaceae dominates other families of these fungi (Gianinazzi- Pearson and Diem, 1982; Sieverding, 1991). This dominance may be ascribed to the differences in the propagative units between the Glomalean families. Glomaceae are capable of colonizing via fragments of mycelium (Biermann and Lindermann, 1983) in addition to other propagation mechanisms such as from a viable spore or from an intact mycelium. Species of Glomus readily forms anastomosis between mycelial and interconnected network after mechanical disruption (Giovanetti et al., 1999). Most of the tree species in tropical forest ecosystems have very dense pigmentation of the roots. Some of them were violaceous black. The mycorrhizal status of such taxa can be confirmed only by the attached non septate hyphae and the absence of swollen root tips (Onguene and Kuyper, 2001). Arbuscules are not distinct or rarely observed in most of these root samples (Janos, 1984; Onguene and Kuyper, 2001) so are the hyphal coils. This might be due to the differences in the root morphology. Smith and Smith (1997) reviewed the structural diversity of AM fungi and recognized two types, viz., Arum-type and Paris-type. In the Arum-type extensive intercellular hyphae and arbuscules developed while in the Paris-type these structures are absent and hyphal coils occur commonly. A root is considered mycorrhizal if arbuscules, vesicles, hyphal coils, intra radical and extra radical aseptate hyphae, auxiliary cells and intracellular and extracellular spores are present (Wubet et al., 2003). Ecology of AM fungi Occurrence Top soils are the primary source of indigenous arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Wubet et al., 2003). Most of the endogonaceous spores are found in the surface soil layer (0-10 cm depth) i.e., spore production and survival is concentrated near the soil surface (Abbott and Robson, 1991). The formation and function of mycorrhizae are affected by edaphic factors such as soil temperature, moisture, pH, CEC and human abiotic and biotic stresses including soil compaction, metals and pesticides (Entry et al., 2002). There is a difference in the development of arbuscular mycorrhizae in soils with respect to soil conditions since soil conditions

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies are constantly changing. It may favour development at one point of time and inhibit at another point of time. Moreover, different arbuscular mycorrhizal species too differ in their response to similar soil conditions. In other words, AMF species are specific in their dynamics and response to soil and edaphic changes. AM fungi exist in different forms in the soil. They may be either active or inactive propagules in the form of spores, root fragments containing hyphae and vesicles and soil hyphae (Biermann and Linderman, 1983; Manjunath and Bagyaraj, 1981; Tommerup and Abbott, 1981). Spores are considered the most important type of inoculum but their numbers are often poorly correlated with the expression of growth parameters (Abbott and Robson, 1991). The importance of these propagules varies between species of AMF occupying a same habitat (McGee, 1989). These may be due to the fact that these fungi exhibit considerable physiological diversity and probably have evolved specific adaptations to edaphic and environmental conditions of the sites where they occur (Brundrett, 1991). Distribution AM fungi have originated more than 460 Myr ago in the super continent Gondowanaland and drifted in course of time to give rise to the present distribution. Hence there exist similarities in almost all the species except for functional diversity. Now they are distributed in almost all the habitats in different ecosystems of the world. It is easy to account the number of families of the terrestrial plants which do not form the association with AMF than those which forming the association. Brundrett (1991) listed the plant families that are pre- dominantly non-mycorrhizal, but there have been some reports of mycorrhizae in most of these families. Habitat preference is one of the major factors for the lack of these associations. However, chemical compounds such as phenolic compounds, alkaloids, flavonoids, etc. are shown to be responsible for the inhibition of mycorrhiza formation in these families. These secondary metabolites accumulated or present in the plants can be antagonistic to fungi. However, these metabolites reduce their potential with age and hence old roots show some degree of association (Hirrel et al., 1978; Glenn et al., 1985). Potentials of the fungi AM fungi provide a direct physical link between the plant root and soil matrix (Wubet et. al., 2003). They act as a passage for the transport of water and minerals from areas beyond the root zone in the soil. In return, mycorrhizal plants provide the fungus with photosynthetic C, which reaches the soil via the extraradical hyphae of VAM. Thus extra radical hyphae act as a direct conduit for host C into the soil and contribute directly to its C pools, bypassing the decomposition process (Lindermann, 2000) These fungi contribute significantly to the maintenance of plant diversity and structure of annual and perennial plant communities on this earth (Sanders and Koide, 1994). In soils where there is low availability of phosphorus, growth of plants is normally dependent on mycorrhizas (Baylis, 1967). Besides the facilitation of P uptake, AM fungi

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies benefit plants by their nutrient uptake of other nutrients such as nitrogen (Bagyaraj and Varma, 1995) and copper (Bethlenfalvay and Lindermann, 1992). The mechanism here seems to be the same as for the enhancement of P uptake, and involves the transport through the hyphal network from soil to roots. This can only be effective where transport through soil by diffusion limits the acquisition of ions by root systems. They also aid in the uptake of water by the network of hyphae that stretches beyond the root zone. Thus, plants exploit maximum area for absorption of these substances with the help of mycorrhizal fungi. So far, the cost benefit of the VAM symbiosis is concerned, the symbiosis is multifaceted and it does not result from P or N uptake alone (Jeffries et al. 2003). Mycorrhizal fungi are preferred for bio-control of root diseases because they are environmentally friendly, ubiquitous, mutualistic symbionts of roots and establish stable, long-term associations with the roots of most plants. Generally, mycorrhizal roots are more resistant to root pathogens. Biological control employing AM fungi is receiving more attention in forestry and horticulture than in agriculture where field crop situation prevail (Tranquair, 1995). Benefit from mycorrhizal inoculation is most marked when roots are >70% mycorrhizal at planting (Leaky et al., 1989; Wilson et al., 1990) and when environmental conditions are most stressful. Inoculum potential may be defined as the (energy) capacity of the VAM fungal propagules to form association with host plants in a particular soil and can be measured as the rate of colonization of host roots (Brundrett, 1995). However, screening of an efficient fungus is a prerequisite for application in plant production systems (Rajan, 2000). Applications in forestry, silviculture, horticulture and agriculture AM fungi find application in a wide array of plant production systems including forestry, silviculture, horticulture and agriculture. This is because of the multifunctional properties of these fungi (Newsham et al., 1995). The formation and functioning of AM symbiosis is expected to be crucial in sustainable systems (Barea and Jeffries, 1995). Primarily AM fungal symbioses were targeted for the uptake and nutrition of P, N (and water). However, present day trend has changed because of the diverse functional properties of these fungi. Forestry and silviculture The two major foci of AM fungal applications are – (i) recognition of sites where inoculation is beneficial and (ii) production and utilization of inocula of highly effective fungi. The possible purposes for AM fungal inoculation includes the introduction of AM fungi where they are lacking, introduction of highly effective fungus and introduction of a mixture of fungi to restructure an existing AM fungal community (Menge, 1985b). Highly effective AM fungi can be introduced in preexisting AM fungal communities but a large quantity of high quality inoculum is needed. Inoculation practices must be well timed and well placed for an effective

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies improvement of the functionality of the system (Menge, 1985a). Abbott and Robson (1985) emphasized that active indigenous fungi are difficult to displace with an introduced one. AM fungal inoculations in unsterilised soils have shown to improve the health and vigour of the plant (Mosse, 1980) but these often involved precolonized transplants with marked initial advantage over non-inoculated controls that had to be colonized by indigenous fungi. The difficulty of finding effective mycorrhizal fungi for introduction is increased in direct proportion to deviation of production systems from native hosts and soil environmental condition. The results of incorporation of AM fungi in the forestry and silviculture may vary due to the variability of effectiveness of the symbionts and the great array of genetic diversity in the trees and also the conditions under which they thrive, their growth rates and their form. However, prior to such an application, screening of an efficient fungus for a particular host in order to harness the maximum benefit from the fungus is essential (Rajan et al., 2000). Horticulture Horticultural plant includes vegetable crops, temperate fruit trees or shrubs, tropical plantation crops, ornamentals, spices, etc. Evidence is accumulating to show that indigenous and/or introduced AM fungi are involved in the development of this type of plant production systems. In fact, many economically important ornamental and edible horticultural crops form arbuscular mycorrhiza. Most of them display a considerable degree of mycotrophy and their optimal development is dependent on early AM symbiosis establishment. The best time to incorporate AM fungal inoculation is during the seedling stage prior to transplantation. This allows the plants to grow effectively in the new environment (Gianinazzi et al., 1990). AM fungal inoculation in horticultural crops enhanced seedling growth, reduced phosphate requirements, increased survival rate and development of the micropropagated plantlets, increased resistance to fungal root pathogens, increased crop uniformity, improved rooting of cuttings and increased fruit production (Barea et al., 1993; Chang, 1994). Inoculation of AM fungi is feasible and rewarding when a population of low effective propagules is present and when indigenous fungi are absent or in low levels in the rooting medium. Agriculture Mycorrhizal fungi are widespread in agricultural systems (Smith and Read, 1997). AM fungi find the greatest application in agricultural practices. They are the key factors in much of the dry land cultivation of crop plants for successful low input farming. The yield can be significantly increased by careful and appropriate application of these fungi. These agricultural practices will decrease the unnecessary money spend in chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Moreover, these chemicals cause severe soil quality deterioration and affect the plant production and other biotic component of the soil. In other words, the ecology of the soil can be maintained properly in such production regimes in addition to the quality yield of

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies the crops. In agriculture, AM symbiosis is influenced by management practices, such as the amount and type of the supplied fertilizer (Bethlenfalvay, 1992). Soils from low-input farming systems have a greatly enhanced capacity to initiate the mycorrhizal symbiosis. Authors reported that the main cause for AM fungal inoculation effect was the amount of soil soluble P (Limonard and Ruissen, 1989; Ryan et al., 1994). Thus, the limited AM colonization found in many studies partly reflects the intensity of fertilizer input and the soluble nutrient contents, especially of P, in the soils (Johnson and Pfleger, 1992). Most studies have shown that P, among other macronutrients, presents the most incidental effect on the development of AM symbiosis. The lowering of spores viability and extraradical hyphae growth are also known to affect adversely AM symbiosis. Emphasis has been put on the inoculation of effective adapted mycorrhizal fungus for replacing or reinforcing the indigenous mycorrhizal population. However, the costs involved in the production of the inoculum and the large quantities required, suggest the convenience to manage indigenous populations of AM fungi (Munyanziza et al., 1997) and modeling the development of AM colonization under the effect of particular environmental conditions. The most important AM properties include hyphal production, spore formation and AM colonization into the roots. Many crop plants such as rice, wheat, tomato, onion, etc. have been tested for the efficiency of different indigenous and exotic AM fungal species and most of them respond a promising result Conclusions and future prospects AM fungi are distributed in all the tropical forests of the world. Their ecology and diversity however may vary from one forest type to other. But the ubiquitous presence makes these group of fungi a prospective candidate for application in all the plant production systems including agriculture, forestry, horticulture, etc. There is no doubt that the AM fungi play a significant role in the natural vegetation as well as man-made plant production and management systems. These fungi should be exploited properly in order to enhance production in plant production systems. This will reduce the levels of soil of being contaminated by unwanted chemical fertilizers that reduces the soil quality and production in the long run. One of the key challenges for the future will be to link the dynamics of rhizosphere populations, which are now increasingly well understood, with both the dynamics of plant-root systems and their longevity (Atkinson, 2000). The failure of the large scale commercial production of the AM fungal inoculum can be attributed to: (i) the poor understanding of the fungal biology; (ii) inappropriate information regarding the advantages of mycorrhizal; (ii) resulting in low demand for the product; (iv) fragmented markets due to the fact that many potential consumers are currently applying cultural practices which interfere with the AM formation and function. This can be correctly implemented if the knowledge regarding the usefulness of these fungi is popularized through community and governmental agencies.

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The tropical forest needs a wide exploration for AM fungi. There is ample chance of finding some indigenous or endemic species, which may posses the potential of improving the plant production systems through its varied manifestation in the form of multifaceted properties. Mycologists and mycorrhiologists therefore should investigate further in this area of mycorrhizal research. Isolates can then be screened and the best ones can then be exploited and improved through the different modern molecular and genetical techniques. 4. Appendix: Forest mycorrhiza studies:

1. Johnson, P.N. (1977) New Zealand forest. 2. Hogberg, P. (1982) Tanzania forest. 3. John and Uhl (1983) San Carlos de Rio Negro, Venezuela. 4. Wilson, J. and Leaky, R. Mbalmayo forest reserve, Cameroon. 5. Kharbuli, P.P. &Mishra, R.R. (1982) Meghalaya, N.E. India. 6. Hopkins et al. (1996) North Queensland, Australia. 7. Ingleby et al. (1997) Bandia, Senegal. 8. Cuenca,G. et al. (1998) La Gran Sabana, S.E. Venezuela. 9. Siqueira et al. (1998) Lavaras, Southeastern Brazil. 10. Kothamsi, P. (2000) Andaman & Nicobar Islands. India. 11. Muthukumar and Udaiyan (2000) Western Ghats region, India. 12. Zhao, Z. et al. (2001) Xishuangbanna,S.W. China. 13. Lugo, M. et al. (2002) Pampa de Achala, Cordoba, Argentina. 14. Muthukumar et al. (2003) Xishuangbanna, S.W. China. References Abbott, L. K., Robson, A. D. (1991). “Factors influencing the occurrence of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizas”. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Management 35: 121-150. Allen, M. F. (1991). “The ecology of Mycorrhizae”. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. Atkinson, D. & Watson, C. A. (2000). “The Beneficial Rhizosphere: a dynamic entity”. Applied Soil Ecology 15: 99-104. Bagyaraj, D. J. & Varma, A. (1995). “Interaction between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plants: their importance in sustainable agriculture in arid and semi-arid tropics”. Advances in microbial ecology. Plenum Press. New York. 14: 119-142. Bethlenfalvay, G. J. & Lindemann, R. G. (1992). “Mycorrhizae in sustainable agriculture”. Am. Soc. Agron. Spec. Pub. : 54.

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Biermann, B., and Linderman, R. G. (1983). “Use of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal roots, intraradical vesicles and extraradical vesicles as inoculum”. New Phytol. 95: 97-105. Brundrett, M. (1991). “Mycorrhizas in natural ecosystems”. In: Macfayden A., Begon, M., Fitter A. H., eds. Advances in Ecological Research 21: 171- 313. Academic Press Limited. Cooper, K. M. and Tinker, P. B. (1981). “Translocation and transfer of nutrients in vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas. IV. Effect of environmental variables on movement of phosphorus”. New Phytol. 88: 327-339. Cuenca, G., Andrade, Z. De and Escalante, G. 1998. Diversity of glomalean spores from natural, disturbed and revegetated communities growing on nutrient-poor tropical soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 30(6): 711-719. Daniell, T. J., Husband, R., Fitter, A. H. & Young, J. P. W. (2001). “Molecular diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonizing arable crops”. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 36: 203-209. Davis, R. M. and Menge, J. A. (1980). “Influence of Glomus fasciculatum and soil phosphorus in phytophthora root rot of citrus”. Phytopathology 70: 447-452. Entry, J. A., Rygiewicz, P. T., Watrund, L. S. and Donnelly, P. K. (2002). “Influence of adverse soil conditions on the formation and functioning of Arbuscular mycorrhizas”. Advances in Environmental Research 7: 123-138. Gianinazzi-Pearson, V. and Diem, V. (1982). “Endomycorrhizae in the tropics. In Dommergues, Y.R., Diom, H.G. (eds), Microbiology of Tropical soils and plant productivity”. Junk, The Hague, pp. 209-251. Giovanetti, M., Azzolini, D. and Citernesi, A. S. (1999). “Anastomosis formation and nuclear and protoplasmic exchange in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi”. Appl. Environ. Microboil. 65: 5571-5575. Gildon, A. and Tinker, P. B. (1983). “Interactions of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal infection and heavy metals in plants. The effects of heavy metals on the development of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas”. New Phytol. 95: 247-261. Glenn, M. G., Chew, F. S. and Williams, P. H. (1985). “Hyphal penetration of Brassica (Cruciferae) roots by vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus”. New Phytol. 99: 463-472. Harrison, M. J. (1999). “Molecular and cellular aspects of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis”. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 50: 361-389. Hirrel, M.C., Mehravaran, H. and Gerdemann, J.W. (1978). “Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae in the Chenopodiaceae and Cruciferae: do they occur?” Can. J. Bot. 56: 2813-2817. Hogberg, P. (1982). “Mycorrhizal associations in some woodland and forest trees and shrubs in Tanzania”. New Phytol. 92: 407. Ingleby, K., Diagne, O., Deans, J. D., Llindley, D. K., Neyra, M. and Ducousso, M. (1997). “Distribution of roots, arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization and spores around fast growing tree species in Senegal”. Forest Ecology and Management 90: 19-27.

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Janos, D. P. (1984). Methods for vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal research in lowland wet tropics. In Medina, E., Moony, H. A., Vasquez-Yanes, C. (Eds). “Physiological Ecology of Plants of the Wet Tropics”. Junk, The Hague: 173-187. Janos, D. P. (1987). “VA mycorrhizas in humid tropical ecosystems”:107-134. G.R. Safir, ed. Ecophysiology of VA Myorrhizal Plants, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL: 224 Johnson, P. N. (1977). “Mycorrhizal endogonaceae in New Zealand forest”. New Phytol. 78: 161-170. Kharbuli, P. P. and Mishra, R. R. (1982). “Survey of mycorrhizal association in some trees of North-eastern India”. Acta Botanica Indica. 10: 192-195. Kothamsi, D. M. (2000). “Arbuscular mycorrhizal diversity and plant community patterns in the insular tropical rainforest ecosystems of great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve”. PhD Thesis, University of Delhi – 110 007, India. Lugo, M. A. and Cabello, M. N. (2002). “Native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) from mountain grassland (Cordoba, Argentina). I. Seasonal variation of fungal spore diversity”. Mycologia, 94(4): 579-586. Manjunath, A. and Bagyaraj, D. J. (1981). “Components of VA mycorrhizal inoculum and their effects of growth of onion”. New Phytol. 87: 355-361. McGee, P. A. (1989). “Variation and propagule numbers of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a semi-arid soil”. Mycol. Res. 92(1): 28-33. Morton, J. B. and Redecker, D. (2001). “Two new families of Glomales, Archaeosporaceae and Paraglomaceae, with two new genera Archaespora and Paraglomus, based on concordant molecular and morphological characters”. Mycologia 93: 181-195. Morton, J. B. and Benny, G. L. (1990). “Revised classification of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Zygomycetes): a new order, Glomales, two new suborders, Glomineae and Gigasporineae, and two new families, Acaulosporaceae and Gigasporaceae, with an emendation of Glomaceace”. Mycotaxon 37: 471- 491. Morton, J. B., Bentivenga, S. P. and Bever, J. D. (1995). Discovery, measurement and interpolation of diversity in arbucular endomycorrhizal fungi (Glomales, Zygomycetes). Can.J.Bot. 73(Suppl.1): S25-S32. Mulongoy, K., Gianinazi, S., Roger, P.A. and Dommergues, Y. (1992). “Biofertilizers: agronomic and environmental impacts and economics”. In E.J. deSilva, , C. Rutledge, A. Sason (eds). Biotechnology: economic and social aspects: issues for the developing countries. UNESCO, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 55-69. Muthukumar, T. and Udaiyan, K. (2002). “Gigaspora decipiens (Glomales) an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus from Western Ghats of Southern India”. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol. 32(1): 96-99. Muthukumar, T., Sha, L., Yang, X., Cao, M., Tang, J and Zheng, Z. (2003). “Distribution of roots and

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies arbuscular mycorrhizal associations in tropical forest types of Xishuangbanna, southwest China”. Applied Soil Ecology 22: 241-253. O’Connor, P. J., Smith, S. E. and Smith, F. A. (2002). “Arbuscular mycorrhizas influence plant diversity and community structure in a semiarid herbland”. New Phytol. 154: 209-218. Onguene, N. A. & Kuyper, T. W. 2001. “Mycorrhizal associations in the rain forests of South Cameroon”. Forest Ecology and Management 140: 277-287. Redeccker, D., Kodner, R. and Graham, L. E. (2000). “Glomalean fungi from the Ordovician”. Science. 289: 1920-1921. Schubler, A., Schwarzott, D. and Walker, C. (2001). “A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution”. Mycol. Res. 105(12): 1413-1421. Sieverding, E. (1991). “Vesicular arbuscular Mycorrhizal Management in Tropical Ecosystem”. GTZ. Eschborn, Germany. Smith, F.A. and Smith, S. E. (1989). “Membrane transport at the bioptropic interface: an overview”. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 16: 33-43. Smith, S. E. Gianinnazi-Pearson, V., Koide, R. and Cairney, J. W. G. (1994). “Nutrient transport in mycorrhizas: structure, physiology and consequences for efficiency of the symbiosis”. Plant Soil,159: 103- 113. Smith, S. E. and Smith, F. A. (1990). “Structure and function of the interfaces in biotropic symbioses as they relate to nutrient transport”. New Phytol. 114: 1-38. Siqueira, J. O., Carneiro, M. A. C., Curi, N., Rosado, S. C. S. and Davide, A. C. (1998). “Mycorrhizal colonization and mycotropic growth of native woody species as related to successional groups in Southeastern Brazil”. Forest Ecology and Management 107: 241-252. Smith, F. A. and Smith, S. E. (1997). “Structural diversity in (vesicular)-arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis”. [Transley Review No. 96]. New Phytol. 137: 373-388. Smith, S.E. and Read, D.J. 1997. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. 2nd Edition. Academic Press London. St. John, T.V. and Uhl, C. (1983). “Mycorrhizae in the rainforest at San Carlos de Rio Negro, Venezuela”. Acta Cient. Venzolana 34: 233-237. Thaxter, R. 1922. “A revision of the Endogonaceae”. Proceeding of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 57:291-341. Tilman, D., Wedin, D. and Knops, J. (1996). “Productivity and sustainability by biodiversity in grassland ecosystems”. Nature 379: 718-720. Varma, A and Schuepp, H. (1995). “Mycorrhization of the commercially important micro-propagated plants”. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 15:313-328.

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Wubet, T., Kottke, I., Teketay, D. and Oberwinkler, F. (2003). “Mycorrhizal status of indigenous trees in dry Afromontane forests of Ethiopia”. Forest Ecology and Management 179: 387-393. Zhao, Z-W., Quin,X.-Z., Li, X.W., Cheng,L._Z., Sha, T. and Wang, G.-H. (2001). “Arbuscular mycorrhizal status of plants and the spore density of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the tropical rainforests of Xishuangbanna, southwest China”. Mycorrhiza 11: 159-162.

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COMPARISON OF EXPLOSIVE LEG STRENGTH BETWEEN FEMALE TRIBAL AND NON TRIBAL STUDENTS OF TRIPURA Ankan Sinha, Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education, Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, Tripura. Abstract The purpose of the study was to compare the explosive leg strength between female tribal and non tribal students of Tripura. Forty (40) female students age ranged from 17 to 23 years were selected as subjects from Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, North Tripura, India. Twenty subjects each were selected from tribal and non tribal female students. For analysis of data Independent t- test was applied at 0.05 level of significance. The explosive leg strength of female tribal students is greater than the female non tribal students of Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, North Tripura as the computed value of t (3.822606815) in relation to explosive leg strength was greater than the tabulated (2.024394147). Keywords: Explosive leg strength ******* Introduction A sport has become a part and parcel of our culture. It is being influenced and does influence all of our institutions including education, law, economics, arts, politics, mass communication and international diplomacy- its scope is awesome. Today a sport has become an event of mass participation; it is being adopted as fashion by some. It attracts the mass either for recreation or physical fitness or as a profession. Every sportsman has to be physically, physiologically and psychologically fit. This includes fitness, skill, physical endowment and psychological or behavioural dimension. Sports hold a prominent place in modern life. Millions of people participate in sports activities, watch and hear about them and spend billions of dollars actually on sports related activities and equipments. This has lead t o the competitive element in sports, as now sportsmen participate to win and achieve laurels for them as well as for their country contrary to earlier philosophy of participation in sports competition for participation’s sake. Methodology Selection of the subjects In the present study 40 female students age ranged from 17 to 23 years were selected as subjects from Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, North Tripura, India. Twenty subjects each were selected from tribal and non tribal female students.

Selection of variables The following table – 1, shows Explosive Leg Strength test-retest correlation selected for the study and the

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies tests used for the study. Table-1 Sr. No. Variables Tests ‘r’ 1. Explosive Leg Strength Standing broad jump 0.89*

Statistical technique employed for the analysis of data To compare the Explosive Leg Strength of female tribal and non tribal students of Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, North Tripura, India, Independent t- test was applied at 0.05 level of significance. Finding The findings with regards to the present study have been presented in fig-1 and table-2 which deals with the comparison of Explosive leg strength between tribal and non tribal female students of Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, North Tripura, India.

2.5

2

1.5

mean ELS1 mean ELS2 1

0.5

0 Tribal female std Non tribal faemale std

Fig-1 Table-2 Descriptive statistics of Female Tribal and Non Tribal students in relation to Explosive leg strength

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E.L.S of female tribal E.L.S of female non tribal student student Mean 2.115 1.72 Variance 0.096078947 0.117473684 Observations 20 20 Pooled Variance 0.106776316 Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 df 38 t Stat 3.822606815 P(T<=t) one-tail 0.000238098 t Critical one-tail 1.685954461 P(T<=t) two-tail 0.000476196 t Critical two-tail 2.024394147

It appears from the Table – 2 that the computed value of t (3.822606815) in relation to explosive leg strength was greater than the tabulated (2.024394147) at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the hypothesis in relation to explosive leg strength was accepted at 0.05 levels. Conclusion Within the limitations of the present study, a conclusion may be drawn that the explosive leg strength of female tribal students is greater than the female non tribal students of Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, North Tripura. References Barrow & McGee.(1976). A Practical Approach to measurement in Physical Education.Philadelphia; Lec and Fibiger. Doncash Seaton et al. (1956).Basic Book of Sports.Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc. Uppal.A.K(2004) Physical Fitness and Wellness, Pub Friend, P.43. Best J. W & Kahn. V. J (2008) Research in Education, Edition tenth Pub. Dorling Kindersley, (I) Pvt. Ltd

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INTRODUCING ICT IN EDUCATION - HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES TO THE CHANGING CLASSROOM PRACTICES *Sujoy Paul & **Sanat Kumar Rath *Research Scholar, Vinaya Bhavana, Department of Education, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan ** Assistant Professor, Vinaya Bhavana, Department of Education, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan Corresponding Author: Sujoy Paul Abstract With the introduction of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the field of education, classroom practices all over the world have undergone some fundamental changes. Most noteworthy among them is, perhaps, the shifting of the teacher’s role from being a mere transmitter of knowledge to a collaborator and co-learner (Sagar, 2007; Ilomaki, 2008). This shifting has resulted in making the classroom environment more interactive and learner-friendly. However, in India, little research has been conducted so far to determine the perspectives of the stakeholders of education to these innovative practices. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate teachers’ perspectives to ICT and its pivotal role in changing the classroom practices in Indian schools, particularly at the secondary level, which is considered by many as the best stage to introduce modern ICT. This descriptive survey conducted among 120 high school teachers in West Bengal, India analyzes the teachers’ perspectives to the changing classroom practices induced by the introduction of ICT. The results indicated that teachers have highly positive perspectives (Mean=75.08, SD=10.26) towards introducing advanced ICT for classroom practices. However, teachers who have received training in ICT show much higher perspectives than those who have not received such training. However, no significant difference was found between male and female teachers, as well as between teachers of urban and rural schools in their perspectives to the ICT driven classroom practices. And in line with the global phenomena, younger teachers (below 40 years) have showed significantly higher perspectives to ICT than older teachers (above 40 years). Key Words: ICT, Teachers’ Perspectives, Classroom Practices ******* Introduction Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is now universally considered to be one of the most effective agents of social change, which invariably influences the educational world. ICT is, in fact, a kind of support material in the hands of teachers, students and educational administrators who are actively involved in the educational processes with the aim of enhancing the quality of education (Mangal & Mangal, 2010). According to S. Upendran (1999), “It is felt that to survive in this modern world one must be

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies technologically proficient and that is the function of schools to prepare students for today’s society.” This viewpoint has become a reality today, as ICT integrated teaching-learning practices are gaining popularity in the 21st century world of education. Studies over the last few decades have suggested that ICT aims to improve students’ performance by the intelligent application of technology, and it is hoped this will increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the teaching-learning process. That is why teachers in primary, secondary and tertiary levels all over the world are being trained in the use of information and communication technologies in education with varying degree and scope (UNESCO, 2003). Although, there is a wide range of traditional as well as innovative approaches to using ICT to support effective and quality delivery of educational services, there is a considerable lag in the use and adoption of ICT to enhance school education in India. Most educational institutions still use the age-old techniques and resources, and are consequently unable to exploit the educational potential of the emerging technologies. On the other hand, many students are growing up in a digital age in which they get constant exposure to a variety of media that have a considerable impact on the way they interact with and use information. According to a survey report on global perspectives to ICT in education conducted by UNESCO (2009), the use of ICT in education is believed to increase access to learning opportunities, to enhance the quality of education with advanced teaching methods, improve learning outcomes, and to enable reform or better management of education systems. It is also believed that teachers are the most potent force behind the successful integration of ICT in the teaching-learning practices. Therefore, their perspectives to the changing classroom practices due to the introduction of ICT in education need to be thoroughly analyzed to get a clear picture of the field, as well as to suggest effective measures both at the levels of policy and practice in the field of education in India. Statement of the Problem The use of advanced means of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in classroom practices has been gaining immense popularity over the past two decades. And it has considerably influenced the teachers and students to use modern ICT devices for the teaching-learning activities carried out both in and outside the classroom. It is, therefore, necessary to understand what secondary school teachers’ points of view are regarding the changing classroom practices due to the introduction of ICT in school education. Hence, the title of the study is- “Introducing ICT in School Education: High School Teachers’ Perspectives to the Changing Classroom Practices”. Theoretical Background Modern means of Information and Communication Technology, such as computers, mobile phones, smart- phones, television, projector and Internet have become widely popular all around the globe and in almost all

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies walks of civilized life. In fact, modern ICTs have brought about a revolution in the fields of business, industries, banking and insurance sectors, transport, postal and telecommunication and many other spheres of public and private life. These have brought fundamental changes in the way people think, communicate and do most of the things (Mangal & Mangal, 2010). Of late, the field of education has also started to use advanced ICT for various purposes including teaching and learning. Therefore, it is important for teachers to have a thorough working knowledge in the use of advanced ICT as a learning enhancer and a useful tool so that they can assist students to have an impact on the performance and engagement in the classroom (Zhang & Martinovic, 2008). The National Policy on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in School Education (2012) has clearly stated- “With Information and Communication technologies becoming more accessible, reliable and mature, the prospect of leveraging ICT for education is becoming increasingly feasible.” In fact, the important role of ICT in school education has been asserted in various other policy documents of our country, such as The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, as modified in 1992 and the National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005. It is important to mention that the latter policy document, i.e., NCF, 2005 has suggested that the integration of knowledge and experience using ICT “would take away the sense of burden and boredom that our present-day education induces”. It is well known that the working life of a teacher is seen to encompass a lot of revolutions in educational practice. Naturally, it is expected that teachers should be very receptive towards the adoption and implementation of ICT in education. Effective use of ICT with multimedia and graphics, for example, enriches teaching and enhances interactivity in learning (Lau & Sim, 2008). Indeed, an ICT integrated classroom has been reported to present a brighter and more conducive environment for the learners. This is particularly true for the young school children of the developing countries where a majority of the parents cannot afford their children with modern ICT devices that can support in the acquisition of knowledge and experiences. Despite the apparent benefits of using ICT for educational purposes, studies have showed that in many cases, the learning potential of ICT is underachieved as many teachers are still not fully ICT literate and are not willing to integrate it in their classroom practices. Studies on teachers’ readiness for ICT generally suggest that there is still a long way to go before schools in the developing world will be able to take full advantage of the opportunities provided by 21st century technology (Ya’acob et. al., 2005; So & Swatman, 2006). Moreover, Barak (2006) has clearly indicated that while teachers exploit ICT for their own use, they are cautious about integrating advanced ICT in the classroom. The study also suggests that while teachers recognize the potential of technology in stimulating students’ learning and making school studies relevant to real-life contexts, they do not think that ICT is preferable in classroom instructions for promoting co-

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies operation and reflection in learners that can improve the regular classroom practices. There are further indications from many studies that the use of ICT can change teachers’ classroom practices (Reid, 2002; Hennesey et. al., 2005). Moreover, the conventional student-teacher relationship has also got a new dimension mainly because of the use of ICT in the classroom, where teachers are no more regarded as mere transmitters of knowledge, but they are rather considered as active ‘co-learners’ (Mangal & Mangal, 2009). Consequently, classroom teaching-learning practices are getting more and more students-centered, as an ICT-integrated classroom enables students to collaborate with their teachers, to learn interactively, and to take greater control of their own learning. (Kassim, 2007; Light, 2009). In their study on teachers’ use of modern-day technologies, Mishra and Koehler (2006) showed how teachers need an understanding not only of how to teach what they teach in a given subject domain, but also of how to use the technological tools at hand to do so. Naturally, the new technologies are viewed as “a complex set of cultural tools” that would enable or assist teachers and students “to engage in purposeful activities related to classroom practices (Fisher et. al., 2012). And, “there is no doubt that proper use of ICTs would result in making the teaching-learning process more interesting and rewarding (Vedanayagam, 1988). Consequently, the traditional classroom practices are undergoing some fundamental changes, particularly in terms of using technological tools to make them brighter and better. However, in the course of searching relevant literature, some questions arose regarding the integration of ICT in the classroom practices, particularly in the Indian context. The questions were- what role does ICT play in the personal and professional life of our teachers who teach in the secondary schools? What benefits, do they think, can be incurred through the use of ICT in the classroom? Do their overall perspectives about introducing ICT in the classroom practices comply with the global phenomena? Therefore, being led by these basic questions the study would seek to investigate the ground reality about the issue at the local level. Objectives The present study was carried out keeping in view the following objectives: (i) to analyze secondary school teachers’ perspectives to the changing classroom practices induced by the introduction of modern ICT. (ii) to find out the impact of ICT training, geographical locations, gender and age of teachers in determining their perspectives towards introducing modern ICT in the classroom practices at the secondary school level. Research Questions & Hypotheses The predominant research questions that prompted the researcher to carry out the investigation were: RQ-1. What are school teachers’ overall perspectives to the ICT based teaching-learning practices in today’s classrooms?

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RQ-2. What are the differences in teachers’ perspectives to ICT in relation to geographical locations, gender and age of teachers in the Indian context? RQ-3. Do teachers who have received training in ICT have higher perspectives than those who have not received training in ICT? The first research question (RQ-1) could be answered using qualitative data analysis techniques, such as Percentage, Mean, and Standard Deviation. However, the second and the third research questions (RQ-2 & RQ-3) required empirical data to be tested with the help of inferential statistics, which demanded analyzing quantitative aspects of the study in terms of quantifying preferences for particular kinds of expressions of perspectives across the data as a whole, as well as quantifying the distribution of perspectives according to subjects, geographical locations, and gender. Therefore, the hypotheses (in Null form; i.e. H0) that needed to be statistically tested were: In respect to the changing classroom practices induced by the introduction of modern ICT-

H01: There is no significant difference between teachers of urban schools and teachers of rural schools in their perspectives to ICT.

H02: There is no significant difference between male teachers and females teachers in their perspectives to ICT.

H03: There is no significant difference between teachers below the age of 40 and teachers above the age of 40 in their perspectives to ICT.

H04: There is no significant difference between teachers who have received training in the use of ICT and teachers who have not received training in the use of ICT in their perspectives to ICT. Operational Definition of the Key Terms  ICT: This refers to the Information and Communication Technologies, i.e., technologies which are used to create, transmit, store, retrieve, analyze and process information and to aid communication. In this study, ICT involves teaching-learning and other activities using ICT devices, such as computers, mobile phones, smart-phones, television, projector and Internet.  Teachers’ Perspectives: According to Cognitive Psychology, perspective generally refers to a point of view or the choice of a context or a reference from which to sense, categorize, measure or codify experience leading to the formation of a coherent belief. To have a perspective is to choose a value system which is associated with people’s beliefs. This study takes into account the perspectives of the govt. aided high school teachers in West Bengal.  School Education: It refers to teaching-learning activities provided by either a state-run or a private- run school. In this study, it means education carried out at the secondary level schools with the involvement of teachers and students.

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 Classroom Practices: This term refers to those physical, mental, and social activities in which students and teachers are engaged in the classroom. It commonly includes activities such as attendance, discipline, presenting lessons, homework, testing and evaluation. Delimitation of the Study  The proposed study was a descriptive survey which was conducted in the secondary (and/or higher secondary) schools of Malda district in West Bengal, India.  The data were collected from a random sample of 120 high school teachers working in 30 schools in the district of Malda. Methods and Materials: The nature of the descriptive study required both qualitative and quantitative data. A two-part questionnaire was used to collect data for the study. A total number of 150 questionnaires were sent to secondary school teachers across 30 secondary schools located in various parts (both rural and urban) of Malda district. Among them 120 teachers returned the filled in questionnaire within the given time limit. Needless to say, this is considered to be a good response ratio in social survey research. It should be mentioned here that the sample was randomly selected from the schools keeping in mind their age, gender and workplace locations. The questionnaire was pilot tested on teachers at the local level and thereafter, with further consultation with the experts, it was deemed a viable test instrument for the purpose. The instrument, i.e., the ‘Questionnaire to Determine Secondary School Teachers’ ICT Perspectives’ begins with a statement providing the identity of the investigator, the purpose of the study and statements assuring anonymity and confidentiality. The first part of the questionnaire was designed to obtain personal information, mainly through supply-type questions. The Likert-type test items (a total number of 25 items) in the second part give teachers an opportunity to express some general feelings and points of view regarding various uses of ICT for teaching-learning and other related purposes. Survey Results and Discussion: The results of the study at hand indicate that teachers of secondary schools reported favorable perspectives to introducing ICT for classroom practices. Collected data were first analyzed by using descriptive statistics such as Percentage, Mean and Standard Deviation to highlight the demographic components of the participants in the study in relation to their ICT perspectives. In addition to these, inferential statistics, more specifically, t-test was conducted to measure the significance of the Null hypotheses. It is interesting to note that the participants (secondary school teachers) possess a high level of ICT perspectives (Mean=75.08, SD=10.26). It is encouraging to note, particularly in the Indian context that as many as 72% of the teachers have shown a higher level of ICT perspectives, while 25% teachers stated a moderate perspective to ICT. Only a few (3%) were found to have a very low ICT perspective in respect to

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies the changing classroom practices. The following chart (Chart-1) illustrates the secondary teachers’ overall perspectives to ICT for teaching-learning purposes-

Chart-1: Secondary Teachers' ICT Perspectives

3% 17% Very High

25% High

Moderate

Low 55%

The study also tried to find out the frequency of ICT use for teaching and learning activities by the secondary school teachers. As shown in Chart-2 below, secondary school teachers were reported to make frequent use of ICT, either daily or weekly for the purpose of teaching and learning activities (58%). However, there are many teachers (27%) who do not make frequent use of ICT for teaching-learning purposes. No doubt, this is an area of concern which needs to be addressed by encouraging teachers to make more frequent use of ICT by providing necessary training and infrastructural facilities. The following chart shows how frequently teachers use ICT for classroom teaching-learning practices-

Chart-2: Teachers' Use of ICT for Teaching-Learning

6% Daily Weekly 22% 31% Monthly Occasionally 15% Never 27%

Although teachers have expressed their willingness to integrate ICT in their regular classroom activities, they have pointed out poor infrastructure and lack of training as major constraints in achieving the desired level of success in the field. It may be mentioned here that similar kinds of barriers were identified by

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Variables Geo Loc n Mean SD t df sig@ p=0.05 Rural 70 75.90 10.07 ICT Perspectives 1.12 118 1.98 Urban 50 74.00 11.00 researchers like Ertmer (1999) and Bingimlas (2009), and they categorized the barriers as teacher-level barriers (lack of teacher confidence, lack of teacher competence, resistance to change etc.), and school-level barriers (lack of time, lack of effective technical support system, lack of adequate resources, lack of training etc.). Now, the Null hypotheses (H0) were tested using quantitative data analysis techniques, and more precisely the t-test. The analysis suggests that there is no significant difference between teachers of rural schools and urban schools in their perspectives to introducing ICT in the classroom practices. It is indicative of the fact that geographical locations of the schools do not affect teachers’ perspectives to introducing ICT for teaching-learning practices. Table-1: t-test results for differences in ICT perspectives according to geographical locations of schools (i.e. rural and urban): Again, while analyzing high school teachers’ ICT perspectives according to gender, no significant difference was found between male and female teachers working in the schools in India. Table-2 shows the result of the t-test, which does not reject the null hypothesis (H02): Table-2: t-test results for differences in ICT perspectives according to gender: Variables Gender n Mean SD t df sig@ p=0.05 Male 70 75.58 10.44 ICT Perspectives 0.44 118 1.98 Female 50 74.70 10.91 The findings stated in Table-2 clearly indicates the global phenomenon of decreasing gender differences regarding access and attitude to ICT as stated in a number of studies (Heemsherk, et.al, 2005; Ilomaki, 2008; CERI, 2010). However, there still exists so much asymmetry of itineraries according to the gender, and it is well established that interactions with computers within schools vary according to the gender. In particular, male teachers sometimes tend to be over confident, while female teachers tend to under-rate themselves in using ICT tools and devices (Baron, et. al., 2009).

However, the third null hypothesis (H03) that there is no significant difference between teachers below the age of 40 and teachers above the age of 40 in their perspectives to ICT can be clearly rejected on the basis of its t-test analysis, which shows a fairly higher t value (t=3.86) than the accepted value (1.68) at 0.05 LoS.

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This indicates that age of secondary school teachers does make a difference in their ICT perspectives for teaching and learning activities. Table-3 shows the result- Table-3: t-test results for differences in ICT perspectives according to age of the teachers (i.e. below 40 years and above 40 years: Variables Age n Mean SD t df sig@ p=0.05 <40 yrs 67 77.60 9.88 ICT Perspectives 3.86 118 1.98 >40 yrs 53 71.50 7.45 It is worth noting here that this finding is in line with previous studies that stated that there still exists a generation gap between younger teachers and older teachers with regard to their perspectives to using ICT for instructional purposes (Ilomaki, 2008; Buabeng-Andoh, 2012). Therefore, this issue needs to be addressed by encouraging older teachers to use ICT for teaching and learning purposes. And for this purpose secondary school teachers should be provided with necessary ICT infrastructure and facilities in the school along with opportunities for regular in-service training and orientation. In fact, studies all over the world suggest that training of teachers in the use of ICT both at the pre-service and in-service stages is necessary to make the best possible utilization of ICT resources and facilities for instructional purposes (Ramanna, 2000; Pandey, 2004). Findings from the present study also confirm this fact, as teachers having got training in the use of ICT showed a much higher perspective to introducing ICT in today’s classrooms than those having no such training. Table-4 presents the result obtained from analyzing the fourth hypothesis (H04): Table-4: t-test results for differences in ICT perspectives according to training in ICT: Variables Training in ICT n Mean SD t df sig@ p=0.05 Trained 42 82.12 10.99 ICT Perspectives 5.38 118 1.98 Untrained 78 71.26 9.66 As indicated in Table-4, there is a huge gap between teachers who have received training in the use of ICT for academic purposes and teachers who have not received any such training during their career. It is imperative to note that because many of the teachers teaching in secondary schools may not have got the opportunity to learn about the effective use of ICT for classroom instructions during their pre-service training, it is necessary to arrange for further ‘in-service’ education programmes for them. This is mainly because investment in technology will be effective only when the ‘faculty’ receive necessary training and support and are willing to be capable of using modern technologies (Ramanna, 2000). Conclusion: PIJMS II (1) – 2015 ONLINE ISSN No. : 2348-618X Page 45

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Analysis and outcomes of the present study suggest that the secondary school teachers in our country have a fairly positive perspective to introducing ICT in today’s changing classroom practices. This positive perspective has to be put into practice for making classroom environments better and brighter for students and teachers both. And for achieving this purpose, boosting concrete support measures such as the provision of ICT coordinators, professional development opportunities for teachers, etc. are an option for schools wanting to develop ICT use in teaching-learning practices. However, it should be emphasized that, as ICT does not figure systematically in the secondary school curricula of the country, teachers actually use only a few technologies in the classroom practices and have a lot of difficulties in finding necessary resources. Indeed, ICT has made available more sophisticated aids to the teachers to carry out their tasks more efficiently in the classroom. However, NCTE (2012) has recently suggested that ICT should not be treated as another subject, but rather “it needs to be seen as a methodology of teaching-learning, applicable to all subjects”. Progress in this specific area is still needed with the aim of scaling up provisions to improve the existing classroom conditions at the secondary schools in the country. Increasing teacher professional development opportunities could be a potentially efficient and evidence-based way to boost ICT use in classroom practices through the development of highly confident and positive teachers. At the same time, developing more positive perspectives to using advanced ICT in the overall classroom practices could make our educational endeavours more effective and more successful. References Barak, M. (2006), Instructional principles for fostering learning with ICT: teachers’ perspectives as learners and instructors. Education Information Technology, 11:121-135, DOI 10.1007/s11134-006-7362-9. Bingimlas, K.A., 2009. Barriers to the Successful Integration of ICT in Teaching and Learning Environments: A Review of the Literature. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 5(3): 235-245. Buabeng-Andoh, C (2012), An Exploration of Teachers’ Skills, Perceptions and Practices of ICT in Teaching and Learning in the Ghanaian Second-Cycle Schools, CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY, 2012, 3(1), 36-49 Cairncross, F., & Pöysti, K. (2003), ICTs for education and building human capital, International Telecom Union. Available at http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/visions/. Ertmer, P. (1999), Addressing first- and second-order barriers to change: strategies for technology integration. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(4): 47-1. Fisher, T.; Denning, T.; Higgins, C.; & Loveless, A. (2012), Teachers' knowing how to use technology: exploring a conceptual framework for purposeful learning activity, Curriculum Journal, 23:3, 307-325 Heemsherk, I.; Volman, M.; Admiraal, W. & Dam, G.T. (2012): ‘Inclusiveness of ICT in Secondary

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Education: Students’ Appreciation of ICT Tools; International Journal of Inclusive Education’; Routledge, London. Hennessy, S, Ruthven, K and Brindley, S (2005), Teacher perspectives on integrating ICT into subject teaching: commitment, constraints, caution and change. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37 (2) 155–192, Routledge, London Ilomaki, L. (2008): ‘The effects of ICT on school: teachers’ and students’ perspectives’; Turun Yliopisto Julkaisuja Sarja B Humaniora (ISSN: 0082-6987),Tokyo, Japan. Kassim, H. & Ali, Z. (2007): ‘The Use of ICT in the Implementation of Student-Centered Learning (SCL)’; Internet Journal of e-language Learning & Teaching; Vol-4, No-1; http://www.eltrec.ukm.my/iJeLLT Lau, C. T. & Sim, C. H. (2008). Exploring the extent of ICT adoption among secondary teachers in Malaysia. International Journal of Computing and IT research, 2(2), 19-36. Light, D. (2009): ‘The Role of ICT in Enhancing Education in Developing Countries: Findings from an Evaluation of the Intel® Teach Essentials Course in India, Turkey and Chile’; Journal of Education in International Development. Mangal, S.K. & Mangal, U. (2010), Essentials of Educational Technology, (Ch-30), PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Mishra, P. and Koehler, M. (2006), Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record 108, no. 6: 1017–54. National Curriculum Framework (NCF)-2005; Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India. National Policy of Education-1986 as Modified in 1992; Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India. National Policy on ICT in School Education (2012); MHRD, Department of School Education, Govt. of India. NCTE Report on ICT for TE-DE & action (2012), public-software.in/PSWiki. Pandey, V.C. (2004), Digital Technologies and Teaching Strategies, Isha Books , Delhi. Ramanna, R.K. (2000), (Ch.8, Use of Computer Teaching), Education in Digital Age, Rajat publications , Delhi. Reid, S. (2002): ‘The integration of information and communication technology into classroom teaching; Alberta Journal of Educational Research. Vol. XLVIII, No.1. Sagar, K. (2007): Digital Technology in Education; Author Press, New Delhi Singh, U.K. & Sudarshan, K.N. (1996), Teachers Education (pp-175-187), Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi. So, T. & Swatman, P. M. C. (2006). e-Learning Readiness of Hong Kong Teachers; University of South

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Australia. Talesra, H., Marashdeh, W., Nagda, M.L. (2003), Web-based Learning, Authorpress, New Delhi. UNESCO (2003), ICT in Education, retrieved on 31 July, 2013 from www.unescobkk.org UNESCO (2009), Guide to Measuring Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in Education, UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Vedanayagam, E.G. (1988), Teaching Technology for College Teachers, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Ya’acob, A.; Nor, N.; & Azman, H. (2005), Implementation of the Malaysian Smart School: An Investigation of Teaching-Learning Practices and Teacher-Student Readiness. Internet Journal of e- Language Learning & Teaching, 2(2), pp. 16-25. Yau, J. Y. & Salavati, S. (2012), Researchers’ and Teachers’ Perspectives on Using Mobile Technologies for Inquiry-based Learning, Center for Learning and Knowledge Technologies (CeLeKT) School of Computer Science, Physics and Mathematics, Linnaeus University. Zhang, Z. & Martinovic, D. (2008), ‘ICT in Teacher Education: Examining Needs, Expectations and Attitudes’, Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology(Vol-34/2)Spring/Printemps, http://www.cjlt.ca/index.php/cjlt/issue/feed

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MICRO-INSURANCE - A STEP TOWARDS INCLUSION OF ECONOMICALLY POOR TO THE UMBRELLA OF INSURANCE *Parag Shil & **Bhabananda Deb Nath *Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce, Assam University, Silchar, India. **Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce, Karimganj College, Karimganj, India. Abstract Microfinance, which is popularly known as the ‘finance for the poor’, becomes an alternative means of finance in many developing countries to minimize the gap of conditions of lenders and borrowers, where poor people (mainly rural poor and women) are being finance in groups, considering their potentiality and not merely on their credit worthiness. Micro-insurance is another weapon to the growth of the poor people towards their health and social security. The linkage between micro-insurance and microfinance is vary much crucial for the development of the poor people of rural India. So, an attempt has been made in this paper to highlight to analyse the micro-insurance initiatives and the scope of micro-insurance with the help of secondary data and information. Microfinance become a shadow for the poor people in the district and also doing well as compere to their earlier conditions as stated by the respondents. Though the performance is not up to the mark in many cases, but progressive and changing trend has been noticed and hopefully they could do more if proper monitoring, training, management, timely credit, micro-industrial assistance/help etc. are provided. Key Words: Microfinance, Micro-insurance, Performance, Poor, Beneficiaries. ******* Introduction “Disadvantaged people, whose lives are disproportionally impacted by catastrophes, can be served in a commercially sustainable way.” -Pane Stojanovski, RMS In the provision of ‘Microfinance’, the ‘Micro-Insurance’ is an indispensable part for the success of Microfinance programmes, for development and for her sustainability in the long run. But, the clients of Microfinance are not willingly interested in accepting the service of micro-insurance, owing to the sacrifice of money as ‘premium’ to have such facility (Ahuja. et. al. 2004). The stagnation of micro-insurance service is importantly two, the ‘poor income level’ and ‘lacking in awareness generation’, among its many other problems. High drop-out rate has also been noticed, in the micro-insurance clients and that has happened due to inability of premium payments and for not recognizing the importance of insurance service. So, the success of micro-insurance is largely depends on the ‘economic condition’ of the low income group people and until this being improved, the micro-insurance will remain a concept in vein. Tucker (2007), in his report express that, of the world’s population, four billion people live on less than $2 a

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies day. Of these poor, only one to three percent has access to any type of insurance product. In the context of health contingency, World Bank studies (Peters et. al. 2002), reports that about one-fourth of hospitalized Indians fall below the poverty line. The same study reports that more than 40 percent of hospitalized patients take loans or sell assets to pay for hospitalization. Indeed, enhancing the ability of the poor to deal with various risks is increasingly being considered integral to any poverty reduction strategy (Holzmann and Jorgensen 2000; Siegel et. al. 2001). A study commissioned by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) titled “Building Security for the Poor - Potential and Prospects for Micro insurance in India” states that 90% of the Indian population - some 950 million people - are not covered by insurance and signify an untapped market of nearly US$2 billion. This enormous “missing market” is ready for customized life and non-life insurance, but first, serious mismatches between the needs of the insured and the insurers must be overcome. Again, potential of up-scaling, extending and expanding of micro-insurance programs depends crucially on the issue of affordability, that is, to what extent resources for meeting health care costs can be mobilized from the people themselves (Ahuja, 2004). So, there is an urgent need to extend income and social protection to the poor is widely recognized. One, there is greater appreciation of the fact that income and social protection to the poor is not only an end in itself but also a means to achieving higher economic growth. Two, because the adverse effects of greater economic integration (through liberalization and globalization) are likely to be on the poor. In the mitigation of poverty, there is increasing appreciation of the role played by risks in the lives of the poor. For making any meaningful and lasting impact in their lives, there is a need to also protect them from the several risks such as risk of illness, death, loss of assets etc. Thus, ‘micro-insurance’, which is basically insurance for the low income people, is gaining importance not only in India but also in other developing countries. Thus, strengthening the economic condition by providing income generating avenues to its clients under various Microfinance programmes will capable them to take the benefits of micro-insurance to mitigate various types’ perils. Conceptual Framework: Microfinance: Microfinance can be defined as giving access to financing to as many poor people as possible, allowing them to use their capacities in favour of durable development. -Yunus, 2003. Microfinance means the provision of thrift, credit and other financial securities and product of very small amount of the poor in rural, semi-urban or urban areas for enabling them to raise their income levels and improve their living standards. –RBI. Micro-insurance: Micro-insurance, the term used to refer to insurance to the low-income people, is

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies different from insurance in general as it is a low value product (involving modest premium and benefit package) which requires different design and distribution strategies, such as premium based on community risk rating (as opposed to individual risk rating), active involvement of an intermediate agency representing the target community and so forth (Ahuja & Khasnobis, 2005). According to International Association of Insurance Supervisors (IAIS) ‘micro-insurance’ means “protection of low income people against specific perils in exchange for regular premium payments proportionate to the likelihood and cost of the risk involved.” Objective: In this paper, we have highlighted the role played by Microfinance in developing the ‘economic condition’ of poor and lower income groups by offering income generating means under Microfinance service and how that capable them to have micro-insurance service to meet the perils, financial inclusion and development of ‘Rural India’. Methodology: This attempt has been made on the basis of secondary data. Considering all relevant materials, that includes books, journals, e-journals, magazines, various newspapers bulletins, periodicals, e-books, website of insurance companies,etc. Analysis and Discussion: “We are currently at the crossroads for microfinance to become a fully-fledged and recognized global industry service. Micro-insurance will follow Microfinance.” -Peter Hoppler, Swiss Re “Disadvantaged people, whose lives are disproportionally impacted by catastrophes, can be served in a commercially sustainable way.” - Pane Stojanovski, RMS The thrust of Microfinance is to provide income generating avenues to the clients that includes poor, rural poor and especially women, to develop their economic condition from vulnerable to reliable. Thus, Microfinance brings the full range of services that includes the provision of thrift, credit, insurance (i.e. micro-insurance) and other financial product of small amount for the economically poor and disadvantageous section of our society. Microfinance phenomenon is one of the most remarkable socio- economic developments of our times. For a long time the poor, because of their economic circumstance, were considered non-bankable. However, the “micro-credit phenomenon” has shown that the poor can be made creditworthy if they are organized in small groups ( Jha, 2002). This clearly has profound implications not just from a finance perspective but, more importantly, from the perspective of poverty alleviation. Inspired by the Grameen experiment that started in Bangladesh around mid-70s, micro-credit has quickly

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies spread in other parts of the developing world, including India. Micro-credit in India really started in a big way in the early 90s with the recognition of self-help groups as conduit for providing credit to the poor (Ghate, 2009). In the late 90s, numerous agencies involved in micro-credit operations in India started adding other financial services, including micro-insurance to its micro-credit operations. The importance of microfinance must be looked against the fact that even with wide network of banks in India, the low-income group people especially in rural areas, have been largely bypassed by the formal banking system. Role of Micro Finance: Microfinance happens to be the economic resource generated programme which able to cover poor and rural people specially the women. Microfinance movements have revealed positive impact in income generation and assets creation of beneficiaries in the country. Also, there is a diversification in the sources of livelihood for the poor and women who have increased their household income (Hulme and Mosley, 1996). It is ‘economic empowerments’ which actually influence the other factors, like education, health, living standard etc., the prime factors for social development. Women Empowerment strategy by SHG model, recorded sea change in the mindset of women of eighties and nineties and women of today, as economic power in concern the rural development programmes like SGSY, has motivated the women members as regards decision making, social strengths etc., (Sharma Borah, 2008). While reflecting the performance of women in microfinance, basically in SHGs, ‘Jeevika’, a model SHG of rural Bihar, which reveal the potentiality of rural women’s called the Didi (Sister) in driving the social and economic shifts. The change entails first the empowerment of the poorest women both economic and social development (Tiwari, 2010). Why Microfinance: Microfinance refers to the entire range of financial services to over-come poverty. Again, step towards ‘financial inclusion’ is yet to be a success story for India, though many efforts were made, like the nationalisation of Commercial Banks concept, under the chairmanship of Indra Gandhi (Basu, 2009), and many other initiatives as priority sector lending (40 percent, RBI), (Karmakar, 2009), BCs (i. e. Business correspondents), post-office savings, new financial instruments, i.e., NFAs (no-frill accounts), General Credit Cards, Swarojgar Credit Card etc. from time to time to cope with financial inclusion, (i. e. Rural people). But, reports bring out that, only 40 percent of adult population has access to savings account, 10 percent to life insurance, 5.2 percent villages have a bank branch, 97.7 million small farmers are covered by farm credit. Despite this the exclusion levels among people is estimated to be 40 percent, (Srinivasion, 2009). So, achieving ‘financial inclusion’ through formal banking system is a cumbersome task. Unavailability of adequate financial services like credit, insurances, and remittances to majority population at an affordable cost are major roadblock for the growth of financial sectors. In this context, Microfinance approach become an alternative solution to provide financial services to common section of the society as ‘Microfinance’ is the provision of thrift, credit and other financial services and products of very small

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies amounts to the poor for enabling them to raise their income levels and improve their living standards, (RBI, 2005). It has profound implications not just from a finance perspective, but also from the perspective of economic development, it consists of micro credit, micro savings and micro-insurance, and regarded as an important tool to reduce risk, poverty and vulnerability of common people. As the study is confine to Microfinance role in strengthening the economic condition of the poor and deprived, so, to establish such, its positive role being noticed in many studies conducted in India and others part of the world, thus: Microfinance and Economic Development: the poor and women cluster of our society are not poor in their quality, but it is lack adequate facilities, which actually responsible for all such problems and that has been established by many success stories of Microfinance in India and in other part of the world. It enables the ignorant of our formal financial system to provide an opportunities for income generation, saving, wealth creation and so, leading towards a nourishing stage, where the poor, women and others vulnerable groups can hope for future of dignity or standard life, which wouldn’t be possible otherwise. A study conducted on Microfinance impact studies has highlighted a range of indicators used to assess impact on the clients. The indicators includes enterprise fixed assets, output, productivity, labour, household income, asset accumulation, poverty, income and employment, local economy, family planning and fertility of women status and empowerment of health and nutrition and found positive impact on so, (Sebstad, et al., 1996). In an impact study, which has been undertaken by Puhazhendi and Satyasai (2000) under the guidance of NABARD in 11 states in the country, have revealed that 59 percent of the households reporting increase in assets, with the average value of assets per household increasing by 72 percent. Almost all members developed saving habit after joining this programme and the annual number of savings registration have increased three times. Moreover, annual borrowings of SHG members increased by 95 percent. The net income per household increased by an average of 33 percent, with about 43 percent of the incremental income generated coming from non-farm sector activities followed by farm (28 percent) and off-farm (29 percent) activities. So, this is an evidence about the success of microfinance towards economic development of clients. Microfinance to Micro-insurance: A diagrammatic presentation to show the relationship of Microfinance to micro-insurance, as development in income level by means of Microfinance services, strengthen the premium pay out capacity of the poor and lower income group for whom the micro-insurance is meant for and thus increases the demand for micro- insurance.

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How Microfinance link to Micro-insurance:

Microfinance Generating Investment in Income Income/Profits (Micro-Credit) generating Avenues Distribution of Income/ Profits

Consumption. Savings

Insurance iOther s

Source: Compilied by the researchers on the basis of secondary data. As insurance is a part of saving, so that will not be fine, until their savings are strengthened and for that, they should have the exposure of income generating avenue. Further, for such, it is the ‘capital’ which is most vital for the poor to act on, and where the role of Microfinance lays i. e. the micro-credit. A few micro-level studies that have tried to estimate demand for health insurance based on the willingness-andability- to-pay for health insurance have come out with positive findings. A survey-based study on the willingness to pay even in case of Ethiopia - one of the poorest countries in the Sub-Sahara Africa - shows that the poor are willing to pay only up to 5 % of their monthly income (Asfaw et al. 2002) for having a scheme that can take care of their costs of illness, it could be more if their income levels improves. A review of various existing schemes by Jakab and Krishnan (2001) highlights that (a) micro-insurance schemes can raise substantial resources but need to get additional funds by donor agencies, the state or health care providers, and (b) the poorest of the poor in a community is often excluded from the schemes. Microfinance in Generating Awareness of Micro-insurance among its clients: While recognizing the functioning of microfinance programmes, often its brings the group efforts scenario of the rural and poor people, and group efforts, regular meetings, practical training etc. are the parts and parcel of such programmes. So, some short of gathering is common and that helps to popularize any schemes or innovative idea for their betterment, very easily. Again, in successful implementation of Microfinance programmes the concept of micro-insurance can be made compulsory for those seeking loan from intermediaries and can aware them regarding its importance, citing some practical example from different part of the world, which insist then to accept the service of micro-insurance. So, it is ‘awareness’ in the root level which actually could do a lot in successful implementation of micro-insurance. Towards rural Development: According to International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), “Rural development is a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of a specific group of people the rural poor. The

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies group includes small and marginal farmers, tenants and landless labourers”. India, where majority of population still living in rural areas, even in this 21st century, which otherwise claims, country moving towards equal prosperity and development, irrespective of area and regions. But, the reality is different, as the curse of poverty still exist among them and they are under the grave of perils of death, ill-health, loss of assets/property, crops and cattle etc. which make them permanently incapable to overcome if happens once. But the provision of ‘micro-insurance’ in Microfinance is a remedy to tackle with those perils and that actually save the poor people from such huge loss. Thus, stability could be attaining if the service of micro-insurance is willingly accepted by the poor people, ignoring the cost of such service as loss, rather as savings. But, that needs good awareness among the rural masses, which deals in Microfinance and rural people and economy can be well protected by means micro-insurance facility if implemented in large way. Conclusion: For the overall and sustainable development of the clients of Microfinance, the micro-insurance should be used as inseparable part and effort is on high demand to make it as compulsory service to be implemented for every Microfinance clients to meet their perils. Again, the acceptance micro-insurance facility is subject to premium pay out capacity of the lower income group people, for whom this insurance is meant for. So, some special care and focus in of high demand to improve and developed the economic condition of the poor people and make them capable to bear the cost of micro-insurance willingly, out of their pocket cost. The success of a programme depends a lot on the awareness campaigns and same is the case with micro-insurance, the Regulatory body and intermediaries should note this and should apply some technique to create awareness about the importance of micro-insurance to the targeted masses. Micro Insurance, money remittances and micro savings are three essential services which are part of financial products which will help bringing in the marginalized population into the mainstream. At present microfinance business in the country is unregulated. Regulation of MICROFINANCE is needed not only to promote micro-finance activity in the country but also to promote the linking of micro-insurance with micro- finance. References Ahuja, R. and Jutting, J. (2004). Are the Poor too Poor to Demand Health Insurance, ICRIER, New Delhi. Asfaw, A., von Braun, J., Assefa Admassie, A., and Jütting, J. (2002). The Economic Costs of Illness in Low Income Countries: The Case of Rural Ethiopia. Mimeo. Basu, P. A. Financial System for India’s Poor. K. G. Karmakar, (eds) Microfinance in India, New Delhi. Sage, 2009, Pp. 19-32. Dasgupta, R.. (2001). An Informal Journey through Self-Help Groups. Indian Journal of Agricultural

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Economics, 56(3), Pp. 370-386. Dave, H.R., “SHGs and Savings Mobilization”, in K. G. Karmakar, (eds), “Microfinance in India”, New Delhi, Sage, 2009, Pp. 125-134, 409. Ghate, P., (2009). “Indian Microfinance, the Challenges of Rapid Growth”, SAGE Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Hulme, D. and P. Mosley, (1996): “Finance against Poverty: effective institutions for lending to small farmers and micro-enterprises in developing countries”, London, Rout ledge Vol. 1, London: Routledge, P. 106. Hulme, D. and Thankom. A. ( 2009), “ Microfinance”, A Reader, Routledge, New Holzmann, R. and S. Jorgensen (2000). Social Risk Management: A new conceptual framework for social protection, and beyond. Social Protection Discussion Paper No. 0006, The World Bank, Washington, DC.York. Jha, T. N., (2002): “Microcredit finance models in Bangladesh: Lessons for India”, Yojana, Vol. 46, No. 2, Pp. 23-30. Jakab, M., and Krishnan, C. (2001). Community Involvement in Health Care Financing: A Survey of the Literature on the Impact, Strengths, and Weaknesses, in A.S. Prekar edited, Health Care Financing for Rural and Low-income Populations, A Collection of Background Reports for the Commission on Macro- Economics and Health. Karmakar, K.G., “ Microfinance Revisited”, in K. G. Karmakar, (eds), Microfinance in India, New Delhi, Sage, 2009, Pp. 33-56. Purkayastya, G., (2004): “Credit Deepening in Farm and Non-farm Sectors in Assam”, Yojana, Vol. 48, No. 4, Pp. 28-33 Satya Sundaram, I.,(2007) “Microfinance in India”, B.R.Publishing Corporation (India) Ltd., Delhi, Sharma Borah, A., (2008-09-10): “Women Empowerment and Self-help Group – A study”, Journal of Commerce, Pp. 215-221. Srinivasan, N., “Sustainability of SHGs”, in K. G. Karmakar, (eds), Microfinance in India, New Delhi, Sage, 2009, Pp.176-187. Tiwari, N.,(2010): “Didi of Rural Bihar: Real Agent of Change”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol XLV,No 33, Pp. 27-30. Tucker, P. (2007): Micro-insurance Megadisasters, The Futurist, Vol 41, Iss. 3, p. 16-17 Purkayastya, G., (2004): “Credit Deepening in Farm and Non-farm Sectors in Assam”, Yojana, Vol. 48, No. 4, Pp. 28-33. Peters, D. et al. (2002). Better Health Systems for India’s Poor: Findings, Analysis, and Options, The World Bank, Washington DC.

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Puhazhendi, V. and K. J. S. Satyasai, (2000): “Microfinance for Rural People: An Impact Evaluation”, National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), Mumbai, India. Khandker, S., (2001): “Does Microfinance Really Benefit the Poor,” Evidence from Bangladesh, www.adb.orglnovertv/forumlndflkhandker.pdf. Pp. 1-10.

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NARRATIVES OF GABRIEL GARCÍAMÁRQUEZ BETWEEN CENSORSHIP AND SCANDAL Mandeep Boro, Research Scholar, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Abstract Censorship is not a new concept. In fact the concept and origin of the term dates back to the office of "censor" established in Rome in the year 443. B. C. The censors in ancient Rome were government officials who counted the number of Roman citizens in a census. However, in addition to this function they also had the right to oversee the moral behaviour of the people; they also levied property tax and oversaw contracts; they penalized moral offenders through the elimination of its public rights such as the right to vote, the right to belong to a tribe etc.; they also presided over purification ceremonies at the closure of each census. Normally they were elected at the Comitia Centuriata, which was one of the assemblies where the Romans voted and participated at intervals of five years. The censors saw censorship as a legitimate method to control society and culture. The definition of censorship comes from this concept of the role of censor and today this term is defined as "the change or removal or prohibition of an expression, or a work written or condemned as subversive for the common good"(Censorship 2010). Today the censors also believe that they are protecting the morality of society. Most materials that they censor contain images, words, or ideas which are considered as offensive by some organizations and some individuals and hence they want to restrict. Books, movies and television programs frequently draw their attention, but other media can also be censored. Keywords: Censorship ******* Censorship occurs in all societies. In fact there has never been a society in the world where censorship has not been around in one form or another. History shows that censorship does not occur only in authoritarian regimes but also in democratic countries. Censorship does not end with democratic governments. Rather censorship in a democracy is channelled through various ideological state apparatuses such as schools, libraries, universities, family, the media, religious institutions, etc. When imposing censorship, ideological state apparatuses can also be deployed in a repressive way. 1 Dictatorial regimes rely excessively on censorship to control people. They use coercive means directly and deploy the army and police for censorship. Censorship is imposed when the government, or special interests groups, or private individuals impose their political or moral values on others through the suppression of words, images, or ideas that seem to them unpleasant as they occur. Censorship impacts books, newspapers, magazines, movies, television and radio programs, speeches, music, sculpture, photography, and other arts (Day 10). Censorship or the control and manipulation of information or knowledge can take place in several ways.

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With respect to an aesthetic text of any kind, it can occur even before the work is publicly available as in the typical examples of a publisher who refuses to publish a book, or a financial company of movies that rejects a script, or declines a museum exhibition. This type of censorship is because some people think, rightly or not, that content is controversial, subversive or offensive. It may also be taking place after the text has been made public. Thus for example is the case of a book from a library or bookstore which is removed because some people think that the content of the book is obscene. Sometimes the censors remove or destroy a work. On other occasions they prohibit the sale of such work. Another method of censorship involves treating the work in question differently. In this case the censors put the work in an area or special category that requires parental permission if a minor child wants to access it. Censorship and ideology go together. In fact any censorship is driven by ideology. During censorship ideology of a dominant group prevails and in many cases censorship is done to prevent the ideology of others. Speaking of censorship may be thinking about the bad aspect of it. However, censorship is not always used just to maintain power; it is not only used as an apparatus of repression. Censorship can also be used to benefit or protect the people. For example; most parents would prevent their children from violent video games or obscene magazines. Similarly many governments make laws to protect citizens from abuse, persecution or offense. Censorship, like other forms of social control, can be used for good or evil. It has advantages and disadvantages. It depends on how it is used. As for the censorship classification can be classified as corporate censorship military censorship, social and moral censorship, political censorship and religious censorship. Corporate censorship is the manipulation of information by large companies. It occurs when large companies refuse to disclose facts to the public about their products. Corporate censorship authorizes private initiatives to control information, and thus prefer to communicate messages while limiting others. Military censorship is keeping military intelligence and tactics away from the enemy. The military classified and / or censor documents that have strategic importance. This is used to counter espionage. All countries in the world maintain military censorship to protect national security. The moral censorship means the removal of materials that the public considers offensive or obscene. During moral censure the government and the public proscribe the use of materials that can demoralize any group of people. Moral censorship also generally seeks to protect the sensibilities of children. Political censorship occurs when the government or political parties hide information from the public to avoid embarrassment or rebel actions. Religious censorship eliminates or removes materials that are obscene according to the practiced religion. It helps to maintain the power of the religious leaders. But often the religious censorship goes against the belief of other religion. Many people think that political censorship is the worst form of censorship because religious, moral, military, corporate censorship get more

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies effectively coercive when supported by the political power. But there is another form of censorship called self-censorship. Self-censorship occurs when a person does not disclose his opinion, for fear of reprisals against him, from the owners of mass media and of other legally constituted authorities. These reprisals may be in the form of fines, threats, imprisonment, dismissal, legal problems, etc. producing fear of losing friends or privileges. Thus it can be said that self-censorship operates mainly through fear of repression. It can also be defined as the loss of the ability or freedom to publish certain information that is of public interest. For example, when a media presents information that is out of the official truth, it can cause commotion in society, for this reason many media chooses to publish the same conformist information without worrying thoroughly to investigate the truth. Self-censorship works because thousands of small decisions, secondary changes and modified courses are taken by individuals or institutions based on their own fears and concerns (Day 17). There are three basic reasons for censorship. These grounds sometimes overlap. They are  retention of political power,  maintenance of theological dogma and  maintaining community standards. Censures that are used to maintain community standards often overlap with the censures for the maintenance of theological dogma. Who censors? Generally it is the government, religious groups, the media and the corporations. Censorship in Latin America Censorship in Latin America first begins with the arrival of Europeans. During the time of Spanish colonization and conquest in the sixteenth century Catholic missionaries banned religion and writing system of the Maya people in order to convert them to Christianity. The Maya writing system, often called hieroglyphic, was a combination of phonetic symbols and ideograms. Known for their achievements in astronomy and mathematics, the Mayan civilization in Mexico and parts of Central America had a rich cultural heritage but the conquerors destroyed most Mayan texts. The Maya texts, especially ancient texts dealt with the historical events that included songs like "birth, death, settlement, conquest, destruction, and other fundamental individual and social existence" in addition to esoteric matters and related to the Mayan calendar (Sharer 126). In the second phase censorship begins with the establishment of the Inquisition in the seats of colonial power, Mexico City and Lima, in 1569, during the reign of Philip II, king of Spain from 1556 to 1598, then another office of Inquisition was established in Cartagena in 1610; the Inquisition in Lima was an extension of the Spanish Inquisition. It carried out the directions of the Supreme and General Inquisition to control the ideology and morality of the colony which generally meant censorship of ideas and books that endangered the colonial proposal. In addition to the Peruvian Inquisition, both the government

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies and the church in the Spanish colonies had the power to ban books. The church controlled the importation of books. It worked as the defender of morality while the colonial government recorded every book. Inquisition officials frequently visited bookstores and libraries. When evaluating a Private Collection, booksellers had to notify the authorities if they had a banned book or not. The Peruvian Inquisition lasted until 1820 (Case 7). Monitoring of the Spanish Inquisition in the colonies promoted self-censorship among some writers. Eradication of the thoughts that went against the teaching of the Catholic Church was one of the main targets of the Inquisition. Censorship in colonial Latin America mainly applied to the works and ideas of the Protestant Reformation, as well as works of drama and literature that were considered too "obscene". The censors never tolerated the direct authority of the Spanish crown in any way as a challenge. However, while there was some degree of freedom unlike Brazil, where the Portuguese crown never allowed a printing press to exist during the first 308 years of its regime, the Spanish colonies had privileged access to the press and therefore had access to books. There were printing presses in Mexico City and Lima respectively established in 1539 and 1584 although these printers were strictly controlled for the government produced books, newspapers, pamphlets, brochures and so led to the dissemination of new ideas in the metropolis. The Royal Crown of Spain not only allowed but actively encouraged higher education in their colonies, especially Mexico and Peru although access to education was limited only to men of the upper classes. The educated, nevertheless, read the works of great writers and dramatists of the Golden Age as Miguel de Cervantes, Francisco de Quevedo, Pedro Calderon de la Barca and Tirso de Molina among others (Farrell 202). Censorship restricts and suppresses freedom of expression of human beings. With respect to the seventeenth century, the Spanish authorities abused of their power to ban speeches, literary works and ideas since they saw it as a threat to their authority and went against the Christian religion. Censured writers such as Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz was one of the first most brilliant rebel poets of Latin America in the seventeenth century. Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, a Mexican poet and intellectual, was censured for her poetry and her letters which often spoke of the patriarch’s attitudes towards women, the rivalries between the viceroys and of abuse of power by the archbishop who always wanted to exert his control over the churches (Farrell 202). During the eighteenth century they officially censored works of the Enlightenment. However works of the Enlightenment were widely circulated among the Creoles born in the New World and the Spaniards who were born in Spain. The philosophical works that challenged the divine right of kings, and promoted individual rights and political freedoms were usually not well received by the Bourbon kings and viceroys for the New World. The Spanish crown saw virtue only in those thoughts illustration progressed "useful knowledge." Useful knowledge was linked to the colonial economic rationalisms. After the wars of independence censorship occurred mostly in the field of newspapers and literary works. Of

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies course, censorship during the early years of independence in Latin America was not as hard as censorship in colonial times or as censorship which took place later in the dictatorships of the twentieth century. However, even in this period writers like Clorinda Matto de Turner had to deal with censorship of some conservatives and church leaders for the content of his novel Birds without a Nest. The content of this novel was not well received by some politicians and religious leaders because it talked about the emancipation of indigenous peoples and stated that the only hope for the future of Peru to achieve justice was to bring the Enlightenment to the provinces so that Indians could be released and not exterminated. The publication of this novel in 1899 led to a sharp controversy in the literary world of Latin America, which is why today also Clorinda Matto de Turner is considered one of Latin America's most controversial women writers (Lindstorm 170). The church always allied with conservative rulers. Moreover leaders and liberal politicians were often devoted to journalism and wrote novels in exile. The novels of these writers were concerned mainly with the process of construction of nation-states. They wrote novels taking into account issues related to development and nation-building. They believed that good novels reflected better conditions of the nation state; they represented the greatest achievement in any country as only a good or strong state could produce good novels. They believed that Latin American life would improve substantially once the number of novels was written. An example in this context is Facundo: Civilization and Barbarism by the Argentine Domingo Faustino Sarmiento. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento wrote this narrative in 1845 when he was exiled in Chile. The narrative makes a critical analysis of the culture of Argentina and is a veiled assault on Juan Manuel de Rosas, the ruthless dictator of the time. In 1841 Sarmiento succinctly crystallized the dilemma of most Latin American governments in the nineteenth century about censorship. He stressed the importance of a free press and even said that there could be no progress without freedom or free press. Sarmiento and his liberal colleagues maintained that a free press was vital to the civilization and development in Latin America. However, these leaders also lamented the disadvantages of unlimited freedom of free press (Farrell 203). In fact in the nineteenth century many free presses were established in Latin America. But one cannot say that the so called ‘free press’ were truly free. The truth is that often presses supported one or other political parties. They had prejudices against their adversaries. In the twentieth century Latin American writers suffered censorship mostly due to dictatorial regimes. Moreover they suffered censorship not only in Latin America but also in Spain when Francisco Franco ruled the country. The censors of the Franco regime ensured that the ‘obscene scenes’ were removed before publishing the novels of the Boom writers like Mario Vargas Llosa, Carlos Fuentes and Julio Cortázar. The harsh conditions of dictatorships have compelled writers into exile. Some of the writers who wrote from exile are: Antonio and Ariel Dorfman Skaármeta of Chile, Eduardo Galeano, Christina Peri Rossi, Juan

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Carlos Onetti of Uruguay, Manuel Puig, Marta Lock from Argentina, Juan Gelman, Manlio Argueta from El Salvador, Reinaldo Arenas, Guillermo Cabrera Infante, Severo Sarduy from Cuba. It is almost impossible to mention all the names of writers in exile here. The ones I've mentioned above belong to the time since the fall of the government of Salvador Allende in Chile on September 11, 1973. One of the reasons why Latin American writers faced censorship during dictatorships was because they were writing about social and economic realities of their country. They expressed social status and problems of Latin America through their novels. In addition, they also felt obliged to take personal responsibility for maintaining a social commitment. Literature for them becomes a tool to transform social realities. The role of Latin American writers in the evaluation of the social and political reality has been instrumental (Vargas Llosa). Literature, according to this view, appears as a positive and significant activity because it reflects the scars of reality and prescribes some remedies. Censorship prevents writers from speaking openly. It also requires them to change the nature and purpose of nature. During the boom, narratives were typically censored for political and social content. During the post- boom censorship occurs due to social or moral scandals. Gabriel García Márquez and Censorship It is a known fact that the protagonists of the narrative of Garcia Marquez often face social censure or restriction. For example, in Of Love and Other Demons Delaura Cayetano is excommunicated by the church because he falls in love with Sierva Maria. This narrative developed in the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the seventeenth century shows the symbolism and conflict of cultural traditions in Latin America. Sierva Maria, the only daughter of the Marquis of Casalduero suffers neglect and lack of love from birth. At the tender age of twelve she is bitten by a rabid dog. Due to the growing parental neglect she grows up in the company of slaves in her parents’ house and learns African customs from them. Since their behaviour does not fit the behavioural etiquette of the ruling class, and she begins to behave like them, everyone thinks she is possessed by the devil. So she is sent to the convent of Santa Clara for exorcism. But there Cayetano Delaura who is in charge of exorcism falls in love with her. But the church does not accept the love story between Delaura Cayetano and Sierva Maria because the two characters are from different classes of society and in the end Sierva Maria dies wanting of his love. The role of the Inquisition is also highlighted in this novel. This story exposed that even though miscegenation was common during colonial times, it was a very controlled and monitored affair. We also see that in Love in the Time of Cholera Florentino Ariza has to wait for more than fifty years to be reunited with the woman he considers to be the love of his life. The love between Florentino Ariza and Fermina Daza succeeds only after the death of Dr. Juvenal Urbino, Fermina's husband. Florentino Ariza and Fermina Daza fall madly in love in their youth but they cannot marry because of their class differences.

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Thus as stated earlier on, the theme of love in the narrative history preceding the boom was linked with the ideas of nation building, in Marquez’ novels it becomes clear that such romances were often controlled and subject to monitoring. It turns out that in the following texts, as we shall see, we look at the fact that the creator of these characters in their narratives must suffer censorship or "social constraints". The writer and his narrative also suffer the same in everyday reality. They suffer because they care for the marginalized. The author feels empathy for them. His is a narrative fully allied with the marginalized and expresses their views through their novels. García Márquez was not only a great novelist but also a professional journalist. Therefore he suffered double censorship. As a writer and a journalist he suffered censorship for the first time when he published the narrative The Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor (1955) in El Espectador. This tale was told to Gabriel García Márquez by the same Alejandro Velasco who came to him when he was a newspaper reporter of the above mentioned daily. The Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor is the true story of a sailor of twenty, Luis Alejandro Velasco. It tells how the hero managed to survive for ten days at sea after falling off the Ship Caldas. It shows how while the ship was returning from Mobile (USA) to Colombia, shegot ship-wrecked because of contraband cargo and not because of a storm as it was initially believed. The publication of this story in the newspaper generated a scandal and resulted in the closure of Espectador and had converted García Márquezinto a persona non grata to the government of Rojas Pinilla because he was discrediting the official version of events. Then due to the fear of possible persecution and harassment by the dictatorial regime of Rojas Pinilla, Garcia Marquez went to work as a correspondent in Europe for several years. Something similar also happened to the sailor protagonist, who was considered as a hero of his homeland and became rich through propaganda. But after the facts were out and such revelations were refuted, he was hated by the government, expelled from the marines and forgotten forever. Similarly The Adventure of MiguelLittin: Chile in Clandestine tells the clandestine visit of the Chilean film maker Miguel Littin to his native country after twelve years in exile. During the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, Miguel Littin’s visit to his country had been banned. Yet he returns disguised as a Uruguayan businessman visiting Chile. During this visit he a makes documentary film about life in Chile under the dictatorship. He also filmed interviews with ordinary people and people from resistance movements operating clandestinely. These documentaries were shown all over the world and exposed the brutal repression of Pinochet. Miguel Littin succeeds in his mission and get out of Chile when he was about to be discovered by the detectives. The publication of this narrative in 1986 based on interviews with Miguel Littin also generated a huge scandal for the Pinochet regime. The Pinochet government not only censored this novel but also burned 15,000 copies in the Port of Valparaíso (Martin 465). It is known as even the masterpiece One Hundred Years of Solitude was banned in Colombia in 1970;

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies according to The File Room, it was banned because the government considered that the novel had used profane language, was violent and was sexually explicit and sacrilegious. The novel One Hundred Years of Solitude was also banned and challenged in California, Southern California and Virginia in the USA because of alleged obscenity (Banned and censored). In 2001 Carlos Abascal, labour minister of Mexico, expelled a school teacher because her students had been recommended to read Strange Pilgrims. The reason given for this was that the work mentioned perverted youth (Said). From the perspective of all the above, now we can say that there was another book I recently had to deal with censorship, Memories of My Melancholy Whores. This novel was completely banned in Iran in 2007 after the Iranian culture ministry received complaints from conservative groups. Conservative groups protested that the novel was promoting prostitution (Iran ban). García Márquezwas not only concerned by political and economic problems of America or the third world but also virulently attacked the West for failing to resolve such problems. So in The Solitude of Latin America, the lecture delivered at the ceremony of awarding the Nobel Prize, he criticized the inability or unwillingness of Europeans to understand the historical problems of Latin America and the Third World in a tone of sarcasm and irony . he also criticized them for their reluctance to give the time to Latin America to mature and develop as well as Europe herself had taken time to develop. He maintains in his speech that Europe and the USA should not impose their models on the living realities of Latin America. In the same speech he states that they have given the Nobel Prize for his contribution not only to literature but also for his political activism. He has always been a harsh critic of neoliberal and imperial policies of the United States. He has always been a true supporter of socialist revolutions in Latin America and Cuba, Chile, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Argentina and even his native country. So he did not get along with the rightist political leaders and as he was maintaining a strong relationship with Fidel Castro, he was not popular in Colombia or USA It's just after winning the Nobel Prize in 1982 that his relationship with Colombia improved. Before that the Colombian government had even blamed as being responsible for financing a leftist guerrilla group in Colombia for a coup. So he had to seek political asylum in Mexico (Martin 416). As for his relationship with the USA, he was denied the visa constantly, even after winning the Nobel Prize. The problem began in 1961 when he worked for the Cuban news agency in New York. The State Department of the United States thought he was a communist. However exile and censorship did not reduce him as a writer. Rather it pushed him on to write more. So through these events and examples of censorship, it can be deduced that the texts of García Márquez care about social commitments. However, his agenda was very different from the writers of love stories of the earlier generations who were driven by civilizational missions of whitening the Latin American peoples

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies through racial diluting of the coloured genes. Garcia Marquez’s love stories, on the contrary, destabilize and blow off the myth of any scope for such controlled miscegenation enabling any improvement in the stock of the peoples of Latin America. What he narrativizes, on the contrary, are hopeless love stories of alienation, despair and even death which cannot guarantee any kind of redemption in terms of belonging and social security, dignity and social justice. What is constant in all his stories is the shadow of censorships which lurk at every possible place and is all pervading. References Althusser, L. (1984). “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatusses (Note towards an Investigation).” Essays on Ideology. London: Verso: 1-60. “Banned and censored book project.” Web. 17 June 2011. http://www.nuigalway.ie/human_rights/Summer_Schools/bannedbooks.html Caso, F. “Global Issues: Censorship”. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2008. “censorship.” EncyclopaediaBritannica. EncyclopaediaBritannicaUltimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010. Day, N. “The Censorship Issue.” Censorship or Freedom of Expression? Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 2001. pp. 7-18. Farrell, J. G. (2006). “Censorship – Spanish America.” Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History. Ed. John Michael Francis. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc: 202-206. “Iran Banfor Garcia Marquez Novel.” Web. 30 May 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7098233.stm Lindstorm, N. (2004). “Late-nineteenth century narratives of social commentary and national self-reflection.” Early Spanish American Narrative. Austin: University of Texas Press: 144-176. Vargas, L. M. “The Obligation of a Writer.” Web. 15 June 2011. http://www.indexoncensorship.org/2010/10/mario- vargas-llosa-nobel-prize/ Martin, Gerald. Gabriel GarcíaMárquez: A Life. London: Bloomsburry, 2009. Said, R. (2011). “Muchos hombres, muchas ideas.” Web: http://www.chinacota.com/ Sharer, R. J., Loa P. T. (2006) “History and Maya Civilization.” TheAncient Maya. Stanford: StandfordUniversityPress: 99-152.

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OBESITY-THE ESCALATING GLOBAL EPIDEMIC – A REVIEW Sabyasachi Chatterjee, Assistant Teacher, Mahesh Banga Vidyalaya, Hooghly, W.B., India. Abstract In this review an effort is made to explore the causes and necessary measures of prevention, defining the management approach to address the worldwide, obesity trends that are causing serious public health hazards particularly in childhood and adolescence. Environmental factors, lifestyle preferences and cultural environment play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity. Obesity in childhood and adolescence may be associated with a range of medical and psychological complications and can prompt individuals to serious health problems in adult life. Obesity interventions include family support, well designed appropriate approach, long term behaviour modification, dietary change and increased physical activity and decreased sedentary behaviour. It is likely that successful prevention of childhood and adolescence obesity through physical activity promotion will involve theory-based, culturally appropriate school, family and community interventions. All in all, there is an urgent need to instigate prevention and treatment of obesity in children and adolescents. Key Words: Obesity, health problems, measures of preventions, management approach, interventions. ******* Introduction Obesity has turned out to be a worldwide fact cutting across regional and economic barriers. It is the most common nutritional disorder in the developed countries and is assuming to become a health problem in developing countries that are in rapid epidemiological shift. (Caballero, 2005) It is a global problem, affecting an estimated 300 million people worldwide and it has long been observed that obesity is associated with an increased in mortality and reduced life expectancy. (Fontaine et al., 2003) The prevalence of obesity varies considerably throughout the world. Education and socio-economic status affected the prevalence of obesity, but the effects may be diametrically opposite in different populations around the world. Urbanization, less physical activity, increased energy intake and the modern life style are important risk factors in obesity. As a result of these changes, obesity is going to be a major public health problem in most of the developing countries in near future. It is known that prevalence of obesity is influenced by population characteristics such as age, race, gender and socio-economic status. (Urek et al., 2007) Although definition of obesity and overweight has changed over time (Flegal et al., 2002 & Kuczmarski et al., 2000), There is no consensus on a cut-off point for excess fatness of overweight or obesity in children and adolescents. Overweight and obesity can be defined ‘as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may impair health’. (W.H.O., 2006) The obesity issue has generated considerable debate fuelled by concerns of the World Health Organisation (W.H.O.) and governments around the world that

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies obesity prevalence has reached epidemic levels. A number of observers contest the general consensus of rising obesity levels by arguing that the ‘myth of obesity’ is perpetuated by the state seeking to exert a ‘big brother’ influence over the personal lives of its citizenry. (Basham et al., 2006) The majority view, based on extensive government and independent research is that obesity represents one of the most complex public health issues confronting governments in the decades ahead. In recent decades, there has been a significant increase in overweight and obesity prevalence rates in many countries around the world. According to the WHO, ‘excess body weight poses one of the most serious public health challenges of the 21st century.’(W.H.O., 2007) Even in the developing world there is evidence that levels of overweight and obesity are increasingly affecting population health, many of who already suffer from the affects of malnutrition. Another interesting finding within the UN report was the connection between obesity and micronutrient deficiency. Despite the rise in levels of overweight as well as those suffering from starvation, the study argued that both groups were being deprived of important micronutrients like vitamins and minerals. (UN Report figures, 2002) Classification The most common current method of classifying the weight is based upon proportion of weight for height and the preference is given to Body Mass Index (BMI) which is calculated by dividing the weight in Kilo grams by height in (m2). Table- 1 Classification BMI Kg/m2 Disease Risk / Waist Circumference

< 102 cm (male) > 102 cm (male) < 88 cm (females) > 88 cm (females) Underweight < 18.5 - - Normal Range 18.5 – 24 - - Over weight 25.0-2.9 Increased High Obesity (class-I) 30.0-34.9 High Very High Obesity (class-II) 35.0-39.9 Very High Very High Extreme Obesity >40.0 Extremely High Extremely High (class-III) Source: (Adopted from WHO consultation 1998) Causes of Obesity Genes and Family History Several studies have revealed that there is a strong genetic basis to the development of obesity. It appears to

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies be a poly genetic disorder with many genes related with the predisposition to excess adiposity. (Chagnon et al., 2003) Only 1 per cent – 5 per cent of obesity cases can be explained by a single gene mutation, (See www.thefreedictionary.com /mutation) however, common obesity (which effects most people with obesity) ‘is a complex disorder with contributions from multiple genes and gene variants…the search for specific genes…provides a foundation for understanding the effect of environmental and lifestyle factors’. (Newell et al., 2007) Evidence suggests that genetic factors are involved in all aspects of weight regulation, including appetite, eating behaviour, taste, satiety, thermo genesis (See www.encyclo.co.uk/define/thermogenesis) and motivation to exercise. Both genetic and non-genetic factors can also affect metabolism. For example a recent study conducted by the researchers at The University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine hypothesized that the constitute of African-American women is different from that of Caucasian women, making them burn fewer calories when doing a simple activity like sitting. This implies that two women with identical eating and exercise habits might lose weight differently because of a genetic difference. Studies of identical twins that have been raised apart show that genes have a strong influence on a person's weight. Overweight and obesity tend to run in families. Families also share food and physical activity habits. Children adopt the habits of their parents. Children with obese parents or siblings are five times more likely to be obese. (Bouchard, 2009) Physical Activity It has been hypothesized that a firm increase in physical inactivity among all age groups has heavily contributed to rising rates of obesity all around the world. Abundant researches have proved that sedentary behaviours like watching television and playing computer games are associated with increased prevalence of obesity.( Swinburn et al., 2002 & Morenoet al., 2007) Furthermore, parents report that they favour having their children watch television at home rather than play outside unattended because parents are then able to complete their household tasks while keeping an eye on their children.( Nguyen et al., 1996) In addition, increased size of children who are being driven to school and low participation rates in sports and physical education, particularly among adolescent girls, (Swinburn et al., 2002) are also related with increased obesity predominance. Food Intake and Food Quality If obesity is seen to be a result of an imbalance between energy intake and expenditure, the amount of food ingested is an important factor. (Morenoet al., 2007) The role of parents in food intake is critical; overweight mothers have been found to serve their children larger portions and more fatty foods, contributing to weight gain.( Nguyen et al., 1996) In addition, research indicates that the type of food consumed may influence obesity levels. Some studies have shown that obese children consume more fatty foods and fewer carbohydrates than their lean counterparts, even taking physical fitness and parental weight into account.

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(Morenoet al., 2007) Fatty foods are energy dense and are associated with obesity because they are most likely to be stored in the body, do not supply strong satiety signals in contrast to carbohydrates and are generally considered to be palatable, thereby encouraging their consumption. (Newby, 2007) Frequent intake of fast food which contains high levels of fat, may lead to high energy intake and reduce consumption of more low fat nourishing foods such as fruit and vegetables. (Morenoet al., 2007) Other types of food such as soft drinks have also been related with obesity. (Newby, 2007) Eating Patterns Eating patterns may also influence obesity. An uneven energy distribution throughout the day, where less is eaten at breakfast and lunch, and more is eaten at dinner may influence weight gain. Children are more likely to be inactive in the evening, usually watching TV or studying, and so excess energy is not burned off. (Maffeis et al., 2000) Recurrent TV dinners are associated with increased fried food consumption which heightens chances of obesity. (Morenoet al., 2007) In addition, a pattern of serving large food portions is associated with obesity as children’s energy intake increases. Parental influence is again important in this area, as obese parents have been shown to serve larger portions to their children. (Newby, 2007) Diseases Thyroid disease, polycystic ovary disease, brain tumours, mental retardation and other conditions are small contributors to the risk factors for obesity. Medication Although there are plentiful drugs prescribed to treat obesity but many medicines cause weight gains as unintended side effects. Certain anti-depressants, anti-convulsions, diabetes medications, hormones and most corticosteroids can contribute to the potential for obesity. (See www.medicinenet.com) Infant Feeding Breast feeding is possibly protective for the development of obesity. (Butte, 2001) Lack of Sleep Research shows that lack of sleep increases the danger of obesity. For example, one study of teenagers showed that with each hour of sleep lost, the odds of becoming obese went up. Lack of sleep increases the risk of obesity in other age groups as well. People who sleep less than seven hours at night were more likely to become obese. (Hitti, 2004)  Socioeconomic Status: In some developed countries, poorer children or those who live in rural settings are more at risk of obesity, whereas in countries undergoing economic transition childhood obesity is associated with a more affluent lifestyle and with living in urban regions. Children and adolescents of poor socio-economic status tend to consume less qualities of fruits and vegetables and to have a higher intake of total and saturated fat, energy dense diet because it is more affordable than a

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healthier diet comprised of lean meats, fresh fruits, and vegetables.( Drewnowski et al., 2004)  Ethnicity: Data from the United States illustrate that there is an increased risk of obesity in Native Americans and Hispanic Americans compared with white Americans, although these differences may be largely connected to differences in socioeconomic status.  Pollution: Endocrine disruptors, which manoeuvre the hormones that control body weight, are thought to be a potential cause of obesity.( Keith et al., 2006) These disruptors have abundant common sources such as pharmaceuticals, plastics, food and toys.(National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences., 2010)  Depression: Depression may lead to obesity and obesity may lead to depression. The cause and effect relationship of depression and obesity is poorly understood but two are linked. (Bovbjerg, 2008) Psychological factors Based on psychological factors, obesity may be broadly divided into two forms.  Developmental Obesity - Most commonly observed in children, eating usually serves as compensation for lack of confidence, anxiety, failure, aloneness, and social isolation.  Reactive Obesity – Generally begins in adulthood and is a response to a bitter / upsetting experience such as homesickness, the breakup of romance, illness or the death of a loved one. Therefore it may be a compensatory behaviour for adjusting to life by preventing more serious problems. Some people for a fun and some people during intense movements of life tempted to eat or sip unwanted drinks. The kind of experience also adds some amount of weight exclusively in the individuals who are already overweight. Obesity and co-morbidities  Depression  Stroke  Sleep apnoea and asthma  Myocardial Infarction  Hypertension  Diabetes  Bowel and Genitor-Urinary cancer  Osteoarthritis  Gout  Peripheral vascular disease

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Cost of obesity Direct: Co-morbidities, diabetes, hearts diseases, stroke etc. Health services expenditure, prescription, hospital, drugs. Indirect: Disability, mortality, loss of employment, early pension able retirement, poorer education. Obese die nine years earlier. Intangible cost: Psychological distress, loss of self esteem, Physical pain, social isolation, relationship difficulties. Main concerns of obese person Self - Image: Clothes, self perception other's opinion, feeling unattractive. Health problems Symptoms:  Limited physical activity  General discomforts  Fatigue Conventional management of childhood and adolescence obesity Family involvement Treatment programmes for obesity should take into account the impact of the child’s family on food choices and level of physical activity. Studies on long-term maintenance of weight loss have revealed the importance of altered food habits within the whole family, support for the child, and parental praise for changed eating behaviour and physical activity. (Epstein et al., 1998) Developmentally appropriate approach Treatment of preadolescent obesity with parents as the exclusive agents of lifestyle modification appears more effective than targeting the child alone. There has been some accomplishment with separate sessions for adolescents and parents and structured programmes flexible enough to allow input from adolescents. There have even been short-term positive outcomes with a phone- and email-based programme for adolescent weight management. (Saelens et al., 2002) Dietary change There is some apprehension that inflexible restriction or control of a child’s food intake may generate muddled eating or, in the young child, reduction in linear height growth. Less prescriptive, lower-energy diets are now used, with a stress on all members of the family moving to healthier eating patterns. (Epstein et al., 2001) The aim is to provide a flexible programme to help the family and the child to make sustainable modifications in food choices and eating habits. In general, dietary interventions should put emphasis on energy reduction, lower-fat food choices, increased vegetable and fruit intake, healthier snacks and decreased portion sizes. Water should be used as the main beverage, and drinks with high sugar content,

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies including soft drinks and fruit drinks, should be restricted. The effect of these interventions should be a reduction in total energy intake by reducing the energy density of the diet. Changes in eating habits, shopping practices and types of food for the whole family will maintain a child’s ability to self-regulate his or her food intake. Recommendations per Day Calorie intake should be reduced by 500 - 1000 Kcal / day, less dietary fat, fewer empty calories regular three meals daily, realistic sustainable diet, new long term habit development. Increased physical activity and decreased sedentary behaviour Improved physical activity (both planned and incidental/lifestyle) is an important component of weight management programmes for obese children, although, as with dietary intake, there is no proof as to the most effective physical activity prescription. In a study of the long-term effectiveness of physical activity interventions, the lifestyle exercise group maintained better weight than the programmed exercise group. There is some indication that a reduction in sedentary behaviour is an effective part of a weight management programme for obese children. (Reilly et al., 2003) Recommendations  Encourage activity than exercise  Moderate level of physical activity for 30 - 45 minutes 3-5 days per week (ideally every day)  Gardening, walking cycling, swimming, house work  Less TV, computers Calories Burned During Exercise This table shows calories burned per hour for different activities. The amount of calories used during physical activity depends on a person's body mass and the intensity of the activity. Table-2

Activity Calories Burned Per Hour Per Body Weight 34 Kg 50 Kg 70 Kg 90 Kg (75 lb) (100 lb) (150 lb) (200 lb) Bicycling, 10 Km/h (6mph) 135 160 240 320 Bicycling, 20 Km/h (12 mph) 225 270 410 540 Running, 9 Km/h (5.5 mph) 365 440 660 880 Running, 11 Km/h (7 mph) 510 610 920 1220 Running, 16 Km/h (10 mph) 710 850 1280 1700 Jumping Rope 415 500 750 1000

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Swimming, 23 m/min (25yd/min) 155 185 275 370 Swimming, 46 m/min (50yd / min) 270 325 500 650 Tennis, singles 220 265 400 530 Walking, 3 Km/h (2mph) 125 160 240 320 Walking, 5 Km/h (3mph) 175 210 320 420 Walking, 7 Km/h (4.5 mph) 245 295 440 590

Microsoft @ Encarta @ Encyclopaedia 2005 Behaviour modification Behaviour modification is a constituent of most weight management programmes. A variety of different behaviour modification strategies have been tried in obesity treatment studies .eg.  Self -monitoring of diet  Occasional weighing  Stimulus control, avoid temptations  Keep food diary recording food or drinks consumed  Suppress negative emotions  Determination and development of balanced dietary habits Intervention type and setting Various types of interventions have been applied to treat childhood obesity: individual counselling sessions, group programmes, and sessions given by different types of healthcare professionals.(Ebbeling et al., 2002) Interventions have been conducted in different settings, including primary care, community health centres, tertiary institutions and holiday camps. There is some evidence for the effectiveness of group programmes, holiday camps and email- and phone-based behavioural interventions. Non-conventional management of childhood obesity. (Epstein et al., 2001) Very low calorie diets In general, very low calorie diets, whether they include normal food items or non-food substitutes, cause rapid weight loss in adolescents. This may be of advantage when there is significant medical co morbidity, but should be conducted in a specialised centre. Very low calorie diets are never indicated for children. Drug therapy Weight loss medications like Sibutramine, Metformin, and Orlistat are only appropriate for people with BMI of 30 or more or with BMI of 27 with related medical problems. Surgery Surgery may be a weight loss option for people who are severely obese with BMI of 40 or above with severe PIJMS II (1) – 2015 ONLINE ISSN No. : 2348-618X Page 74

PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies health problems. There are two accepted surgical measures for reducing obesity i.e. Gastroplasty and gastric bypass, both decreases stomach size to a pouch smaller than chicken's egg limiting the amount of food that can be consumed at one time. Prevention of obesity A recently published Cochrane review of interventions for preventing obesity in children concluded that there are “limited high quality data on the effectiveness of prevention programs”. (Campbell et al., 2003) However, the published studies do highlight the potential of combining a reduction in sedentary behaviour and an increase in physical activity, as well as the utility of a school-based setting. Several community based interventions aimed at preventing obesity and incorporating such approaches are currently under way in a number of countries, including Australia and New Zealand. Swinburn et al. (1999) introduced the concept of the obesogenicity of modern environments, with the influences promoting the development of obesity operating on micro- and macro environmental levels, and having physical, economic, political and socio- cultural aspects. Elements in the microenvironment that influence physical activity and food intake include settings where people live, work and study; community facilities (shopping malls, clubs, churches); food retailers and outlets (supermarkets, canteens, lunch bars, restaurants); recreational facilities (parks, pools, gyms); type of neighbourhood (street safety, cycle paths, footpaths); and access to local primary healthcare. At the macro environmental level (i.e., beyond the sphere of influence of individuals) factors affecting dietary intake and physical activity include food production, importation, marketing and distribution; urban and rural development (town planning); transport systems (public transport); and health systems. Assessing the environment of a given community using this framework indicates the opportunities for preventive strategies. As yet, there are few successful examples of comprehensive, large-scale interventions to guide obesity-prevention programmes. Such interventions need to be supported by ample resourcing and major community ownership. Conclusion As the prevalence and costs of health conditions associated with obesity among children and adolescents continue to mount, efforts to treat and prevent these conditions have become increasingly important. Unless this epidemic is tackled on war footing, the implications of this global trend on future generations will be stern. Obesity is a chronic disorder that has multiple causes and in childhood and adolescent it has significant effect on both physical and psychological health. A quantity of effective plans and programmes can be incorporated to target built physical activity, behavioural modification and diet to prevent and treat this prevalent disorder. However, further research needs to look at the most effective approach for intervention, prevention and management of obesity. Side by side it is important that these strategies must be culture specific, ethnical and consider the socio-economical aspects of targeting population.

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References Basham, P. & Luik, J. ‘Four big, fat myths’, Daily Telegraph.2006. Bouchard, C. Childhood obesity: Are genetic differences involved? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2009; 89, 1494S-1501S. Bovbjerg, V.E. The Epidemiology of Obesity: Casual Roots-Roots of Cause, in Obesity: Causes, Mechanism, Prevention and Treatment, edited by Elliott, M.B., 2008; 19-72. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates, Inc Butte, N.F. The role of breast feeding in obesity. Pediatr Clin North Am.2001; 48: 189-198. Caballero, B.A Nutrition Paradox-Underweight and Obesity in Developing Countries. Eng J Med.2005; 352:1514-16. Campbell, K., Waters, E., O'Meara, S., Kelly, S. & Summerbell, C. (2003). Interventions for Preventing Obesity in Children (Cochrane Review). In The Cochrane Library, 1:2003. Oxford, Update Software. Chagnon, Y.C., Rankinen, T., Snyder, E.E., Weisnagel, S.J., Perusse, L, & Bouchard, C. The human obesity gene map: the 2002 update.Obes Res.2003; 11:313–367 Drewnowski, Adam & S.E. Specter. Poverty and obesity: the role of energy density and energy costs. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2004; 79.pp:6-16 Ebbeling, C.B., Pawlak, D.B, & Ludwig, D.S. Childhood obesity: public health crisis, common sense cure. Lancet, 2002; 360: 473-482. Epstein, L.H., Gordy, C.C., Raynor, H.A., Beddome, M., Kilanoswki, C.K., & Paluch, R. (2001). Increasing fruit and Vegetable intake and decreasing fat and sugar intake in families at risk for childhood obesity. Obes Res.2001; 9:171-178. Epstein, L.H., Myers, M.D., Raynor, H.A, & Saelens, B.E. Treatment of paediatric obesity. Pediatrics, 1998; 101 (3 Pt 2): 554-570. Flegal, K.M., Carroll, M.D., Ogden, C.L., & Johnson, C.L.Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2000. JAMA.2002; 288:1723-1727. Fontaine, K. R, Redden, D. T., Wang, C., Westfall, A. O., & Allison, D. B.Years of Life Lost Due to Obesity. JAMA.2003; 289:187-93. Hitti, Miranda. Sleep More to Fight Obesity. Web MD Health, 2004 Keith, S.W.et al. Putative Contributors to the Secular Increase in Obesity: Exploring The Roads Less Travelled. International Journal of Obesity, 2006; 30:1585-1594 Kuczmarski, R.J., & Flegal, K.M. Criteria for definition of overweight in transition: background and recommendations for the United States. Am J Clin Nutr.2000, 72:1074-1081. Maffeis, C., Provera1, S., Filippi, L., Sidoti, G., Schena, S., Pinelli, L. & Tato, L. Distribution of food intake

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies as a risk factor for childhood obesity. International Journal of Obesity, 2000; 24, 75-80 Medicinenet.com.Obesity (Weight Loss) Complete Medical Information on This All Too Common Disease on Medicinenet.com. Medicinenet.com.http://www.medicinenet.com/obesity weight loss/article.htm#tocd Moreno, L. A. & Rodriguez, G. Dietary risk factors for development of childhood obesity. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care, 2007; 10, 336-341. Mutation - any alteration in the inherited nucleic acid sequence of the genotype of an organism. Available at: www.thefreedictionary.com /mutation. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Endocrine Disruptors. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, 2010 Newby, P. K. (2007). Are dietary intakes and eating behaviours related to childhood obesity? A comprehensive review of the evidence. Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics, 35(1), 35-60. Newell, A., Zlot. A., Silvey, K. & Arail, K. Addressing the obesity epidemic: a genomics perspective. Preventing chronic disease. Pub Med.2007; 4:A31 Nguyen, V. T., Larson, D. E., Johnson, R. K. & Goran, M. L. (1996). Fat intake and adiposity in children of lean and obese parents. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 63, 507-513. Reilly, J.J. &, McDowell, Z.C. Physical activity interventions in the prevention and treatment of paediatric obesity: systematic review and critical appraisal. Proc Nutr Soc.2003; 62: 611-619. Saelens, B.E., Sallis, J.F., & Wiffley, D.E. Behavioural weight control for overweight adolescents initiated in primary care. Obes Res, 2002; 10: 20-32. Swinburn, B., & Egger, G. Preventive strategies against weight gain and obesity. Obes Rev, 2002; 3:289- 301. Swinburn, B., Egger, G., & Fezeela, R. (1999). Dissecting obesogenic environments: the development and application of a framework for identifying and prioritising environmental interventions for obesity. Prev Med. 1999; 29: 563-570. Thermogenesis - the production of heat in the body by physiological processes. Available at:www.encyclo.co.uk/define/thermogenesis. UN Report figures. Cited in an article published on the International Obesity Taskforce website entitled, ‘The developing world’s new burden: obesity’.2002. Urek, R., Crncevic-Urek, M., & Cubrilo-Turek, M. Obesity-a global public health problem. Acta Med Croatica, 2007; 61:161-64 World Health Organisation (WHO). Fact Sheet, September.2006. World Health Organisation. The challenge of obesity in the WHO European Region and the strategies for response, World Health Organisation: 1.2007.

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PARTICIPATION OF MUSLIM WOMEN IN HIGHER EDUCATION *Sahidul Ahmed & **Najnin Sultana *Assistant Professor, Ambedkar College, Fatikroy, Tripura, India **Research Scholar, Department of Education, Assam University, Silchar, India. Corresponding author: Sahidul Ahmed Abstract The current status of higher education in India is characterized by wide social and regional disparities in enrolment rates and availability of institutions of higher education. Although India has made appreciable progress in this regard, particularly with reference to growth in the number of universities and colleges over the years, the rural-urban and regional differentials in availability of institutions of higher education along with other infrastructure such as teaching faculty, hostels, housing for teachers, library, laboratories, and computer facilities etc. have widened over the years, We have studied the issue of access of Muslim women in higher education on the basis of the gross enrolment ratio (GER) in higher education. We use the National sample survey data for 2000 to capture the enrolment ratio. The main objective of this paper is to analysis the participation rate of Muslim women in higher education of India. Key words: Higher education, gross enrolment ratio (GER) ******* Introduction The role of education in facilitating social and economic progress is well accepted today. The ability of a nation’s population to learn and perform in an environment where scientific and technological is changing rapidly is critical for its growth. Improvements in the functional and analytical ability of children and youth through education open up opportunities leading to both individual and group entitlements. The Muslims are the major religion minority within India and one of the largest Muslim communities in the world. Officially, India has the third largest Muslim population after Indonesia and Pakistan.Muslims are officially consisting 13.4 per cent of the country’s total population or 138 million people as of 2001 census. The largest concentrations- about 47 per cent of all Muslims in India, according to 2001 census – lives in three states of Uttar Pradesh (total-30.7 million and 18.5 %), West Bengal (22.2 million and 25%) and Bihar (13.7 million and 16.5%). Muslims represent a majority of the local population in Lakshadweep (93% in 2001 census) and Jammu and Kashmir (67% in 2001 census). High concentrations of Muslims are also found in the states of Assam (31%) and Kerala (24.7%). Muslim’s continues to lag behind compared to other socio-religious categories in socio-economic and educational development. As far as educational development is concern, Muslims are at a double

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies disadvantage with low levels of education combined with low quality of education (Ahmed, 2012). Their deprivation increased manifold as the level of education rises (Abedi, 2011). In some instance the relative share of Muslims is lower than the SCs or STs who are victims of a long standing caste system (Sachar Committee, 2006). As per 2001 census, literacy rate for the population age of 7 years and above in the country as a whole stands at 64.8 percent. Muslim literacy rate is only 59.1 per cent which is far lower than the national average. In the rural areas their literacy rate is 62.3 percent for male and 42.7 percent for female. In the urban areas, it is76.3 percent for male and 63.2 percent for female (Census of India, 2001). The work participation rate is defined as percentage of total worker (main and marginal) to total population. This is often considered as a very crude measure to assess the status of a section of population of a society. According to the census of 2001, in India, of the total population of 138,188,240 the numberof Muslim returned as workers is 43,396,093. In other words, 31.3 percent of the Muslim populations of India constitute workers. Of these workers, 33,886,213 are males and 9,409,880 are females. The overall work participation rate of India is 31.3 per cent where male 51.7 per cent and female is 25.1 per cent, whereas the Muslim’s work participation for both male & female are 47.5 per cent and 14.1 per cent respectively. The current status of higher education in India is characterized by wide social and regional disparities in enrolment rates and availability of institutions ofhigher education. Although India has made appreciable progress in this regard, particularly with reference togrowth in the number of universities and colleges over the years, the rural-urban and regional differentials inavailability of institutions of higher education along with other infrastructure such as teaching faculty, hostels,housing for teachers, library, laboratories, and computer facilities etc. have widened over the years. Objective To analysis the participation rate of Muslim women in higher education of India. Methodology We have studied the issue of access of Muslim women in higher education on the basis of the gross enrolment ratio (GER) in higher education. We use the National sample survey data for 2000 to capture the enrolment ratio. To identify the causes of Muslim women educational backwardness, we have taken the help of secondary data like books, magazines, government reports etc. Participation of Muslim women in higher education of India The access to higher education is low for girls as compared with boys in India - the GER being 12.12% for male and 8% for female. It needs to be recognized that although the enrolment ratio are generally lower for the female compared to the male, the female belonging to the lower caste and some religious groups suffer more in access to higher education than others. For instance in 2000, as against the overall average of 8% for

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies the female, the GER was 5.71% for ST female followed by 3.48% for SC female, 5% for OBC female and 14.1% for other female. Thus the GER for SC female was five times less compare to the higher caste female. Similarly, the GER of the ST female was lower by about three times compared with higher caste female.

Source: NSSO Note: Grad-Graduation Among the STs, SCs and OBCs of the India, Muslim SCs, STs and OBCs participation rate in higher education is very low. They are having low GER compared to Hindu, Christian and Sikhs (ST, SC and OBC). And among the Muslim’s, female suffer the most. Disparities are evident in enrolment ratio between religious groups in 2000. In general the GER is higher for the persons belonging to Jainism followed by Christians, Sikh, Hindus and Muslims. The GER for Christians, Sikhs, Hindu and Muslim is 18.56%, 11.29%, 10.44% and 5.23% respectively. The GER was the lowest for the Muslim. It is also necessary to mention that Muslim female is having the lowest GER compared to other religions irrespective of their areas.

So, from the above discussion we can say that Muslim women are the most disadvantage group among the marginalized section of the society. According to Sachar Committee- The educational status of Muslim

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies community is a matter of great concern for our nation because without their upliftment, it is impossible to develop India as they constitute almost 14 per cent of India’s total population. Because education is an indispensable means for development which helps people to out of their misery. In this connection I want to quote our first Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru- ‘You can tell the condition of a nation by looking the status of its women’. So, we have to confer significant attention in respect of women participation in higher education. Moreover, special policy and fund should be provided to promote Muslim education, especially for the women’s in higher education. Causes of their educational backwardness It is widely known fact that Muslims are the most educationally backward community of India, and the condition of Muslim female are more miserable. Although education of children has rapidly grown in the country, UNESCO’s monitoring report released on November 6, 2003 cautioned that India is “at risk of not achieving the Millennium Development Goal of Universalisation of Education by 2015”. Although the rise expenditure on elementary education, India has experienced a slight improvement in the condition of elementary education but still .95 crores out of school children in the 6-14 years age group as per the report of the department of elementary education (2009). Muslim children constitute the largest group among out of school children in the country and among them the gigantic portion are girls. There are multiple socio-economic and political factors for educational backwardness of Muslims. Moreover, causes of their educational backwardness vary from state to state and within state from one region to another. However, some major factors of their educational backwardness may be follows: 1. Poverty is endemic among Muslims across the country and is a significant hurdle in the access of Muslims to education, especially for the women. Because parents prefer boys’ education to girls education. 2. Partition of the country has devastated the social fabric of Indian Muslim community.It led to the migration of Nawab, Zamidar and other high classes and high group to Pakistan. Those who stayed in India were mostly labourers, marginal farmers and Muslims of low income group. They generally slums and ghettos where educational facilities are not available. 3. Muslim concentration village, towns and cities lack basic infrastructural facilities like road, bridges, communications and transportation facilities educational facilities, hospital etc. (SacharCommittee, 2006). During rainy seasons many minority village are cut off from other place and thus, make it difficult for the students especially female to move from one place to other to attending school. Moreover, lack of transportation facilities prevents minority students of remote areas to go to district towns where most of the available institutions for them are located. 4. Ministry of Human Resource Development (GOI) has started many types of schools, eg. Central School,

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JawaharNavodayaVidyalaya, Kasturba Gandhi BalikaVidyalaya etc. But the admissions of Muslim students in these schools are very low in general and Muslim girls in particular which means that they are deprived from the quality education. 5. Owing to cultural and social heritage, Muslim parents are reluctant to send girls to boys’ schools particularly from middle level and above. 6. One of the factors hindering the progress of Muslim women’s education has been the inadequacy of the women teachers in educational institution. 7. The socio-cultural status of Muslim and other religions are not same. Muslims, especially Muslim women are found the traditional curriculum as irrelevant and impractical which leadsdropout. 8. Many Muslim women desirous of pursuing education above middle level, facilities for which are available away from their homes, cannot avail themselves of these facilities due to lack of hostels which leads less participation in higher education. 9. Frequent occurrences of communal violence even after 60 years of independence promoted insecurity among India Muslims and forced to live in slums and ghettos. And parents of those areas often complain about the existence of insecurity for girls to attend schools. Occurrence of cases of abduction, rape and molestation of girls often dampen the enthusiasm of girls in pursuing education beyond a certain age. 10. The access to government schools for Muslim women children is limited. Beside these there are other factors which are responsible for educational backwardness of Muslim women in India like- inadequate special institutions for Muslim women, bold Dress code of the schools, non- recognition of Madarsas etc. Conclusion The recent interaction of different committees with the Muslim community has dispelled certain misconception and stereotypes with respect to education of Muslims, especially the education of Muslim Women/ girls. Muslim parents are not averse to modern or mainstream education and to sending their children to the affordable government schools. They prefer to send their children in modern schools. They do not prefer to send children to Madarsas. A section of Muslims also prefer education though the English medium. There is also common belief that Muslim parents feel that education is not important for girls. Even if girls enrolled, they are withdrawn at an early age to marry them off. This leads to a higher dropout rate among Muslim girls. But the recent study on education of Muslim community has indicated that problem may lie in non-availability of schools within easy reach for girls at lower levels of education (Abedi, 2011). A large number of recommendations have been made and measure suggested for bridge the gap of educational development of Muslim Female. Some of these measures are already in vogue in some states in partial way or on pilot basis, but the adaption of these measures partially or on pilot basis has not made any

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies visible impact on this problem. Problems associated with the implementation are also visible. To improve the educational condition of Muslim, especially the Muslim women/girls following measures are suggested. 1. Madarsas are the primary source of education for the children of poor Muslims families and rural areas established by Local Muslim community. However, a large number of Madarsas have not yet been recognised by the government. Therefore they are deprived of the benefits which could be available to them under SarvaShkshaAbhiyan (SSA). So, recognition procedure for Madarsas should be started by the Government. 2. Ministry of Minority Affairs started pre-metric and post-metric scholarships to minority students which are a welcome step. But these scholarships are not easily available them. They faced enormous difficulties in availing these scholarships (e-literate). So, government shouldmake the system easy so that poor Muslim can avail the benefit. 3. The socio-economic and educational conditions of Arzal Muslims are very pathetic and inferior to SC according to Sachar Committee. These Arzals immediately need reservation facilities like SCs. 4. In the Muslim concentrated areas more number of schools and other institutions of higher education should be established. 5. Basic infrastructure facilities like road, bridge, communication and transportation facilities and health facilities should be improve in the Muslim concentrated areas. In conclusion we can say that only the above measures will not improve the condition of Muslims education, especially the education of Muslim women/girls. So, questions come to our mind that - How should access of Muslims to education be promoted? How should they be included in the main stream of the society? Answers of these questions cannot be simple as the problem itself is very complex and endemic. Sincere and concerted voluntary action and government intervention are urgently required to ameliorate condition of the largest minority of the country. References Abedi, Z., (2011), Indian Muslims: Social, Economic and Educational Status, Arise Publishers and Distribution, New Delhi. Ahmed, K.A., (2010), Status of Women in India, EBH Published, Guwahati. Ahmed, S., (2012), The Quality of Primary Education: A Case Study of Assam, Unpublished Phd thesis, NIT Silchar. Alamgeer, M., (2011), Impact of Modernism on Contemporary Muslim Women, Axis Publication, New Delhi. Govt. of India (2006), Social, Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India, Cirrus Graphics Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

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Mullick, I., (2011), Rights of Muslim Women, Cyber Tech Publication, New Delhi. Rao, D.B. & D.P. Latha, (2007), Education for Women,Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi. Waheed, A., (2010), Minority Education in India, Serials Publication, New Delhi. http://mospi.nic.in/

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VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMAN IS A BURNING ISSUE - A SOCIAL CRIME *Sima Pal & **Mithun Paul. *Assistant Professor, Department of Education, Assam University, Silchar, India **Research Scholar, Department of Education, Assam University, Silchar, India Corresponding author: Sima Pal Abstract Every human being, man and woman, was created for the same purpose -- to blend body and soul. Man and woman represent two forms of heavenly energy; they are the male and female elements of a single soul. Both men and women behave differently in life in many ways. There is not much difference between women and men in the usual activities. The world has treated women differently in terms of her rights and dues as compared to the men. Men have dominated the world and put the women in a separate perspective. If a woman is taught the semantics of dominating over men then it is possible for her to reverse the trends and traditions. Women only have to assert their abilities to perform all functions required of a dominant section of a society. Therefore it depends upon the methods and manners of upbringing and learning process for women to shed their traditional profiles. They are working shoulder to shoulder with men, women has been given a prestigious position to pride in every religion. Under Christianity and Hinduism, they are respected and due importance is given to their rights and privileges. Women enjoyed a position of high esteem in the Rigveda period. No function of significant could be completed without her participation. In the Quran, a complete Sura has been devoted for the welfare, rights and duties of women. The history reveals that the woman has been the duties foundation of a family in particular and the society in general. So the foundation is not properly maintain, the whole building of the human life is bound to crack down and dismember. Woman harassment, exploitation or violence against woman is not new; it is an age old phenomenon. Woman exploitation draws the attention of researchers in Social Sciences, Government, Planning Groups, and Social Workers. The objectives of present paper will be focus on types of woman exploitation with special reference to domestic violence and service for victimised. The methodology of this study only based on concept and documents in relation to woman exploitation. The paper will be highlighted on different approaches to save the victimised woman. Key Words: Woman exploitation, Domestic violence ******* Gender-based violence refers to violence that targets individuals or groups on the basis of their gender. In much policy and programme work, the term is used interchangeably with ‘violence against women’, as the majority of this violence is directed against women, although it would be more accurate to class violence against women as a form of gender-based violence. The violence may involve physical, mental or sexual

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies harm or suffering, or the threat of such acts; coercion; and other deprivations of liberty. The high personal, psycho-social and economic cost of violence, however, not only affects women themselves, but also their husbands and partners, children, extended families, communities and wider society. As such, it is a major public health issue, with implications for economic and social development. Violence in Women’s life is typically conceptualized as a series of abusive horrible or tragic events. The term ‘violence’ has been described by Gelles (1979) as “an act of striking a person with the intent of causing harm or injury but not actually causing it.” Straus (1980) has described a violent act as “an act where there is the high potential of causing injury.” Domenach (1981) has described it as “an act of a person which encroaches upon the freedom of another”. Megargee (1982) has defined violence as “the overtly threatened or overtly accomplished application of force which results in the injury or destruction of person or their reputation”. Kempe (1982) has applied the term ‘violence’ to “Physically striking an individual and causing injury”. The operational definition of violence may be given as “force whether overt or covert, used to wrest from an individual (a woman) something that she does not want to give of her own free will and which comes her either physical injury or emotional trauma or both”. Violence against women began to draw attention as a serious social problem in the late 1960’s & early 1970’s. Since then, the term violence against women has been used to describe a variety of different behaviours, including emotional, sexual & physical assault, murder, genital mutilation stalking; sexual harassment; & prostitution (Crowell & Burgers, 1966). The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) states that "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men.” The first report of the ‘WHO Multi- country study on women’s health and Domestic Violence against women’ (2005) in 10 mainly developing countries found that, among woman aged 15-49: between 15% of women in Japan and 71% of women in Ethiopia reported physical and/ or sexual violence by an intimate partner in their lifetime. A more recent analysis of WHO with the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and the Medical research Council, based on existing data from over 80 countries, found that globally 35% of women have experienced either physical and/ or sexual violence by their intimate partner and sexual violence are mostly perpetrated by men against women and child sexual abuse affects both boys and girls. International studies reveal that approximately 20% of women and 5- 10% of men report being victims among young people, including dating violence, is also a major problem. Constitutional Provisional Act to Protect violence against women In India

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The right to a liberal and source life is basic of all Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against woman 1979 adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations, in which India was also a participant and signatory advocated for human rights to women. (Currently is now an offence v/s 498 – A of the Indian Penal Code). In India like other civilized countries a number of laws have been enacted in order to provide protection to women. For instance the Dowry Prohibition Act 1961. (Giving or taking of dowry is an offence under this Act): Definition of "dowry".-in this Act, "dowry" means any property or valuable security given or agreed to be given either directly or indirectly--- (a) By one party to a marriage to the other party to the marriage; or (b) By the persons of either party to a marriage or by any other person, to either party to the marriage or to any other person; at or before [or any time after the marriages] [in connection with the marriage of said parties but does not include] dower or mahr in the case of persons to whom the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) applies. Penalty for giving or taking dowry If any person, after the commencement of this Act, gives or takes or abets the giving or taking of dowry, he shall be punishable [with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than [five years], and with fine which shall not be less than fifteen thousand rupees or the amount of the value of such dowry, whichever is more Penalty for demanding dowry If any person demands directly or indirectly, from the parents or other relatives or guardian of a bride or bridegroom as the case may be, any dowry, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than six months but which may extend to two years and with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees The Hindu Marriage Act 1955 (It has conferred a number of matrimonial rights to the Hindu Wife. She can also seek divorce or judicial separation under such circumstances). It is an Act to amend and codify the law relating to marriage among Hindus. Preliminary Short title and extent (1) This Act may be called the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. (2) It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir, and applies also to Hindus domiciled in the territories to which this Act extends who are outside the said territories. Application of Act (1) This Act applies,-

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(a) to any person who is a Hindu by religion in any of of its forms or developments, including a Virashaiva, a Lingayat or a follower of the Brahmo, Prarthana or Arya Samaj (b) to any person who is a Buddhist, Jaina or Sikh by religion, and (c) to any other person domiciled in the territories to which this Act extends who is not a Muslim, Christian, Parsi or Jew by religion, unless it is proved that any such person would not have been governed by the Hindu law or by any custom or usage as part of that law in respect of any of the matters dealt with herein if this Act had not been passed. Explanation.- The following persons are Hindus, Buddhists, Jainas or Sikhs by religion, as the case may be,- (a) Any child, legitimate or illegitimate, both of whose parents are Hindus, Buddhists, Jainas or Sikhs by religion; (b) Any child, legitimate or illegitimate, one of whose parents is a Hindu, Buddhist, Jaina or Sikh by religion and who is brought up as a member of tribe, community, group or family to which such parents belongs or belonged; and (c) Any person who is a convert or re-convert to the Hindus, Buddhist, Jaina or Sikh religion. (2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), nothing contained in this Act shall apply to the members of any Scheduled Tribe within the meaning of clause (25) of Article 366 of the Constitution unless the Central Government, by notification in the Official Gazette, otherwise directs. The Hindu Succession Act 1956: It is a law that was passed by the parliament of india in 1956 to amend and codify the law relating to intestate or unwilled succession, among Hindus. The act lays down a uniform and comprehensive system of inheritance and applies to persons governed by both the Mitaksara and Dayabhaga schools. It is hailed for its consolidation of Hindu laws on succession into one Act. Any property possessed by a Hindu female is to be held by her absolute property and she is given full power to deal with it and dispose it of by will as she likes. The Act was amended in 2005 by the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005. The Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act 1939: (The Act enables a Muslim wife to seek divorce on the basis of certain factors specific in the Act) An Act to consolidate and clarify the provisions of Muslim law relating to suits for dissolution of marriage by women married under Muslim law and to remove doubts as to the effect of the renunciation of Islam by a married Muslim woman on her marriage tie. Whereas it is expedient to consolidate and clarify the provisions of Muslim law relating to suit for dissolution of marriage by women married under Muslim law and to remove doubts as to the effect of the renunciation of Islam by a married Muslim woman on her marriage tie; It is hereby enacted as follows:

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Short title and extent. (1) This Act may be called the Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939. (2) It extends to the whole of India [except the State of Jammu and Kashmir]. Grounds for decree for dissolution of marriage. A woman married under Muslim law shall be entitled to obtain a decree for the dissolution of her marriage on any one or more of the following grounds, namely: (i) That the whereabouts of the husband have not been known for a period of four years; (ii) That the husband has neglected or has failed to provide for her maintenance for a period of two years; (iii) That the husband has been sentenced to imprisonment for a period of seven years or upwards; (iv) That the husband has failed to perform, without reasonable cause, his marital obligations for a period of three years; (v) That the husband was impotent at the time of the marriage and continues to be so; (vi) That the husband has been insane for a period of two years or is suffering from leprosy or a virulent venereal disease; (vii) That she, having been given in marriage by her father or other guardian before she attained the age of fifteen years, repudiated the marriage before attaining the age of eighteen years: Provided that the marriage has not been consummated; (viii) That the husband treats her with cruelty, that is to say? (a) habitually assaults her or makes her life miserable by cruelty of conduct even if such conduct does not amount to physical ill-treatment, or (b) Associates with women of evil repute or leads an infamous life, or (c) Attempts to force her to lead an immoral life, or (d) Disposes of her property or prevents her exercising her legal rights over it, or (e) Obstructs her in the observance of her religious profession or practice, or (f) If he has more wives than one, does not treat her equitably in accordance with the injunctions of the Quran; (ix) On any other ground which is recognised as valid for the dissolution of marriages under Muslim law. The Muslim women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Rules, 1986: (The Provision of the Act provide for the maintenance of the divorce): The Muslim women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act was a controversially named landmark legislation passed by the Parliament of India in 1986 to allegedly protect the rights of Muslim women who have been divorce by, or have obtained divorce from, their husbands and to provide for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. It is administered by any magistrate of the first class exercising jurisdiction under the code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. The commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987:

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(The abetment of Sati has been made a serious offence and carries a very harsh punishment. Glorification of Sati is also a serious offence under the Act): This is a law enacted by Government of Rajasthan in 1987. It became a federal legislation with the enactment of the Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987. The Act seeks to prevent Sati practice or the voluntary or forced burning or burying alive of widows, and to prohibit glorification of this action through the observance of any ceremony, the participation in any procession, the creation of a financial trust, the construction of a temple, or any actions to commemorate or honour the memory of a widow who committed sati. There are various other social legislations. Moreover, there are provisions pertaining to cruelty, kidnapping, abduction and rape in the Indian Panel Code. The laws are hardly implemented in their letter and spirit; consequently, crimes against women are on increase. Women status in laws, in society and some argument on culture: Diversity and Paternalism especially in India: Women were always considered weak, vulnerable and in a position to be exploited. Violence has long been accepted as something that happens to a woman. The changing social structure in India has only perpetrated violence and crime against women. Education has not brought an increase in awareness- only a shallow superiority. The dignity and solemnity and symbolic beauty of ritual is quickly being lost either in the rash of city life or in the penury of rural existence. The fact that India has often legislated for women rights before several western nations in cold comfort, when we looked how little the law is known and practiced. The complexity of religious and social more does not allow for homogenous civil rights legislations. If oppressions could be tackled by passing laws than this decade would be adjusted a golden period for Indian women resulted in new legislations. However, some of these enactments in effect remained only on paper. (Mishra, Suresh: ‘Women violence at the law’ in the edit, book of O.C. Sharma, ‘Crime against women’ 1994. Ashish publishing house New Delhi). The situation of women in India is an extraordinarily difficult topic to introduce, since there is probably no nation in the worlds with greater internal diversity and plurality. India is the democracy with a written account of Fundamental Rights that includes the abolition of untouchability and an elaborate set of equality and non-discrimination provisions. India’s constitution is very women friendly document. The right of non-discrimination on the basis of sex is guaranteed in the list of justifiable Fundamental Rights, as is the right to the equal protection of the laws. But women face many obstacles to fully equal citizenship, child marriage although illegal, is a very common reality, especially in some religions where it is traditional. (Child marriage is common in parts of Rajasthan, Madhya-Pradesh and Uttar-Pradesh. For a good popular treatment of this issue, See John F. Burns; “Though illegal, child marriage is popular in part of India”: New York Times, May 1998. Burns study a group of

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies child marriages in Rajasthan, focusing on ceremony in which the bride was four and groom twelve. Under law 18 is the minimum age for woman and 21 for man). [Martha C. Nussbaum: Women and Human Development]. There is a global difference between Western & Eastern values, and that Indian culture simply does not value the Rights & Liberties cherished by West, is not a serious contender. But when we propose a universal framework to assess woman’s quality of life, we face three more respectable arguments that deserve to be seriously answered (Martha C. Nussbaum: Women and Human Development). The first is an argument from culture. A more subtle and sincere version of the anti-Westernizing argument, it says that Indian culture contains, in both Hindu & Muslim Traditions, powerful norms of female, modesty, difference, obedience and self-sacrifice that have defined women’s lives for countries. We should not assume without argument that those are bad norms, incapable of constructing good & flourishing lives for women. Western women are not so happy, the objector adds with their high divorce rate and their exhausting careerism. Feminist condescend to third world women when they assume that only lives like their own can be fruitful. Martha C. Nussbaum followed that only women’s choice to lead a life, traditional so long as she does so with certain economic and political opportunities firmly in place and also proposed protects space within which women may make such choices and in which parents may teach the value of their traditions to their children. But also should note that the objector, oversimplifies tradition, ignoring counter traditions of female defiance and strength, ignoring women’s protests harmful tradition, and in general forgetting to ask women themselves what they think of their norms, which are typically purveyed, in tradition, through male texts and the authority of male religions and cultural leaders against a background of women’s almost total economic and political disempowerment. Should say first, that if divorce and career difficulties are painful, as they surely are, they are a lot less painful than being unable to work when one is starving the because one will be beaten if one goes outdoors, or being unable to leave an abusive marriage because of illiteracy and lack of employable skills. (For the first case, a common one in upwardly mobile Hindu caste, C. Martha A. Chen “A matter of survival”, in WCD). Female protest against unfair treatment by males is, moreover, a very old them in Indian tradition going straight lack to Draupadi’s eloquent protest against sexual harassment in Mahabharata, when lost by one of by Pandava husbands; in a dise game, she is dragged by her hair into the hall and undressed by the winners, who gloat and call her a slave. She gains justice in a miraculous way; her sari keeps growing new yards of cloth, so that she remains fully clothed no matter how eagerly they try to undress her. This story serves, in fact, as a touch stone for the women of SEWA, who invoke it to compare the struggles of their founder Ela Bhatt (a Deeply religious woman) against the humiliating treatment she suffered at the hands of male labor

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies union leaders. (See Rose, Where Women are leaders, 83-4, and 74-82, describing Bhatt’s ouster from the National Labor Association and her humiliating treatment at a national meeting. The conflict arose over an issue of caste closely related to women’s struggle against hierarchy. Bhatt (Brahmin daughter of a judge, who married a lower-caste man), who compared her own experience to that of Draupadi, saying, “I felt like I was being stripped in front of the people I had respected most, with no one speaking up for me”. Significantly the SEWA version of the story has Draupadi prevail by praying to Krishna, whereas in the original epic, she prevails by appealing to the idea of law). Another argument on diversity, it is not clear that there is interesting diversity exemplified in the practices of male dominance that feminists have most contrasted. Getting beaten up and being mal-nourished have depressing similarities everywhere; denials of land rights, political voice and employment opportunities do also. In so far as there is diversity worth preserving in the various cultures, it is perhaps not in traditions of sex hierarchy, any more than in tradition of slavery that we should search for it. (Martha C. Nussbaum in Women and Human Development). Finally, have the argument from paternalism. Thinking about paternalism gives us a strong reason to respect the variety of ways, citizens actually choose to lead their lives in pluralistic society and therefore to prefer a form of universalism i.e. compatible with freedom and choice of the most significant sorts. But religious toleration, associative freedom and the other major liberties are themselves universal values. They require a Universalist account for their recognition and their protection against those who don’t want other people to make choice for them. Many existing value systems are themselves highly paternalistic, particularly toward a woman. They tell them what to do, claiming that they are promoting women’s good. They treat women as unequal under the law, as lacking full civil capacity, as not having the property rights, associative liberties, and employment rights of males. When we encounter a system like this, as we certainly do in India, in the form not only of traditional practices but also the various religious systems of personal law, it is in one sense paternalistic to say, sorry, that is unacceptable under the universal norms of equality and liberty that the state would like to defend. All women in India have equal rights under the constitution; but in the absence of effective enforcement of loss against rape and Supreme Court guidelines on sexual harassment, and in the absence of programs targeted at increasing female literacy, economic empowerment, and employment opportunities, those rights are not real to them. As a recent report on laws addressing violence against women puts it, “for the vast majority of Indian women, these statutes are meaningless. Lack of basic knowledge about the law and procedures, delays and insensitivity of the judicial system the cost involve in greeting justice have all contributed to this.

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Nature and types of violence against women Despite actions by international organizations and governments, violence against women continues to affect women in all parts of the world. At its most basic level, it is both symptomatic of, and active in, sustaining gender inequality, but it can also serve to sustain other forms of inequality, based on minority or other social status. Violence against women is an age old phenomenon. A discussion of violence as a historical-social phenomenon limited by time and space is essential to this report. In other words violence is linked specific places and times as well as to the relationship through which it becomes a reality and is sustained and reproduced in women may be: The police Research Bureau, Delhi has referred to ‘crime’ against women under two categories; (i) Crimes under the Indian Penal Code, and (ii) Crimes under the local and special laws (Crime in India, National Crime Records Bureau, Delhi, 1994:209). The Bureau has identified seven crimes in the first category of crimes. The seven crimes under the IPC are: rape, kidnapping and abduction, homicide for dowry, torture (physical and mental), molestation, eve-teasing, and importation of girls up to 21 years of age, while the four crimes under the local and special laws are: commission of Sati, dowry prohibition, immoral traffic, and indecent representation of women. So violence against women may be categorized as: (i) Criminal Violence-rape, abduction, murder (ii) Domestic violence – dowry – deaths, wife battering, sexual abuse, and maltreatment of widows and / or elderly women. (iii) Social violence – forcing the wife / daughter-in-law to go female foeticide, eve-teasing, refusing to give a share to women in property, torturing a young widow to commit sati, harassing the daughter-in-law to bring more dowry. Structural discrimination against Dalit men and women in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka stems from an entrenched hierarchical caste order in South Asian societies. Victims of the oldest surviving system of social stratification in the world, Dalits, or ‘untouchables’, are perceived as belonging to the ‘lowest’ social category, according to traditional caste values within the Hindu religion. They are also one of the most socio-economically marginalized groups in India, due to occupational discrimination. Dalit women in India are vulnerable to murder, rape (including gang rape), custodial torture, and stripping and parading in public spaces. Upper caste men are the main perpetrators of physical and sexual abuse, as well as members of the Indian police force and men in other societal positions of power and authority. Physical violence is often used as a method of dispelling dissent among the general Dalit population; or to force consent or confessions, or as a means of control and intimidation. According to the 2007 HRW report Hidden Apartheid: Caste Discrimination against India’s ‘Untouchables’, Dalit women are reported as being sexually abused during police raids or in custody, to ‘punish Dalit communities as a whole’and ‘as a means of exerting pressure on their male family members to surrender, give false evidence, retract their complaints, or silence their protests regarding police mistreatment’.

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Domestic violence Domestic or ‘family violence’ – that is, violence from women’s intimate partners and other family members – is arguably the most widespread form of violence that women from these indigenous groups experience, as opposed to violence from outside groups. Violence against women is considered to be a widespread problem within many indigenous communities in postcolonial ‘settler’ societies, including First Nations peoples in Canada, Native Americans and Alaska Natives in the United States, Māoris in Aotearoa/New Zealand, and Australians of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Island descent. Women are more likely to be victimized by someone that they are intimate with, commonly called “Intimate Partner Violence or IPV .The impact of domestic violence in the sphere of total violence against women be understood through the example that 40-70 % of murders of women are committed by their husband or boyfriend (“Intimate partner violence” World Health Organization 2002. Retrived on 04.09.2007). Studies have shown that violence is not always perpetrated as a form of physical violence but can also be psychology. [WT-VX-0014: 35, 1999-WT-VX_0014: 59]. Domestic violence and abuse, also called intimate partner violence is when one person purposely causes either physical or mental harm to another, including physical abuse, psychological or emotional abuse, sexual assault, isolation, controlling all recommend and must be taken very seriously. The protection of women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 No -43 of2005 (13th sep 2005) An Act to provide for more effective protection of the rights of women guaranteed under the constitution who are victims of violence of any kind occurring within the family and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto .Be it enacted by Parliament in the fifty –sixth year of the Republic of India. Domestic violence chapter II Domestic violence for the purpose of this Act’ omissions or commission or conduct of the respondent shall constitute domestic violence in case if – (a) Harms or injuries or endangers the health, safety, life, limb or wellbeing, whether mental or physical, or the aggrieved person or tends to do so and includes causing physical abuse, sexual abuse , verbal abuse; or (b) Harasses, harms, injuries or endangers the aggrieved person with the view to coerce her to meet any unlawful demand for any dowry or other property or valuable security; or (c) Has the threatening the aggrieved person or any person related to her by any conduct mentioned in clause (a) or clause (b); or (d) Otherwise injuries or causes harm, whether physical or mental ,to the aggrieved person. [Bramavatar Agarwal, Additional Secretary to the Government of India] Dowry-deaths either by way of suicide by a harassed wife murder by the greedy husband and in- laws have indeed become a cause of great cause of great concern for parents, legislators, police, a courts and society as a whole. Not a week passes when one does not read about a girl being harassed, tortured, killed or driven to

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies suicide because of dowry, and yet how many of the accused are punished? Few killers in bride- burning cases are arrested, fewer are prosecuted, and fewest finally sentenced. The dowry has been defined under the Dowry prohibition Act 1961 and means any property or valuable security given or agreed to be given, directly or indirectly by one party to the marriage to the other party to marriage or by parents of either party to the marriage or by any person to either party to the marriage or to any other person at or before or any time after the marriage. In connection with the marriage of such arties, in common parlance dowry means one side transfer of funds from the bride’s family at, before or after the marriage to the groom’s family. This type of consideration which normally forms the basis of the contract is not legitimized or legalized in as much as it is opposed to public morality and public policy and is otherwise prohibited by law. Though the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, has banned the practice of dowry but in reality all that the law does is to recognize that the problem exists. It is virtually unheard of for a husband or his family to be sued for insisting on taking a dowry. If anything, the demands for dowry have escalated over the years along with dowry deaths. As a modest estimate, the figure of deaths in India due to non-payment or partial payment of dowry could be placed around 5000 for one year. The increase in the incidence of dowry offences is evident from the fact that against 1,912 cases of dowry deaths in 1987, there were 4,215 cases in 1989, 4,836 in 1990, 5,157 in 1991, 4,962 in 1992, 5,817 in 1993 and 4,935 in 1994 (crime in India, 1994:212). There were 7070 dowry deaths in1995 and 1999, 7,310 in 2000 and 2004, 4381 in 2004 and 2008 in West Bengal and 35,440 in 1995 to 1999, 38,650 in 2000 to 2004 and 30,320 in between 2005 to 2008 in India. According to Indian National Crime Record Bureau, in 2010, 8391 dowry death cases were reported across India. This means a bride was burned every 90 minutes, or dowry issues cause 1.4 deaths per year 100,000 women in India. Adjustment Phase of Victimised Woman The adjustment of victims after being stigmatized (i.e. raped, molested, kidnapped, beaten) to new life and their taking up new roles involves several phases, although there is much intermeshing of these phases. The phases seem to follow a sequence. Bowlby (journal of social issues, vol 44, no.3, 1988: 45-46) has identified four phases of recovery from shock and a long interval of adaptation. Following chart shows by Bowlby and Mukesh Ahuja (1966:139), the different phases & we may identify victims’ adjustment to life after stigmatization: (i) Shock and pain. (ii) Removing pain. (iii)Avoidance and humiliation and (iv) Adaptation.

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However, all victims do not experience the same level of shock and pain, the same level of humiliation and avoidance, and the same problems of finding substitute sources of adjustment. Phases of adjustments new life by female victims of violence Phase -I Shock and pain depends on nature of violence against her and also on factors like . Age . Education . Employment . Emotional Attachment Phase-II Removing depends on . Support . Security Phase –III Avoidance/Humiliation by . Family . Kin . Friends . Acquaintances Phase-IV Adaptation Through . Religious Consolation . Accepting Social Challenge . Neutralization . Attachment and Identity Change Programmed approach for victimized women The 1993 declaration on the elimination against women noted that this violence put the perpetrated by assailants of either gender, family members and even the “state” itself. Worldwide Governments and Organization actively work to combat violence against women through a variety programs. A UN resolution designated Nov. 25th as International day for the elimination of violence against women (Wikipedia, the free Encyclopaedia www.google.co.in). The national commission for women has set .The complaints received relate to domestic violence, harassment, dowry, torture, bigamy, desertion, rape, refused to register F.I.R., cruelty by husband, derivation, gender discrimination receive 4329 complaints related to the above types of crimes against woman. The complaints received relate to domestic violence, harassment, dowry, torture, bigamy, desertion, rape, refused to register F.I.R., cruelty by husband, derivation, gender discrimination receive 4329 complaints

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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies related to the above types of crimes against woman. Trafficking of women and girls for forced labour and sex is wide spread and often affects the most vulnerable. Forced Marriages and Child Marriages violate the human rights of women and girls, but they are widely practiced in many countries in Asia the middle aged and Sub-Saharan Africa. Worldwide, up to 1 in 5 women and 1 in10 men are report experiencing sexual abuse as children. The social and economic cost of violence against women is enormous and has ripple effects throughout society. Women may suffer isolation, inability to work, loss of wages, lack of participation in regular activities, and limited ability to care for themselves and their children (WHO) Prevention & Response More evolution is needed to assess the effectiveness of violence prevention measures. Intervention with promising results include increasing education and opportunities for women and girls, improving their self- esteem and negotiating skills and reducing gender inequities in communities. Other efforts with positive success include: work with teen-agers to reduce dating violence; supportive programs for children who have witnessed intimate partner violence; mass public education campaigns; and work with male and boys to change attitude about gender inequalities under the accessibility of violence. Advocacy for victims, better awareness of violence and its consequences among health workers and wider knowledge of available resources for abused women including legal assistance, housing and child care lessen the consequences of violence. More recently, however, the trend has moved toward the development of multi-dimensional theories of violence take in to account social structural factor as well as individual characteristics. Theories on the causes of violence against women provide a framework for understanding and responding to this phenomenon. Thus, the more integrated and encompassing the theoretical model, the more valid the model will be for the purpose predicting violence and adding practitioners and policy makers. Acknowledging the existence of multiple risk factors is an importance steps in understanding the dynamics of violence against women. Men and women must realize their respective equal roles and strive to harmonize each other in their shared struggle to improve life. In order to correct the abuse of male dominance, men must concentrate on using their dominant qualities for the good. References Badawi, J. A. The status of women in Islam, a brief and authentic exposition of the teachings of Islam regarding Women. Badawi, J. A. (Sha’ban 1391/Sept 1971). The status of women in Islam, a brief and authentic exposition of the teachings of Islam regarding women. Ali Ittihad, Vol. 8, No. 2. Martha, N. C. (2000). Women and Human Development, the Capabilities Approach. Cambridge University

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Press, UK. (http://planningcommission.nic.in/sectors/social.php?sectors=csocial. Retrieved on March 22, 2014). Mukta, G. (1998). International Encyclopedia of Women’s Development Issues related to Women of Environmental Studies. IEDS, Lucknow, Sarup and Sons, New Delhi, Vol. 4. Ram, A. (1997). Social problems in India, Rawal Publications, New Delhi, Ministry of Social justice & empowerment; National Commission for women, web. http://planningcommission.nic.in/sectors/social.php?sectors=social retrieved on 20 march 2014 Rengetli M. C., J.L. Edleson, R. Kennedy. Theoretical & Methodological Issues in Researching Violence Against Women. Chap. Theoretical Explanation for violence against women. Rowland Clairead and Michele Canegie .(2011).Violence against Women indigenous, minority and migrant Groups, State of of the worlds minority and indigenous peoples: 1-38. Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood : Islam, Culture & Women, web. Sreenivasarao S: Ssubbana. Subkha.com Violence against women: Wikipedia WHO violence against women programs and projects Media center> Fact sheets, Rev. Nov. 2008, web. Wikipedia. Violence against Women

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WOMEN SECURITY IN MODERNISED SOCIETY Biswarup Paul, Lecturer, Department of Education, Hojai College, Assam, India. Introduction Human security in regard to women does not imply to give them bodily security or security in terms of food, education, shelter etc. We shall have to take in to consideration the dignity of the women. From Indian perspective we can say that women are always given due respect and superior position in Indian society. The question arises, ‘How much are they secure in modern times?’ The violation of women rights and unnatural and inhuman offences which are daily happening against women signifies the failures of the government and law enforcement agencies provide a secured environment of women. By providing various welfare schemes to the women sections the government cannot assure that women sections are secured in the society. The women must feel themselves secured in the society. Objective of the paper The main objective of this paper is to upgrade the social status of women without compromising their dignity. Women security The concept of women security is very alarming now-a-days. A few decades ago in developing countries, i.e. in third world countries, the governments were not much conscious about the rights of the women and about their security and social status of that extent as they are thinking of now- a-days though the women in western countries have been enjoying these rights from the initial years of 20th century. The rights and security of women got its momentum with the Convention for Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1979. The CEDAW is regarded as the Magna-Carta in respect of women rights. The rights and security of women are treasured in National and International level. Various international conventions and conferences were held for securing the rights and to make them secured in the society at the International level which have binding force and in the light of those International Conventions, every member states of UN has adopted those provisions in their legal system and has recognized rights and security of women. The concern for rights and security of women can be better explained under the following headings- 1. International Concern: The United Nations for the first time in 1946 constituted a commission to check the status of the female section of the society and to take measures for prevention of discrimination against women. After that a declaration was signed by the member states on 7th November, 1967 for the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women. Finally, a convention was held in 1979 and was signed on 18th December ’1979. This convention is known as Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women. For giving effect to this

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convention, a committee was constituted with minimum 18 members and maximum 23 members from member states. Whether the rights are enjoyed by the women section or not and how much they are secured, for this purpose every members states shall have to submit its first report within 2 years of becoming the member and subsequent reports are to be submitted after regular interval of 5 years. For securing the rights of the women, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) under article- 2 has provided that all the rights mentioned in the UDHR will be enjoyed equally by every person. Article 7 of the UDHR has made provision for equality before law and equal protection by law which has been adopted by our constitution. Besides the above International concern for security and rights of women, many other world conferences were held from time to time to upgrade the social status of women like –  1st World Conference on Women, 1975 held at Mexico City.  2nd world conference on women, 1980 held at Copenhagen.  3rd World Conference on Women, held at Nairobi.  4th World Conference on Women, 1995 held at Beijing. 2. Constitutional provision in India: The Constitution of India has incorporated within itself certain special provisions for women to secure and to upgrade their status in India. Article 15(3) of the constitution reserves a special provision for women by stating that nothing shall prevent the state from making any special provision for women and children. Article 16 provides for security to the women in terms of public employment by stating equality of opportunity in public employment without any discrimination. Article 21-A provides educational security to women by providing free and compulsory education to every male and female child from 6 to 14 years of age. Article 39(d) provides economic security by making provision for equal pay for equal work to both men and women without any discrimination. Article 39-A secures the right to justice to women also providing equal justice and free legal aid to all without any discrimination. Article 243 D and Article 243 T provides political security to women by making reservation of 33% for women in Village Panchayat and Municipality respectively. 3. Special Enactments for women: Special enactments were made from time to time in India for securing the status of women in society. Some of the important enactments are as follows –  The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956.  The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961.

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 Section 125,126 and 127 of code of criminal procedure, 1973.  The Family Courts Act, 1984.  The National Commission for Women Act, 1990.  The Pre- conceptional and Pre-natal Diagnostic Technique (Prohibition and sex selection) act, 1994.  The Protection of Women for Domestic Violence Act, 2005. Threats to women security Women are facing threats from various sides in society. Certain threats which have stood danger towards women are –  Trafficking: Trafficking is the most dangerous form of threat which affects the security of the women. A trafficked woman has no option but to follow the orders of the broker who has bought her. A report was prepared by National Crime Records Bureau that there have been 35000 of women were trafficked in 2011.  Sexual Assault: Sexual assault is very much prevalent in every nook and corner of our society. Certain sections of male always take the chance of sexually assaulting the women. Women are sexually assaulted more in our place than any other place. 1446 cases of sexual assault have come up in India in the year 2011.  Kidnapping: Kidnapping and abduction of women are rampantly happening in the society. Women are kidnapped and abducted for illegal purpose. According to the report submitted by National Crime Records Bureau, 2994 cases of kidnapping have been registered in India.  Domestic Violence: Domestic violence is the worst form of crime against women which creates a great threat to women security in the house. Every day, many cases of domestic violence come up in our society.  Female Genital Mutilation: According to WHO, 85 million to 115 million girls and women in the population have undergone some form of female genital mutilation and suffer from its adverse health effects. Every year an estimated 2 million young girls undergo this procedure.  Rape: Rape can occur anywhere, even in family, where it can take the form of marital rape or incest. It occurs in the community, where a woman can fall prey to any abuser. According to the report submitted by National Crime Records Bureau, 1707 numbers of rape cases have occurred in India in the year 2011. Suggestions The above threats will be no more in existence and will never be able to create danger for women in the society if the women are conscious about their rights and legal provisions which are available for them.

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India has lots of enactments but in real practice, the laws are in paper only and therefore justice is denied. As a line published in ‘THE ECONOMIST’, a frontline newspaper in India stated “India has too many laws but too little justice”. Various special enactments are made for women and very recently the sexual assault of women at work place (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Bill, 2012 was passed on 23rd September 2012, in Lok Sabha and the Bill is pending in Rajya Sabha. But these laws will be of no effects if the women are not conscious about their rights and more important if the law enforcement agencies show Leniency towards the criminals. The followings measures can be taken into consideration as suggestions to upgrade social status of women – Women Literacy Programme Women Literacy Programme on their rights safety and security are to be held in every nook and corner of the society. The lesson on morality is to be included in our curriculum with the motive that every citizen will have a good eye on every woman and the equal treatment and equal chance of development must be given to women also in real sense. Awareness Generation for Action Sensitization and orientation of key educational personnel including teacher educators, educational planners and administrators on education for girls and women’s security. Re-designing Curriculum and Educational Programmes Elimination of gender bias from text books, development of guidelines, handbooks and good materials for teachers curriculum makers and educational planners for promotion of equality and making the curriculum gender inclusive. Promotion of Research and Innovation Action Projects Preparation of innovative and research development ideas and action researches in the area of girls’ education and women developments should be done. Unless the human rights of women, as defined by international human rights instruments, are fully recognized and effectively protected, applied, implemented and enforced in national law as well as in national practice in family , civil, penal, labour, and commercial codes and administrative rules and regulations, they will exist in name only. References Pandey, J. N., The Constitutional Law of India. (47th Edition), Central Law Agency. 30-D/I, Motilal Nehru Road, Allahabad. Roy, A., Human Rights of Women. Rajat Publications. New Delhi. Hate, C. A., Changing Status of Women (In Post-Independence India). Allied Publishers Pvt Ltd, Bombay. Goswami, S. & Devi M. K., Emerging Issues and Education. Shanti Prakashan, College Hostel Road, Panbazar, Guwahati.

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