Patrizio Pensabene and Enrico Gallocchio enrico by of PiazzaArmerina The VilladelCasale T ity ofthevilla’sdecoration,includingitsmarblesandfrescoes. the earlierarchives.Thisnewworkhasrevealedcomplex- work onthevillaandmadepossibleacomprehensivestudyof 2004 bytheUniversitàdiRoma“LaSapienza”haveresumed have beenlargelyignored.Newexcavationscarriedoutsince apparatus, itschronology,andpost-Romanoccupation— with thesemosaics,otherquestions—aboutitsagricultural cally inthe1980sand1990s,wasconcernedalmostentirely vation ofthevilla,carriedoutfirstin1950sandsporadi- phase in the early 4th century. While the archaeological exca- mosaic pavementsintheMediterranean,withitsmostnotable contains oneofthemostimportantcollectionslateRoman

Circus Maximusin Rome. depicts circusraces inthe mosaic inthebaths’ palestra The to-scalephotoplan ofthe patrizio empire (4thand5thcenturiesAD).Thevilla of thevillaformasitdevelopedduringlate preserved andbest-knownRomanvillas, iconic south-central Sicily,isarguablyoneofthebest- he villadelcasale, near Piazza Armerina in

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in whichtheyresided.Thus,thetrendslateRomanarchi- centers ofpoliticalandadministrativepowerfortheterritories great buildingswerenotonlyresidences,butalsopublicspaces: villas inrecentyearshasunderscoredthedegreetowhichthese with many varied functions. Indeed, the studyoflater Roman and complexity,acomplexitywhichinturnsuggestsvilla western empirearecombinedherewithunparalleledrichness elements foundinothercontemporaryvillasthroughoutthe of a late antique Roman villa. Architectural anddecorative The VilladelCasaleconstitutesoneofthegrandestexamples 12th centuries. settlement thatgrewatopthevillasiteduring10ththrough and revealedawholenewlife-phase—alargemedievalvillage It hasalso uncovered more of the villa’sresidentialsectors, www.penn.museum/expedition The Villa 29 italy villa duringthe4thcenturyphase. Below isathree-dimensionalreconstructionofthe are the new excavationsof Università “La Sapienza.” visible, aswellpartofthenewroof.Attop helicopter. TheoldplasticcoverbuiltbyMinissiis This aerialviewofthevillawastakenfroma 30 the house,whereuseofpublic architecturalvocabularies— competition tookplace, thatinsteadmigratedto public buildingsceasedtobe the stagesetsagainstwhichelite an official,thatistosay,public character.Asaconsequence, (audience hallsorbanquethalls),whichincreasinglytook on in theirprivateresidences,buildinggreatspacesforreceptions aristocrats. Now such elites preferred to conduct their affairs both typesreflectingthenewsocialpracticesoflateRoman tecture impactednotonlyurbanhousesbutalso rural ones, volume 53,number2 expedition tury andpersistedthroughthe secondhalfofthe3rdcentury. indicate thattheearliervillaprobably originatedinthe1stcen- that werebuiltatopitinthe 4th century.Recentexcavations more orlessthesameareaas didthelateantiquestructures around acentralperistyle,hadbathcomplex,andoccupied Excavations suggesttheearlybuildingwasalsoorganized villa markedbyatripartite,nichedarch. composed ofthebathsandmonumentalentranceto the from thecorridorofGreatHunt.Thethirdterracewas (dining room)complexanditsovalcourtyard,bothaccessible on arectangularperistylecourtyardthatincludedtriclinium Hunt. Fromhereonemovedtothesecondterracecentered ments, the basilica, and the corridor of the so-called Great race, boundedbyanaqueductandcontainingprivateapart- nized aroundthreedifferentaxes.Totheeastliesfirstter- at thefootofahill.Mostunusualforsuchvillas,itisorga- ate andbecameevermoreimportant. such ascolumns,revetments,andmosaics—begantoprolifer- This lateRomanbuildingdevelopedatopanearliervilla. The VilladelCasaleisspreadoutalongthreegreatterraces

Patrizio Pensabene and Enrico Gallocchio Penn Museum (top left), Patrizio Pensabene and Enrico Gallocchio area thantheonecoveredbyvilla. Roman remainsandexpandedtowardstheriver,occupyingamuchlarger del Casale.Medievalstructures,indicatedinblue,weresetoverthe Villa delCasaleislocatedinsouth-centralSicily.Below,planofthe which theyappear.Thus,although muchpreviousscholarship The mosaicsalsoreflectthemes appropriatetotheroomsin and symbolicmeanstolaud thedominus,orlandowner. mosaics reflectthemescommon totheera,usingbothdirect famous. Stretching over some3,500squaremeters, these It is for its mosaicsthatthe Villa del Casale is justifiably The Mosaics of theGreatHunt,andperistyle. the connection,viatwosetsofstairs,betweenbasilica,corridor This drawingofthebasilicashowsmarbleopussectilepavementand two soldiers flanking a bearded man who wears a uniform and two soldiersflankingabearded manwhowearsauniformand also identifiedasEgyptian,is associatedwithadepictionof along theNile.Anotherlandscape sceneofrocksandforests, and anEgyptianlandscapemarked bypagoda-likebuildings perhaps Pozzuoli or Portus; and even the port of Alexandria point forthecagedbeasts;anarrivalportonItaliancoast, recognize adepictionoftheportCarthage,departure tiger, anelephant,andaphoenix.Inthehuntmosaicsone can land ofIndia,shownholdingatuskandsurroundedby a province ofMauretania,withabearandleopard, the the apsidalendsappearfemalepersonificationsofboth the scenes ofthehunt,capture,andtransportanimals. In a longhallcappedbyapsesateachendwascoveredwith most strikingpieceis the corridor of the Great Hunt, in which the Romanworld. mosaic, whichconstitutedthematerialofgreatestprestigein dels ofcutmarble.Thisfactisinstructive:itwasmarble,not but ratherwaspavedinopussectile,orlargeslabsandroun- in thevilla—thegreatbasilica—doesnothaveamosaicfloor, texts inwhichtheywereset. relationship betweenthepavementsandarchitecturalcon- tended to consider them in isolation, there is a fundamental As one considers the mosaics of the reception areas, the As oneconsidersthemosaicsofreceptionareas, It isalsoimportanttonotethatarguablythegrandestspace www.penn.museum/expedition 31

method of hunting tigers around a sphere of glass, described in 4th-century sources, is shown in another scene depicting the capture of Indian animals and their caging and transport to ships. The Great Hunt scene is now generally interpreted as an allusion to the high rank of the proprietors, who may actually appear in the mosaic—one as a bearded man in the lower level and another, younger man depicted in the center of the compo- sition. These landowners are thus shown supervising the cap- ture of animals destined for the venationes, or beast-spectacles. The other large reception space was the nucleus composed of the great tri-apsidal hall or triclinium that opened onto an ovoid peristyle. This complex was connected to the villa by two small

This crane photo was taken during the excavation of the oval peristyle. and irregular courtyards, one that led from the Hall of the Great The excavation revealed the canals necessary for the pipes and drains Hunt, and another from the peristyle. This fact has led some to that served the peristyle’s numerous fountains. As is evident from some suggest that the oval peristyle complex was built after the rest fragments, the entire peristyle pavement was covered in mosaic. The large circular holes are traces of wells and silos created during the Arab- of the villa, a supposition supported by the different style of Norman occupation that in large part destroyed the Roman remains. the complex’s mosaics and, above all, by the latest excavation results. The facial expressions, the backgrounds, and the com- a so-called Pannonian hood and carries a rod identifying him plex figural compositions of the mosaics all point to an artistic as an authority figure—perhaps the dux or military leader of tradition with closer ties to Hellenistic iconographies, versus the the province or the conductor of the hunt. An extraordinary African style of the other mosaics. Indeed, the mosaics of the Patrizio Pensabene and Enrico Gallocchio

32 volume 53, number 2 expedition great triclinium, covered with scenes relating to the Labors of orientation of the statue of Magna Mater, placed on the Hercules, are dramatic in tone, using large-scale figures. center-line of the circus, which is shown from the back. From The apotheosis of Hercules in the triclinium has Dionysiac the carceres or starting gates, four charioteers emerge repre- qualities, such as the crown of ivy leaves and the panther skin. senting the four factions, or racing clubs—the prasina (the Dionysiac themes—the harvesting and crushing of grapes, greens), the veneta (the blues), the albata (the whites), and the carried out by amorini or baby cupids—are also common in russata (the reds)—while four chariots are shown racing on scenes in the rooms at the side of the peristyle. Other refer- the track. In the central space of the circus are shown several ences to a Bacchic cult appear in many mosaics in the villa: moments of the same race, including a crash and the arrival at in the thiasos or procession of Adriadne where the hippo- the finish line. camps (seahorses) wear panther skins; in the contest between Eros and Pan, where maenads and satyrs are in attendance; and in the frescoes that include a scene of Dionysius. While Above, the Great Hunt mosaic shows the hunting, capture, and such Dionysiac motifs are common in late antiquity, their fre- loading onto ships of wild animals. Bottom, details from the Great quency here, combined with the unusual move of providing Hunt mosaic show (left) two men associated with the ownership Heracles with such motifs, suggests a particular devotion to of the villa and (right) a hunting scene depicting the live capture of animals, perhaps for games in the arena. Here, a glass sphere the god of wine. is used to catch a tiger. This page bottom left, the apotheosis of Another major theme is the circus games and athletic com- Hercules and the capture of the mares of Diomedes (right) are petition, particularly visible in the mosaics of the palestra, or shown in these details of the triclinium mosaic. Other deeds of gymnasium, in the baths (See page 29). Here the depiction of Hercules depicted or alluded to in the mosaic include the slaying of the Nemean lion, the Hydra of Lerna, and the Stymphalian birds; the the Circus Maximus in Rome is presented from the bird’s- capture of the Cretan bull and the cattle of the monster Geryon; and eye view of a spectator seated in the imperial tribunal on the the cleaning of the Augean stables. south slope of the Palatine Hill. This is evident from the Patrizio Pensabene and Enrico Gallocchio Patrizio Pensabene and Enrico Gallocchio

www.penn.museum/expedition 33 The “Bikini Girls” mosaic, originally thought to represent a beauty contest, is now generally interpreted as an athletic competition. In the upper left corner, the geometric mosaic of the preceding phase is visible.

Other aristocratic elements of the games are visible in some The Frescoes of the villa’s most famous (or infamous) mosaics, which also date to a second phase, after the mosaics of the peristyle and Although less well-known than for its famous mosaics Great Hunt. New scenes replace earlier geometric scenes and and marbles, the Villa del Casale also boasts an amazing one depicts the famous “Bikini Girls,” an athletic scene with collection of mural paintings that covered the walls of the scantily clad women. Scholars now accept that the scene depicts residence. These are rarely considered in the many studies of an athletic competition (previous theories favored a beauty the site, but given the paucity of late antique domestic wall- contest), examples of which are attested even in 4th century painting, the examples at Piazza Armerina are an important sources, but the significance of such competition again relates corpus and form a critical part of the total decoration of the to elite status. The sponsorship of female athletic contests would villa complex. have been associated with only the highest levels of society and Perhaps most extraordinary is the fact that these paintings thus reflected upon the elevated status of the proprietor. covered not only the interior rooms but also exterior walls, Patrizio Pensabene and Enrico Gallocchio

34 volume 53, number 2 expedition Patrizio Pensabene and Enrico Gallocchio with Dionysius:maenadsandsatyrs. This frescoisfromoneoftheroomsvilla,probablyacubiculum,orbedroom.Itcomposedgeometricframesurroundingfiguresassociated while theviewpointofCircusmosaicdoesnotexclude typical elementindomesticarchitecturethe4thcentury, not exclusive toemperors: the marble-covered basilica was a tant to recognize that many of these symbolic associations were imperial procurator,orlandmanager.However,itisimpor- Herculis (co-emperorwithDiocletian),Maxentius,orevenan have allledscholarstopositanimperialowner:Maximianus in theentrance,andlikelyTetrarchicdateofmosaics of Herculesinthetriclinium,Tetrarchicmilitaryinsignia such asthegriffonorelephantinGreatHunt,figure mosaic, thepresenceofanimalsassociatedwithemperor, the imperialviewpointdepictedinCircusMaximus owner oftheVilladelCasale.Thegreatsizebasilica, entrance, andtheexternalpaintingnearentrance. earthquake—including theovalperistyle,triple-arched is followed by later additions—perhapsaftertheAD365 ics suggests,andournewworkhasconfirmed,thisphase vations generallysupportthis.Butasthestyleofmosa- dates to the earlydecades of the4th century, and recent exca- Most scholars believe that the late antique phase of the villa are precededbyasequenceofmenonhorseback. than life-sizefigures,accompaniedbymilitaryinsignia, who entrance courtofthevilla,whereascenedepictsfourlarger exterior painting appears onthelongwalls that formedthe frequently depictingimitationsofmarblerevetments.One Various historical personages have been proposed as the The Villa’sOwner (the rial aristocratandthatitservedasthecenterofagreatestate accepted thatthevillawaspropertyofahigh-levelsenato- other impresarios, such as magistrates. Today itis generally African traditionsinmostofthemosaics. prietors. ThiswouldhelpexplaintheheavyinfluenceofNorth AD 355andurbanprefect,havebeenproposedaslikelypro- in Africa,andhisson,M.Ceionius Rufus Albinus,consul in under MaxentiusandConstantine,ownerofgreatestates Thus, C.CeioniusRufusVolusianus,urbanprefectandconsul games, adutyperhapsalludedtointheGreatHuntscene. Sicily—that officialwasalsochargedwithorganizingthecity’s supplying the city with grain—now increasingly drawn from etor mayhavebeenanurbanprefectofRome;inadditionto looked tothesouth.Onesuggestionpositsthatpropri- provinces andtothenewlyfoundedConstantinople,Rome Deprived ofgrainfromEgypt,nowdivertedtotheeastern in lightoftheresurgenceSicilianagriculturethatperiod. villas, includingsomenearRome. side of the great entrance complex and find parallels in other into threeaislesbybrickpiers.Thesestoreroomslinedone has revealed two very large rectangular storerooms, divided rounding theresidentialnucleus.Indeed,recentexcavation tainly aproductoftheabsenceexcavationinareasur- located. Theabsenceofanagriculturalsectorwasalmostcer- sonal residence,becausenoagro-industrialquartershadbeen whose landsweretobefoundnearby. The rebirthofthevillain4thcenturyshouldbeseen It hasbeenwronglyassumedthatthevillawassimplyasea- massa Philosophiana, knownfromtheAntonineItinerary) www.penn.museum/expedition 35 extending to the north and south towards to visit the Gela River. This settlement consisted At least until the end of 2011, the villa of modest houses of will be under construction, as the new stone and earth, most roof is installed and mosaics conserved; of which had a main thus visits will be somewhat hampered. rectangular room around Some parts of the villa will be closed on which were organized minor a rotating schedule, but it will be equally spaces either isolated or con- nected by irregular corridors. interesting to observe the restorers as they This fragment of a glazed bowl work to preserve the hundreds of square Atop this settlement would is from the recent excavations. meters of tiny mosaic tesserae. The city develop a center known in The decorations in green, brown, the 15th century as casale, or and yellow are typical of Sicilian of Piazza Armerina is also worth a visit Arab-Norman production. The with its great baroque cathedral, historic farmhouse, from which the bowl was probably manufactured center, and winding streets filled with site now takes its name. in Piazza Armerina. gastronomic specialties of the region. The Medieval Ceramics

The material culture of the Arab-Norman period is particu- larly interesting and reveals the wide cultural and economic The Medieval Phases territory to which the site was linked during the Middle Ages. The evidence from the new excavations has shown the strong It is likely that from the 7th century onwards, the villa’s build- connections that bound Sicily and North Africa from the early ings were partially transformed. The discovery of many lamps, Fatimid period (second half of the 10th century to the early some with Christian symbols, inside the frigi- 11th century) through the 12th century—common ceramic darium of the baths has led us to hypoth- production technologies, aesthetics, and trade relationships. esize that this space was eventually An abundance of burnished and glazed wares for table, cook- used as an oratory. The progressive ing, and storage use was found in the medieval settlement. accumulation of debris over the res- Bowls, basins, cups, storage jars, bottles, and jugs with filters idence—one of the facts that per- were all commonly found in these small houses. The latter mitted the excellent preservation pieces, characteristic of African production but also common of the mosaics—meant that only in Sicily, were containers for liquids: the neck possessed a sieve certain sectors were maintained, formed of numerous punctures and incisions that served as while in other cases, new residential both strainer and decoration. Many types of bowls and basins structures were built that show were found, the largest of which may have been used as com- no connections with the earlier munal plates, set at the center of the table, for the sharing of buildings. This situation contin- food. Plain table wares and lamps also appeared in decorated ued through the Arab-Norman versions, the most precious of which had monochrome or period, between the 10th polychrome lead glazes depicting geometric and floral forms. and 12th centuries, when the settlement exceeded Recent Work the limits of the old villa, The new excavations were initially focused on the south A medieval jug with of the villa, revealing a portion of the Arab-Norman settle- sieve, found in the 1950s ment, including houses and artisanal quarters for ceramic excavations, was a container for liquids. production. These buildings were only a small portion of a Patrizio Pensabene and Enrico Gallocchio

36 volume 53, number 2 expedition Centro regionale per la progettazione e il restauro della regione Siciliana and aphysicalplasticmodel(right)—showthenewroofcurrentlyunder construction. A majorreconstructionprojectatthesiteincludeserectinganewroofovervilla.Twomodels—viewsofcomputerreconstruction(leftandcenter) villa walls. viding anabove-groundviewofthemosaicsoveroriginal by asolidroof.Theelevatedwalkwayswillbemaintained,pro- in which the transparent cover will be removed and replaced or forthesurroundingarchitecture.Anewprojecthasbegun however, didnotfosteroptimalconservationforthemosaics situ, ratherthanbeing removed to a museum.Thismethod, its time,thecoverallowedformosaicstobeconservedin 1950s byarchitectFrancoMinissi.Consideredinnovativefor the replacementofplasticcoveroversite,builtin which neededmajorconservation,theprojectalsobegan financed by theEuropean Union. Aside fromthemosaics, reconstruction projectwaslaunchedthroughoutthevilla, Alongside theexcavations,beginninginspring2007,amajor use andabandonmentofthevilla. above all,well-preservedstratigraphydocumentingboththe vations willhopefullyuncoverfurtherRomanstructures,and late antiquephaseofthevilla.Thecontinuationexca- This workhasrevealedhowlittleisknownoftheextent unusual inthevilla—which belong toa basin ora fountain. dates tothelateantiquephaseandshowsrarewallmosaics— complex wasfoundclosetothestoreroomsatentrance.It revealed Romanstructuresbeneath.Indeed,asecondbath has slowed the pace of excavation, which nonetheless has also attempt topreservethesemedievalstructuresforpublicview ous excavationswhichsoughtonlythemosaicsbeneath.The entire area ofthe villa, but whichwas destroyed by theprevi- much largermedievalsettlementthathadoncecoveredthe Restoration Project Studi “LaSapienza”diRoma. enrico gallocchioisa Researcher at the Università degli Università degliStudi“LaSapienza”diRoma. patrizio pensabeneisProfessorofArchaeologyatthe archaeologist the tradition isenrichedwithinnovation. Enna istherestaurant‘IlFogher,’wherelocal few kilometersoutsidePiazzaArmerinatowards secondo. Ifyouwantatrulyspecialdinner, of localgrilledmeatsformsanexcellent is aparticularspecialty,whileanassortment agli amarelle—awildplantfoundinthefields— fine display.Inspring,aprimoofmaccheroni woods andfieldsaroundPiazzaArmerinaareon not miss‘daNino’wheretheproductsof marmalade. Foracompletemeal,oneshould special cookiesmadewithdriedfruitandfig Pasticceria’ isknownforitsbuccellati, fried sweets,whileduringwinter,the‘Restivo Pasticceria Zingale’isfamousforitsfrittelle, such ascannoliandcassatearefound.‘The many pastryshops,whereSicilianspecialties In PiazzaArmerina,oneshouldnotmissthe

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