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Copyright by Alexander Charles Cebulski, 2018 the Glaciolacustrine Sediment Record of Cariboo Lake, BC: Implications for Holocene

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Copyright by Alexander Charles Cebulski, 2018 the Glaciolacustrine Sediment Record of Cariboo Lake, BC: Implications for Holocene The Glaciolacustrine Sediment Record of Cariboo Lake, BC: Implications for Holocene Fluvial and Glacial Watershed Dynamics By Alexander Charles Cebulski A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Department of Geography and Planning University of Toronto © Copyright by Alexander Charles Cebulski, 2018 The Glaciolacustrine Sediment Record of Cariboo Lake, BC: Implications for Holocene Fluvial and Glacial Watershed Dynamics Alexander Charles Cebulski Master of Science Department of Geography University of Toronto 2018 Abstract Cariboo Lake is a glacier-fed lake located in the Cariboo Mountains of eastern-central British Columbia. Fine clastic sediments produced in the glaciated headwaters of the Cariboo Lake watershed provide the main source of sediment to the lake. Sediment delivery into Cariboo Lake is primarily governed by overflow currents of suspended clastic sediments from the main Cariboo River. Sediments deposited in deep basins over 30 m deep are characterized by couplets of coarse grained laminae, followed by fine grained sediments and are inferred to be annually laminated varves. Inflow of clastic sediments to Cariboo Lake has remained high enough to produce annual varves for the past two millennia. Down-core trends in varve thickness, grain size, and percent organics from Cariboo Lake sediment archives reveal changes that corresponded to climate fluctuations over the past two millennia. ii Acknowledgements Several generous contributions have made this research possible. First, I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Joe Desloges for his inspiring expertise which has guided me through my studies at the University of Toronto. Our field work in the Cariboo Lake watershed would not have been possible without assistance from Michael Allchin, Laszlo Enyedy, and Caitlin Langford at the Quesnel River Research Centre. Generous landowners at Cariboo Lake also provided vital moorage for our research vessel W.H. Matthews. Thanks to Anna Soleski for training me on the many sediment analysis required for this project, and her continual support along the way. I would also like to acknowledge Selina Amaral, for her excellent organisational skills which were very helpful in the many tedious lab analyses in this project. Instruction from Mike Gorton, George Kretschmann, and Yanan Liu on the use and maintenance of various lab instruments is also greatly appreciated. Special thanks to the Toronto climbing community for initiating research breaks on the Niagara Escarpment. Finally, I would like to thank my friends and family, without their support this thesis would not have been possible. iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures............................................................................................................................... vi List of Appendices ...................................................................................................................... viii 1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 3 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 4 2.1 Process Domains of a Glaciated Watershed ....................................................................... 4 2.1.1 Zone of Erosion ................................................................................................................ 4 2.1.2 Zone of Transportation ..................................................................................................... 5 2.1.3 Zone of Deposition ........................................................................................................... 7 2.2 Processes of Lake Mixing ................................................................................................. 10 2.2.1 Lake Stratification .......................................................................................................... 10 2.2.2 Other Mixing Processes in the Water Column ............................................................... 12 2.3 Sedimentary Processes ...................................................................................................... 14 2.3.1 Gravitational Mass Movements ...................................................................................... 14 2.3.2 Turbidity Currents .......................................................................................................... 15 2.3.3 Form of Lacustrine Sediment Deposits .......................................................................... 16 2.4 Sediment Archives as an Environmental Proxy ............................................................... 18 2.4.1 Geophysics of Lake Sediment Deposits ......................................................................... 19 2.4.2 Varves and Suspended Sediment Yield .......................................................................... 20 2.4.3 Climate Controls on Lake Sedimentation ....................................................................... 23 2.5 Holocene glacier history in the Southern Interior British Columbia ................................ 24 2.5.1 Last Glacial Maximum ................................................................................................... 25 2.5.2 Early Holocene (11.0-7.5 ka).......................................................................................... 26 2.5.3 Early Neoglacial (7.5-5.0 ka).......................................................................................... 26 2.5.4 Early-Mid Neoglacial (5.0-3.5 ka BP) ............................................................................ 27 2.5.5 Middle-Late Neoglacial (3.5-1.0 ka) .............................................................................. 28 2.5.6 Latest Neoglacial (1.0 ka BP to present) ........................................................................ 30 2.5.7 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 31 iv 2.6 Discussion of Research Gaps ............................................................................................ 32 3.0 METHODS ...................................................................................................................... 33 3.1 Study Area ........................................................................................................................ 33 3.2 Field Methods ................................................................................................................... 35 3.3 Laboratory Methods .......................................................................................................... 36 4.0 Results .............................................................................................................................. 39 4.1 Modern Processes ............................................................................................................. 39 4.1.1 Hydrologic Record.......................................................................................................... 39 4.1.2 Water Column Characteristics ........................................................................................ 40 4.1.3 Acoustic Sedimentary Record ........................................................................................ 42 4.2 Surficial Sediment Record ................................................................................................ 45 4.2.1 Annual Laminations........................................................................................................ 45 4.2.2 Organic Content .............................................................................................................. 47 4.2.3 Grain Size ....................................................................................................................... 48 4.2.4 Spatial Variability of Sediment Delivery ....................................................................... 49 4.3 Temporal Record .............................................................................................................. 50 4.3.1 Sedimentology ................................................................................................................ 51 4.3.2 Chronology ..................................................................................................................... 52 4.3.3 Varve Interpretation ........................................................................................................ 53 4.3.4 Grain Size ....................................................................................................................... 56 4.3.5 Percent Organics ............................................................................................................. 57 4.4 Suspended Sediment Yield ..............................................................................................
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