Journal of Archaeology Copyright 2017 ISBN 1524-4776

The Role of in the Settlement of the Leeward : Lithic and Shell Analysis Along the Strombus Line Shell Midden

Vincent Rousseau1, Allison Bain2, Jacques Chabot2, Sandrine Grouard3, and Sophia Perdikaris4

The Strombus Line is a linear shellfish midden located along the former southwestern shore of the of Barbuda. In 2011 and 2012, members of the Islands of Change project identified and excavated three Archaic Age sites associated with this structure. The analysis of shells and exogenous chert from these sites allows us to better understand the role of Barbuda, providing new evidence of the activities of resource exploitation and production on the island during the Archaic Age. This article presents the results of the excavations and the lithic and shell analyses and aims to contextualize the importance of Barbuda in the regional economy. Le Strombus Line est un amas coquillier linéaire situé le long de l’ancien rivage sud-ouest de l’île de Barbuda. En 2011 et 2012, trois sites liés à cette structure datée de l’archaïque ont été localisés et fouillés par une équipe du projet Islands of Change. L’analyse des coquillages et des éclats de chert exogène retrouvés sur ces sites permet de mieux concevoir la place de l’île de Barbuda au cours de la période Archaïque des Petites du Nord en fournissant de nouvelles données sur les activités d'exploitation des ressources et de production d'outils. Cet article présente les fouilles, examine les résultats des analyses lithiques et malacoarchéologiques tout en contextualisant l’importance de Barbuda pour l’économie régionale.

La “Strombus Line” es un cúmulo de conchas linear que se encuentra en la costa suroeste de la isla de Barbuda, localizada en el norte de las Antillas menores. Entre 2011 y 2012 tres sitios de la era Arcaica asociados con esta estructura fueron localizados y excavados por un equipo del proyecto Islands of Change. El análisis de las conchas y de los fragmentos de sílex exógenos recuperados en estos sitios ha proporcionado información valiosa para la comprensión de la importancia de Barbuda en la región durante la era Arcaica y a proporcionado nuevas evidencias de las actividades de explotación de los recursos y de producción de herramientas. Este artículo presenta los resultados de las excavaciones y de los análisis líticos y arqueomalacologicas con el fin de contextualizar la importancia de Barbuda en la economía regional del periodico arcaico del norte de las Antillas menores.

1 Université Laval, Québec, , [email protected] 2 CELAT, Université Laval, Québec, Canada 3 Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris 4 City University of New York, Brooklyn

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Settlement of , Barbuda Rousseau et al.

Introduction absence or lack of visibility of many In the early 1970s archaeologists sites (Cooper 2013). discovered an aceramic prehistoric site Specialists disagree on whether on the island of Antigua (Davis 1973, these first settlers of the Leeward Islands 1982; Olsen 1971). The Salt Pond site came from , the Greater featured conch celt blanks and flint Antilles or both (Hofman et al. 2006, blades, yet no ceramics. As such, the 2011) but a direct route between South Salt Pond site provided proof of the first America and the Leeward Islands and known Archaic Age (4000-2000 BP) might explain the lack of colonization of the northern , colonisation evidence from the southern indicating the settlement of these islands (e.g. Callaghan 1991; several centuries earlier than previously 1993, 2003; Fitzpatrick 2013). These thought. During the following years, populations had developed highly numerous other Archaic Age sites were specialised knowledge of both marine found, most notably on Antigua but also resources and seafaring transportation on other islands of the northern West (Callaghan 1991, 1993, 2003; Fitzpatrick Indies (Bonnissent 2008; Bonnissent et 2013; Hofman et al. 2011; Nicholson al. 2016; Bullen 1971; Cherry et al. 1975), and they travelled regularly 2012; Crock et al. 1993; Davis 2000; between islands as they maintained Hofman and Hoogland 2003; Hofman et nomadic or semi-nomadic marine- al. 2006; Watters 1980). Our current oriented subsistence practices. As the understanding of the archaeology of islands of the are Antigua is that it was an important center intervisible, they have a high potential for the Archaic Age, more densely for inter-island network connections populated than other islands probably (Watters 1980a). According to Mol due in part to its important lithic sources. (2013), the pre-Columbian Caribbean While most of the Leeward Islands were likely consisted of a series of settled during this period, the Windward autonomous but interconnected networks Islands south of seem to have and given their geological and ecological been voluntarily left out of this wave of diversity, even small islands had colonization (Bright 2011; de Mille resources to offer (Hofman et al. 2007; 2005; Fitzpatrick 2013; Giovas and Mol 2013). Understanding these Fitzpatrick 2014; Hackenberger 1991; interconnections is crucial to further our Hofman 2008; Rodríguez Ramos et al. understanding of settlement patterns in 2013). This absence of sites south of the Lesser Antilles as it might help Martinique has been recently nuanced by clarify the kinds of activities that Siegel and his team (2015) who argued, prompted people to move in and around using paleoenvironmental data, that the . these islands may have been occupied The small island of Barbuda several centuries earlier than the (Figure 1) is Antigua’s closest neighbor archaeological sites lead us to believe, and contains a handful of Archaic sites, and that some sites remained although little is known about Barbuda’s undocumented due to taphonomic or Archaic Age peoples. In 2011 and 2012, methodological reasons (Siegel et al. an international team working on the 2015). Active coastal erosion and rising Islands of Change project undertook sea levels may have also resulted in the excavations at three Archaic Age sites

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Settlement of Leeward Islands, Barbuda Rousseau et al.

Figure 1. Location of showing 120 m isobath and maximal land exposure during the Pleistocene.

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Settlement of Leeward Islands, Barbuda Rousseau et al. threatened by development and farming the area of activities. The River site, Cattle Field (Bullen 1969; Callaghan 1985, 1991; and Burton’s Field sites are located Hofman et al. 2011; Keegan 2000; directly on or in close relation with an Murphy 1999; Rodríguez Ramos et al. impressive linear shell midden following 2013; Wilson 1995). However, other the former southwestern shore of the scholars also propose migrations from island. This shell midden, called the different of Central and South Strombus Line, composed primarily of America including and Lobatus (Strombus) gigas or Queen (Fitzpatrick 2013; Hofman et Conch shells, was first recorded during al. 2011; Kozlowski 2004; Rodriguez an archaeological survey in the late Ramos 2010; Rouse 1989). While these 1970s by Watters (1980a, 2001; Watters groups of mobile fisher-gatherer- et al. 1991). The present article aims to foragers of the Lithic Age probably provide a better understanding of the knew of the existence of the Lesser exploitation of Barbuda’s marine Antilles, they do not appear to have resources during the Archaic Age via the exploited these islands until much later, analyses of the results of these unless these early sites have yet to be excavations, while contextualising the discovered. Some islands closer to the importance of Barbuda in the regional South American mainland like Archaic Age economy of the Lesser (once attached to the mainland) were Antilles. colonized earlier (around 8000 BP) (Fitzpatrick 2013). The Archaic Age occupation and The first Archaic Age settlers to economy of the Lesser Antilles the northern Lesser Antilles arrived The Caribbean is a multicultural around 5000 years ago. Originating and multilingual region and discussions either from northern South America around the chronologies of Caribbean (Bonnissent 2008; Bonnissent et al. prehistory and terminology are complex 2016; Bullen 1961, 1969, 1971; de Mille (Giraud 2013; Lundberg 1980; Pantel 2005; Fitzpatrick 2013; Giraud 2013; 1988; Keegan et al. 2013; Wilson 2007). Haviser 2001; Keegan 2000; Lundberg The broad chronological periods, 1991; Olsen 1971), from the eastern initially called Lithic, Archaic and (Davis 1973; Giraud Ceramic have had several names in the 2013; Gross 1975; Rodriguez Ramos et last decades (Wilson 2007), though al. 2013) or from both (Hofman et al. recent research questions the existence 2006, 2014; Siegel et al. 2015; Watters of the Lithic Age in the Lesser Antilles et al. 1991), these settlers arrived with (Rodríguez Ramos et al. 2013). There is new plants and technologies. Manioc, no entirely satisfactory terminology but maize, sweet potato, avocado and beans, for the purposes of this short article, the are believed to have been introduced terms Lithic Age, Archaic Age, and during this period to some of the islands Ceramic Age will be used. of the Greater Antilles including The Lithic Age is best and Puerto Rico (Pagán Jiménez 2011; represented on the large islands of the Pagán Jiménez and Rodríguez Ramos Greater Antilles, including Cuba and 2007; Rodriguez Ramos et al. 2013). , which were settled some 6000 years ago by peoples arriving from

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Settlement of Leeward Islands, Barbuda Rousseau et al.

Figure 2. Geological map of Barbuda (modified from Brasier and Mather 1975) with sites mentioned in the text. Archaic Age peoples are believed northern West Indies and on the Greater to have been organized into small highly Antilles where they fished, collected mobile marine-oriented groups, who shellfish and wild plants, and were established seasonal or sporadically involved in plant cultivation and occupied settlements on most of the management (Hofman et al. 2006;

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Settlement of Leeward Islands, Barbuda Rousseau et al.

Keegan et al. 2008; Newsom and Wing sites remain intact. About 1600 people 2004; Rodríguez Ramos et al. 2013). currently live on the in the single village There is ample evidence of regional of Codrington. exchanges between the islands of the Barbuda is surrounded by northern West Indies, notably high- reefs that shield its coasts from erosion quality Antiguan flint, suggesting (Brasier and Donahue 1985) and provide frequent expeditions between islands (de marine resources. There is no barrier reef Mille 2005; Hofman and Hoogland along the southwestern coast rendering it 2003; Hofman et al. 2006, 2011, 2014; easily accessible by boat. Waters close to Knippenberg 2001, 2006, 2007). In the coast are characterized by sandy and contrast with other Leeward Islands, grassy sea beds, an ideal ecological Antigua appears to be unique as it has niche for the Queen conch (Lobatus several high quality flint sources, many gigas) (Antczak et al. 2008; Ehrhardt sheltered bays, a rich biodiversity and and Valle-Esquivel 2008; Frankiel and extensive reef environments (Davis Aldana Aranda 2007; McCarthy 2007; 2000; Knippenberg 2006; Murphy 1999; OPR 2013; Ray and Stoner 1995; van Gijn 1993). Antigua houses some of Serrand 2002; Theile 2001). This sandy the oldest and largest Archaic Age sites shallow coast was exploited by Archaic in the region (Hofman et al. 2006; Age peoples for conch harvesting during Nicholson 1994) which suggests the more than a millennium, resulting in the potential archaeological significance of creation of a linear shell midden over Archaic Age sites recently identified on three kilometres long: the Strombus the neighboring island of Barbuda. Line. Watters first documented the The Strombus Line and the Archaic Strombus Line in 1978 (Watters 1980a). Age occupation of Barbuda He initially interpreted it as the result of First occupied over 3800 years a natural phenomenon. Given that the ago, Barbuda differs from other islands vast majority of the shells are Queen in the Northern West Indies. While the Conch, and that many show signs of vast majority of this island chain is made conch meat extraction (removal of the up of geologically diverse hilly or apex or a simple puncture hole near the mountainous volcanic islands, Barbuda apex), the Strombus Line was eventually is a flat -like calcareous island. This understood to be a cultural feature. directly influences the amount of annual However, since Watters did not identify rainfall and, subsequently, the nature and any associated domestic structures, he density of its vegetation. The island suggested that the Strombus Line was thereby has a more arid climate, limited primarily used for conch meat extraction fresh water (Mather 1971) and shallow and the production of conch shell tools, sandy soil. During the Colonial Period and that domestic sites may be located the arid climate, lack of fresh water and further inland (Watters 2001). On his poor shallow soils were not conducive to second survey trip to the island Watters cane cultivation which signifi- found exogenous flint at the Archaic cantly transformed many Caribbean Goat Pen site located slightly north of landscapes. As the island was used the Strombus Line. Flint was sub- primarily for farming and grazing, sequently found at seven other locations several large Barbudan archaeological along the Strombus Line notably near

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Settlement of Leeward Islands, Barbuda Rousseau et al. the port in a location called the River (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Map of the Strombus Line, and the River, Burton’s Field (BuF 12) and the Cattle Field (CaF 12) sites.

Expanding on Watters work, The were identified along a 1 km section. Islands of Change project systematically This suggests that the Strombus Line documented historic and prehistoric may have continued to Cocoa Point or archaeological sites on Barbuda and even Gravenors Bay (Vésteinsson 2011). partially excavated three Archaic Age Following the former shoreline, the sites (River site, Cattle Field and Strombus Line sits on the limit between Burton’s Field). In January 2011, a small the darker soils of the older Codrington team located and documented extant Formation and the paler and younger portions of the Strombus Line which sands of the Palmetto Point Formation. extends almost 2 km west of the sand At a few locations, such as around the processing plant near the port (Figure 3) Burton’s Field and Cattle Field (Friðriksson et al. 2011). Although the archaeological sites, it is upwards of 30 majority of the Strombus Line east of meters in width and forms a slightly and adjacent to the port was destroyed raised bulge on the otherwise flat terrain. by road construction, intermittent traces However, intact sections that have not

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Settlement of Leeward Islands, Barbuda Rousseau et al. been altered or destroyed by recent objectives of area C. Its stratigraphic activities such as road construction, sequence revealed several episodes farming and building vary greatly in linked to fluvial action, consistent with width. its location in the middle of a stream In the immediate vicinity around delta subject to heavy seasonal rains, and the port, a small team excavated the at times, tropical storms and hurricanes River site (BAA04) first identified by (Friðriksson et al. 2011). A cultural layer Watters (1980a). This site was partly was identified for radiocarbon sampling destroyed and heavily threatened by and two radiocarbon dated fragments of seasonal erosion (Friðriksson et al. Lobatus gigas place the River site 2011). Located directly in the mouth of a occupation between 3280±35 cal BP and seasonal stream, the River site mainly 2790±35 cal BP5. Below this layer with consists of a washed out midden and a its sandy matrix, a dark organic natural few isolated and intact stratified layer is believed to be the decomposed deposits. Approximately 3.5 sq. m of remains of a forest. This stratified deposits, identified as areas A, organic layer was also identified the B, and C were excavated (Friðriksson et following year on the Burton’s Field al. 2011). site. Area A, a natural deposit created In 2012, Dr. David Watters by fluvial erosion, was excavated in participated in the ongoing survey of the order to understand the stratigraphic Strombus Line. Small excavations were sequence and geomorphologic processes. undertaken on two of the best preserved This revealed several relatively shallow sections and the team attempted to layers of aerial and fluvial deposits identify Watters’ Goat Pen site. The which accumulated over the darker survey documented the destruction of cultural layers rich in shells (Friðriksson large sections of the Strombus Line over et al. 2011). the last 30-40 years. Many sections Area B, a small in situ island of documented by Watters have been archaeological and organic material ploughed under, leveled by machinery, protected from fluvial erosion by flooded or used by locals for waste mangrove roots, was the primary focus disposal. Furthermore, the Goat Pen site of our excavations at the River site. could not be located. It was probably Approximately 1.75 sq. m were destroyed between 2003 and 2009 when excavated and allowed us to recover a large wooded area west of the modern several thousand shell fragments, almost sand plant was bulldozed and exclusively of Lobatus gigas, along with transformed into pasture. some exogenous flint flakes and fire The Burton’s Field site contains a cracked rocks. Modern debris was found short section of the Strombus Line in association with artefacts in the upper (approx. 80 m by 30 m) and is situated layers, while the deeper cultural layers between a cattle pasture and vegetable were highly disturbed by mangrove roots fields (Figure 3). This area is fenced off and inhibited sampling for radiocarbon which appears to have spared it from dating (Friðriksson et al. 2011). recent agricultural and grazing activities. The location of a good context for radiocarbon dating and further 5 SUERC-33604 (GU-23530) and SUERC- geomorphologic analyses were the main 33605 (GU-23531), dates calculated with OxCal3 using ΔR = 0

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The Strombus Line has been removed to provided a date of 3073 – 3230 cal BP (2 leave only a slight surface mound. A σ)7. small test unit (1 sq. m) was excavated for comparison with the contents and Methodology stratigraphy of the River Site. The unit All excavations followed was established in the middle of the standard Barbuda Research Center/ Strombus Line where several flint flakes NABO (North Atlantic Biological were visible on the surface. Several Organization) procedures, including the thousand whole and fragmented conch recovery of all lithics, shells and shell fragments, some of which were organics. At the Burton’s Field site, the punctured, were found along with flakes entire square contents were sieved using of primarily Long Island flint. Two a 4 mm mesh and bulk samples were radiocarbon dated fragments of shell taken for each stratigraphic layer and taken in different layers of the Burton’s water sieved using a 2 mm mesh to Field excavation place this site between ensure the collection of smaller lithic 3232-3367 cal BP (2 σ) and 2153-2310 fragments, shells, bones and charcoal. At cal BP (2 σ)6. the Cattle Field site, the entire contents Located just a few metres north were wet-sieved at the research station of the Strombus Line, the Cattle Field using a 2 mm mesh. During excavation, site was identified in the 2012 survey natural stratigraphic layers were (Figure 3). Over an L-shaped area of recorded along with shell density and approximately 500 sq. m, sporadically soil color. Bulk soil samples were taken distributed shell and flint scatters varied along with shell samples for radiocarbon between 1 m and 3 m in diameter. dating and precise coordinates and Between 2003 and 2009, it was altitudes were recorded with GPS units. bulldozed to create pasture and while the Shells from the 2012 campaign upper layers of the site are gone, this were counted and identified as precisely serendipitously revealed its arch- as possible and separated into categories aeological potential. A single square reflecting the different shell parts metre was placed in order to straddle (following Serrand 2001). They were surface deposits and the adjacent grassy then counted to obtain a Minimum area. While the grassy area contained Number of Individuals (MNI) and a little to no archaeological data, the general idea of conch meat weight. cultural deposit contained abundant Given time constraints, shell volumes bivalve shells and flint flakes. Contrary from the lower layers (101 to 103) of the to the Strombus Line where Queen Burton’s Field sieving residues were Conch makes up the vast majority of the estimated based on the results and shell fauna, the Cattle Field volume of the top layer (100). Shells malacoarchaeological collection is from the 2011 excavation of the River dominated by the Atlantic Pearl Oyster Site were not subjected to a detailed (Pinctada imbricata). A radiocarbon study. sample taken on an Atlantic pearl oyster Lithic collections were studied at fragment from the lower layer of this site the lithic laboratory at Université Laval

7 6 UCIAMS-107937 (ULA-3253) and UCIAMS- UCIAMS-107939 (ULA-3254), dates 107937 (ULA-3252), dates calculated with calculated with CALIB REV7.1.0 using ΔR = 0 CALIB REV7.1.0 using ΔR = 0

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Settlement of Leeward Islands, Barbuda Rousseau et al. in Quebec City, Canada. Morphological Knippenberg (2006), and a consultation characteristics and spatial considerations with Dr. Reg Murphy. The high were the main foci of the lithic analyses. percentage of cortex identified in all Sourcing was also attempted using three collections indicates this flint was Knippenberg’s (2006, 2007) descriptions brought to Barbuda and then knapped of Northern Lesser Antilles lithic locally. Similar to many sites in the materials. Finally, an unsuccessful use- region (Bonnissent et al. 2001; Briels wear analysis attempt was conducted on 2004; de Mille 2005; Hofman et al. the lithics from the 2012 excavations and 2011; Lammers-Keijsers 2005; Nokkert on the shell tools collected during et al. 1995; Pantel 1991; Rostain et al. survey. This will be briefly presented in 2007; Walker 1980), opportunistic or ad the lithics section below. hoc flake production using direct percussion with a hard hammer Results (probably also made of flint) seems to The River site, Burton’s Field have been the standard knapping and Cattle Field yielded shell, flint and technique employed on all three sites. coral exclusively. The following section This lithic technology was simple, quick presents results from the analysis of the and efficient and sought to satisfy the collections recovered at all three sites, immediate needs of a skilled knapper. It grouped by material. allows for the production of flakes with highly variable sizes, shapes and angles Lithic analysis (Figure 4), and used all available parts of A total of 294 flint artefacts were the cores. Tools are easily replaced and found on these sites: 75 from the River are discarded upon task completion (e.g. site, 153 from Burton’s Field and 66 woodworking, shell working, butcher- from Cattle Field. They all present ing, meal preparation, rope making, etc. similar characteristics and suggest see Briels 2004; van Gijn et al. 2008; similar technological processes. Given Walker 1981) or when the tool loses its the lack of local sources, all flint efficiency. The ratio of flake to angular recovered is exogenous and was brought waste production at these sites is fairly to the island. The vast majority of the close to 50/50, especially at the Burton’s flint, according to its colour, form, Field and Cattle Field sites (Rousseau texture and inclusions, appears to be 2014). A few small exhausted cores were from Antigua or the adjacent Long found, suggesting the importance of Island, just off of Antigua’s northeastern every gram of raw material brought to coast (approximately 42 km south of Barbuda. Voluntary retouching of flakes Barbuda). These results are based on or angular waste was absent in all previous analyses conducted on chert assemblages and wear was found on less from Blackman’s point in Antigua by than 20% of artefacts in each collection.

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Figure 4. Lithic Flakes from the River, Burton’s Field and Cattle Field sites.

Even if all three sites present therefore precluded any attempts for use- similar lithic collections, the River site wear analysis. presents significant post-depositional alteration. While 24% of the flakes of Archaeomalacological Results River showed white patina and none The primary activity responsible showed traces of contact with fire, 72% for the formation of the Strombus Line of the Burton’s Field and Cattle Field was conch collection. Although Archaic combined flakes had a heavy patina and Age middens often suggest a 20% showed signs of prolonged “dependency on a restricted number of exposition to high heat. The heavy species” (Hofman et al. 2006), 95% of patina, especially on some artefacts from the Strombus Line is made up of Queen Cattle Field, sometimes masked all Conch. By contrast, shell fauna from the traces of knapping and use to the point Cattle Field site, adjacent to but not where it was impossible to see the directly on the Strombus Line, is original color and texture of the flake. dominated by the Atlantic Pearl Oyster High magnification use wear which accounts for 89% of the analysis was attempted on several of the collection. The pH of the soil matrix unaltered or less altered flakes from around the Strombus Line is almost Barbuda, shell celts and some blades neutral, fluctuating between 6.5 and 7, from Antigua. However, an artificial which would not be a significant factor polish, likely the result of movement in of decay for bones or more fragile shells. the salt water and sandy environment In all three collections, only one badly near and on the Strombus Line obscured damaged fish bone fragment was found any potentially diagnostic surfaces and in the River Site assemblage, and fishing is therefore not considered to be an

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Settlement of Leeward Islands, Barbuda Rousseau et al. activity that contributed to the creation during Strombus Line walking surveys. of the Strombus Line. On the Burton’s These were measured and characterised Field and River sites, both located using a combination of Lammers- directly on the Strombus Line, the low Keijsers’ (2007) and Serrand’s (2001, diversity of species suggests the strategic Serrand and Bonnissent 2005) methods. exploitation of Queen Conch. These tools may have been used for The Queen Conch (Lobatus multiple purposes, including cutting and gigas, Linnaeus, 1758) has been carving wood, as well as splitting it collected for millennia by local when used as wedges (as suggested by populations for its meat and shell and is Lammers-Keijsers 2005, 2007), digging, one of the most important mollusks of or for other purposes (see also the prehistoric Antillean diet (Antczak Nieuwenhuis 2008 for wear and residue and Antczak 2005; Antczak et al. 2008; analyses). The removal of conch meat Keegan et al. 2003). The Queen Conch is and the manufacture of celts results in the largest gastropod of the Caribbean several by-products with recognisable area, measuring up to 30 cm long and 20 shapes. Accordingly, Conch fragments cm wide, and weighing up to 2.3 kg. The from Burton’s Field were classified meat weight varies between 50 g and according to their shape and form 350 g with mean and median meat (following Serrand 2002) (Table 1). weights around 135 g to 160 g per adult Due to time constraints, the conch (CFMC and CFRAMP 1999, Burton’s Field and Cattle Field sites Ehrhardt and Valle-Esquivel 2008, collections were analysed more McKillop 1984, OPR 2013, Theile thoroughly than those of the River site. 2001). The Queen Conch is generally Around 40 000 fragments were found between the intertidal zone and in recovered from the single square metre depths of up to 20 m on sandy or excavated at the Burton’s Field site. Of seagrass beds where it feeds on algae those, over 99% were identified as and microorganisms (Ehrhardt and Lobatus gigas (N=39 838). In fact, only Valle-Esquivel 2008, Frankiel and 218 other fragments, representing at Aldana Aranda 2007, McCarthy 2007, least 14 different species including the OPR 2013, Ray and Stoner 1995, bivalves Pinctada imbricata (N=135, Serrand 2002, Theile 2001). Conchs Atlantic Pearl Oyster) and Arca zebra bury themselves in sand during the (N=5, Turkey Wing), the gastropods winter, and are more easily taken (N=3, West Indian Top between March and November when Shell), Murex sp. (N=3) and Fissurella they are more active and visible (Doran nimbosa (N=2) and some marine Jr. 1958, Theile 2001), suggesting spring wormlike creatures, Petaloconchus through fall harvesting. varians and Siliquaria squamata (Table At 2 or 3 years, the juvenile 2) were recovered. Conch fragments Lobatus gigas reaches sexual maturity were classified in 14 different morph- and develops a thick flared lip that was ological categories to determine MNI used for the production of polished celts and were compared to the shell celt (axes and adzes), as it is highly resistant chaîne opératoire proposed by Serrand (Kamat et al. 1999). Although no such (2001, Serrand and Bonnissent 2005). shell tools were found in situ during Using the siphonal canal as a marker for excavations, six shell celts were found the calculation of the MNI, 988 Queen

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Conch were found at Burton’s Field. related to the historic lime kilns just a Some shells had been exposed to intense few meters off the site. Shells burned in heat, a practice often discussed in conch the kilns to produce quicklime were meat extraction techniques (see exported from Barbuda (Watters 1980b) Bonnissent et al. 2001; Hofman and and burned shell cannot be confidently Hoogland 2011; Hoogland and Hofman associated with the Archaic occupation 2015), however, it could also be the at Burton’s Field. result of post depositional burning

19000 estimated small waste fragments 26750 estimated small waste fragments 32500 estimated small waste fragments

The Cattle Field malacological (N=283, MNI of 13) of the faunal assemblage portrays a different picture collection. The Atlantic Pearl Oyster of Archaic Age subsistence activities on thrives in rocky bottoms and coral reefs Barbuda. Unlike the Strombus Line, this suggesting that diverse environments site contains little evidence of conch were exploited by Barbuda’s Archaic exploitation. Very few had a fully Age peoples. Other species living in formed flared lip and almost none had rocky shores or coral reefs, like the the thick shell typical of adult conch, Turkey Wing (Arca zebra) or the patella suggesting most were juvenile. Instead, (Fissurella nimbosa), were found on it is the Atlantic Pearl Oyster (Pinctada both Cattle Field and Burton’s Field and imbricata) that stands out in this site’s corroborates this behavior. Furthermore, assemblage of 4226 shell fragments. mangrove oyster (Crassostrea This bivalve species represents 89% rhizophorae) shells were identified (N=3767, MNI of 626) of the shell suggesting opportunistic shellfish collection while the mostly juvenile collecting behavior. conch fragments represent less than 7%

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Table 2. Species represented in Burton's Field and Cattle Field 2012 excavations Site Number of fragments per species Lobatus gigas Pinctada imbricata Other1 Burton's Field 39 838 135 83

Percentage of 99,45% 0,34% 0,21% assemblage MNI 988 20 Cattle Field 283 3 767 176 Percentage of 6,70% 89,14% 4,16% assemblage MNI 13 626

1Other species include Arca zebra, Crassostrea rhizophorae, Cittarium pica, Murex sp., Fissurella nimbosa, Petaloconchus varians, Siliquaria squamata and unidentified species.

The differences in the faunal meat weight of 146.22 kg was consumed assemblages of these contemporary sites from the shells recovered from the 1 sq. may be explained by the slightly inland m excavated at Burton’s Field. Taking setting of the Cattle Field site. While the into account that the excavation took meat of the heavy Queen Conch was place at the highest point of the processed directly on the shore where it Strombus Line (which decreases in was collected (as suggested by Keegan height on both sides, see Rousseau 2014) et al. 2003), lighter bivalves like the and that the width of the feature is Atlantic Pearl Oyster appear to have relatively stable around 10 m, a MNI of been carried past the beach to a small 4 220 736 Queen Conch make up the domestic processing area where the meat 800 m long agricultural sector of the would be extracted and processed or Strombus Line, representing 624 669 kg consumed. A substantial portion of the of conch meat. Using the radiocarbon conch meat could also have been dates currently available for this sector brought inland to be processed for later (cal. 3367-2153 BP), 722.16 kg of conch consumption (drying, salting or meat may have been consumed annually smoking) (Antczak et al. 2008). over a period of 865 years. Despite this To appreciate the impressive convoluted extrapolation based on the volume of conch meat that was excavation of a single square metre, harvested from the conch deposited in these numbers are impressive and the Strombus Line feature, the Burton’s represent only one approximately 800 m Field results and minimal measurements long sector of the Strombus Line (which of the Strombus Line taken in the largest is at least 3 km in length, but may be to 8 and best preserved agricultural sector or 9 km long), highlighting the were subjected to further mathematical importance of this linear feature as well calculations. Using a meat weight of 148 as the magnitude of the Queen Conch g per conch individual, an approximate population.

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would also ensure the comparability of Discussion: How Barbuda relates to collections. neighboring islands All Archaic Age sites excavated Although several shell middens on Barbuda appear to be consistent with have been studied across the Caribbean the interpretation of Archaic peoples as (e.g. Antczak and Antczak 2005; mobile fishing-collecting-foraging pop- Antczak et al. 2008, Bonnissent et al. ulations (Armstrong 1980; Bonnissent et 2001, 2016; Keegan et al. 2003, 2008, al. 2016; Briels 2004; Hofman 2008; Murphy 1995, 1999; Serrand 2001), the Hofman et al. 2006, 2011, 2014; Murphy Strombus Line is unique. Other shell 1999; Nicholson 1975a). Barbuda middens have been found to have the appears to have been integrated into a same linear shape (heaps and scatters are specialized and highly mobile economic also common, see Antczak et al. 2008 model where specific activities took and Keegan et al. 2003), but few rival place on each island, exploiting the the Strombus Line in its dimensions. inequitably distributed resources Further, the Strombus Line is notable in (Bonnissent 2008; Bonnissent et al. that it composed almost exclusively of 2001, 2007; Crock et al. 1993; Gross conch shells in a region where middens 1975; Hofman et al. 2006, 2011, 2014; tend to contain a variety of mollusks Keegan et al. 2008; Lundberg 1980, (Davis 1982, 2000; Edwald et al. 2012; 1991; Murphy 1999). This exploitation Keegan et al. 2003; Murphy 1999), with pattern resulted in the creation of the exception of the Baie Orientale site specialised features like the Strombus in St. Martin (2790 BP – 1930 BP), Line and the Baie Orientale midden. In which is also dominated by Queen this economic system, the islands of Conch (Bonnissent et al. 2001, 2016). A Long Island and Antigua were exploited careful open area excavation of the Baie for their flint sources suitable for Orientale site identified shell celt toolmaking (Knippenberg 2006; van production, as well as conch cooking Gijn 1993), while the island of techniques involving stone beds (Plum Piece site) might have provided (Bonnissent et al. 2001; Serrand 2001). wood for the production of canoes Similar cooking techniques seem to have (Hofman et al. 2006, 2011, 2014; also been found on the ABC islands in Hofman and Hoogland 2003; the region (Hofman Nieuwenhuis 2008; van Gijn et al. and Hoogland 2011; Hoogland and 2008). Since Barbuda is neither Hofman 2015). On Barbuda, areas particularly luxuriant nor fertile, and dedicated to the production of celts and since neither lithic sources nor potable cooking were not identified, likely due to water are readily available, the large the limited extent of excavations. Future conch populations of its southeastern open area excavations on and adjacent to bank appear to be the main resource the Strombus Line may locate attracting Archaic Age peoples to the specialised activity areas. It should also island. It is also possible that hardwood be noted that both the Strombus Line and trees like such as lignum vitae (Gaiacum Baie Orientale sites were excavated officinalis) and other species, were also using a standardized sampling exploited (Faucher, forthcoming), methodology. Standardized field and explaining the presence of shell celts analyses practices on future projects found along the Strombus Line.

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The three lithic collections of the The analysis of the Cattle Field Barbudan sites studied contain elements faunal assemblage suggests the suggestive of the “down the line” model exploitation of multiple marine environ- of distribution proposed by Knippenberg ments in which additional mollusk for the Ceramic Age (2007, 2013; varieties likely supplemented conch, Knippenberg and Zjilstra 2008). In this along with plant resources. Furthermore, model, people travelled to the lithic the archaeomalacological signature of source (usually Antigua for the the Cattle Field site might indicate a immediate region), and directly acquired possible domestic function. The site may the raw materials, before transporting have been used for several short stays or them to be knapped at their destination. represents the accumulated refuse of On Barbuda, this is represented by the several mollusk collecting expeditions. high percentage of cortex found on The Cattle Field assemblage may further nearly 40% of the lithic collections suggest that Archaic Age groups also analysed at all three sites (Friðriksson et likely consumed smaller mollusks and al. 2011; Rousseau 2012, 2014). plants during a relatively short time During the Archaic Age, the spent on Barbuda for conch collecting, southwestern shores of Barbuda should processing and tool production, and that be seen as dotted with exploitation and they dried, salted or smoked a portion of processing stations, integrated to a wider the conch meat to be consumed on other regional system where each island had islands during other tasks. something to offer and was exploited by The excavation and analyses of a highly mobile population (Hofman et lithic and archaeomalacological remains al. 2006, 2011, 2014; Keegan et al. from the River, Burton’s Field and Cattle 2008). Field sites represent more than 70,000 mollusk fragments and almost 300 Conclusions exogenous flint fragments. These The Strombus Line and the artefacts and ecofacts add to the associated sites discussed in this paper understanding of tools created and used provide evidence of the first known by Archaic Age peoples and of the occupation of Barbuda more than 4000 occupation and exploitation of the years ago. They also suggest an region. Concrete measures should be integrated regional economy, which taken to protect what is left of this included the movement of populations exceptional archaeological feature, as and the exchange of resources between future excavations could provide a better the islands of the Northern West Indies, understanding of occupation and and extending to the larger Caribbean abandonment of this coastal area. region (Bonnissent 2008; Bonnissent et Barbuda and its Strombus Line represent al. 2001, 2007; Hofman et al. 2006, the material remains of a mobile 2011, 2014; Lundberg 1980, 1991). The fisher/gatherer/foraging community that rich seagrass beds of the Barbuda Bank occupied the Northern West Indies and allowed for an abundant Queen Conch exploited resources scattered between its population, and the Strombus Line islands. As a station for conch collecting reveals the importance of this resource in and processing, Barbuda was manifestly the diet of Archaic Age peoples. an important island for the mobile populations of the Archaic Age.

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Acknowledgements: This paper presents the results of MA research by Vincent Rousseau under the direction of Drs. Allison Bain and Jacques Chabot, both from Université Laval. Dr. Sandrine Grouard from the Museum national d’Histoire naturelle in Paris served as a committee member and we thank her for help with the malacological analyses and the preparation of the figures. Partial funding for the authors was provided by Université Laval and the Social Science and Humanities Council of Canada. This research was also supported by National Science Foundation support to the Islands of Change project (OPP 0851727) held by Dr. Sophia Perdikaris. David Watters is also acknowledged for generously sharing his knowledge of Barbudan archaeology with us and we also extend our thanks to Dr. Reginald Murphy for his support. Thoughtful suggestions by two reviewers and edits by Geneviève Godbout improved this this paper and for this we thank them.

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