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This pdf is a digital offprint of your contribution in P. Kousoulis & N. Lazaridis (eds), Proceedings of the Tenth International Congress of Egyptologists, University of the Aegean, Rhodes, 22-29 May 2008 (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 241), ISBN 978-90-429-2550-2.

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For queries about offprints, copyright and republication of your article, please contact the publisher via [email protected] ORIENTALIA LOVANIENSIA ANALECTA ————— 241 —————

PROCEEDINGS OF THE TENTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EGYPTOLOGISTS

University of the Aegean, Rhodes 22-29 May 2008

Volume I

edited by

P. kousoulis and n. lazaridis

Peeters Leuven – Paris – bristol, CT 2015

94487_OLA_Kousoulis_Vol_1_VWK.indd 3 7/01/16 08:45 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I: archaeology

J.R. Anderson and Salah eldin Mohamed Ahmed Five Years of Excavations at Dangeil, Sudan: A New Amun Temple of the Late Kushite Period...... 3

M.-P. Aubry, W.A. Berggren, C. Dupuis, E. Poorvin, H. Ghaly, D. Ward, C. King, R. O’Brian Knox, Kh. Ouda and W. Fathy Hassan TIGA: A Geoarchaeologic Project in the Theban Necropolis, West Bank, Egypt...... 21

B. Bader A Late Middle Kingdom Settlement at Tell el-Dab‘a and its Potential . . 45

G. Bąkowska Meroitic Pottery from Napata. The Hellenistic Influence...... 65

H. Barnard The Study of Eastern Desert Ware...... 77

N. Billing and J.M. Rowland Recently Discovered Blocks in the Central Delta Village of Kom el-Ahmar, Minuf...... 101

J. Budka The Asasif Revisited: New Results from the Austrian Concession . . . . 111

J. Budka Festival Pottery of the New Kingdom: The Case of Elephantine. . . . . 131

N. Castellano A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Les nécropoles d’Oxyrhynchos...... 147 R. Czerner © 2015, Peeters Publishers & Department of Oriental Studies Architecture of the Temple of Tuthmosis III at Deir el-Bahari. Some Bondgenotenlaan 153, B-3000 Leuven/Louvain (Belgium) Remarks on the Hypostyle Hall: Study on Architectural Elements of the Roof Structure...... 159 All rights reserved, including the rights to translate or to reproduce this book or parts thereof in any form. Z. De Kooning ISBN 978-90-429-2550-2 Preliminary Report on the Ceramological Corpus of the Survey in al-Shaykh D/2015/0602/76 Sa‘id South ...... 175

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C. Fantaoutsaki New Evidence on the Sanctuary of Isis in the Ancient City of Rhodes. . 189

J.M. Galán Excavations at the Courtyard of the Tomb of Djehuty (TT 11) . . . . . 207

Z. Hawass The Egyptian Expedition in the Valley of the Kings Excavation Season 2, 2008-2009: Part 1...... 221

I. Incordino Royal Monuments of the Third Dynasty: A Re-examination of the Archae- ological Documents...... 267

M. Jones The Temple Palace of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu: An Archaeological Approach to its Preservation...... 277

A.A. Krol “White Walls” of Memphis at Kom Tuman...... 295

M.J. López-Grande and E. de Gregorio Pottery Vases from a Deposit with Flower Bouquets Found at Dra Abu el-Naga...... 305

M.H. Trindade Lopes and T.R. Pereira The Palace of Apries (Memphis/Kôm Tumân): Brief Report of the Fifth Campaign (April 2008)...... 319

S.T. Basilico and S.A. Lupo Function of Area II in Tell el-Ghaba, North Sinai, through its Pottery Evi- dence...... 327

M. Müller Kalksteinpuzzle in Per-Ramses...... 341

M. Mascort L’Osireion d’Oxyrhynchos...... 365

A. Niwiński A Mysterious Tomb at Deir el-Bahari. Revelations of the Excavations of the Polish-Egyptian Cliff Mission above the Temples of Hatshepsut and Thutmosis III...... 377

M.C. Pérez Die Ehnasya el Medina (Herakleopolis Magna). Excavations 2004-2007 at the Necropolis of the First Intermediate Period / Early Middle Kingdom . . . 393

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E. Pons Mellado Saite Tomb n° 14 at the Archaeological Site of Oxyrhynchus (el Bahnasa). 411

C. Price East of Djoser: Preliminary Report of the Saqqara Geophysical Survey Project, 2007 Season...... 421

R. Schiestl Locating the Cemeteries of the Residential Elite of the Thirteenth Dynasty at Dahshur...... 429

F. Schmitt La semence des pierres: le dépôt de fondation dans l’Égypte ancienne. . 443

N. Shirai, W. Wendrich and R. Cappers An Archaeological Survey in the Northeastern Part of the Fayum. . . . 459

Z.E. Szafrański King Hatshepsut from the Deir el-Bahari Temple...... 475

P. Verlinden “Tombs for the Tombless”: A Study of Children and Burial Space in the Dakhla Oasis...... 487

G. Vörös Egyptian Temple Architecture in the Light of the Hungarian Excavations in Egypt (1907-2007) ...... 501

A. Wodzińska Tell er-Retaba: Ceramic Survey 2007...... 521

S. Yoshimura and M. Baba Recent Discoveries of Intact Tombs at Dahshur North: Burial Customs of the Middle and New Kingdoms...... 545

C.S. Zerefos, S.N. Ambrazeys, H. Badawy and E. Xirotyri-Zerefou Past and Present Geophysical Threats at the Great City of Alexandria . . 557

C. Ziegler Nouvelles découvertes à Saqqara...... 569

PART II: royal IDEOLOGY AND SOCIETY

S. Agapov Soziale Strukturen und wirtschaftliche Aktivitäten in Gebelein zur Zeit der 4.-5. Dynastie (nach Angaben der Gebelein-Papyri)...... 583

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S. Allam A Field for Interdisciplinary Research...... 595

S. Caramello Aramaic-Speaking People in Egypt: Religion and Ethnicity...... 605

J. Cashman The Scribal Palette as an Elite Gift in New Kingdom Egypt ...... 615

G. Cavillier From the Mediterranean Sea to the Nile: New Perspectives and Researches on the Sherden in Egypt...... 631

G. Criscenzo-Laycock The Nome: Naturally Occuring Local Unit, or Artificial Device of the State? A Case Study of the Fourteenth Upper Egyptian Nome . . . . . 639

A.J. de Wit Enemies of the State: Perceptions of “Otherness” and State Formation in Egypt...... 649

H. Diaz Rivas Widowhood in Ancient Egypt...... 669

Sh. El-Menshawy Aspects of the Office of Temple Gardener in Ancient Egypt (Reconsid- eration of the Recently Published Stela TN. 20.3.25.3)...... 679

A. El Shahaway Les «individus» qui établissent l’ordre cosmique: un aspect de la dévolution de prérogatives royales dans les tombes thébaines du Nouvel Empire. . . 693

C.J. Eyre Economy and Society in Pharaonic Egypt...... 707

M. Farouk A Timeline of the Old Kingdom Officials...... 727

M. Gathy La peinture thébaine sous le règne d’Amenhotep II: étude d’une création artistique comme reflet du contexte historique et socioculturel de l’époque. 741

B. Hayden Demotic “Marriage Documents” as Evidence for the Perception and Use of Coinage among Egyptians in the Ptolemaic Period...... 751

K.A. Kóthay Duties and Composition of the Personnel of the Cults at Lahun. . . . . 763

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M. Lianou The Foundations of Royal Military Power in Early Ptolemaic Egypt. . . 777

G. Menéndez Foreigners in Deir el-Medina during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties. 791

J. Moje The Demotic Tomb Stelae from Dandara...... 805

M. Minas-Nerpel Ptolemaic Queens in Egyptian Temple Reliefs: Intercultural Reflections of Political Authority, or Religious Imperatives?...... 809

M. Nuzzolo Sun Temples and Pyramid Texts: The King’s Progress in the Evolution of his Cult ...... 823

M. Orriols-Llonch Semen Ingestion and Oral Sex in Ancient Egyptian Texts...... 839

F. Payraudeau La situation politique de Tanis sous la XXVème dynastie ...... 849

D. Stefanović The hkrt-nswt on the Monuments of the Ꜣtw n tt hkꜢ...... 861

D. Sweeney Masculinity, Femininity and the Spirituality of Work at Deir el-Medîna. . 873

K. Szpakowska Infancy in a Rural Community: A Case Study of Early Childhood at Lahun. 885

A. von Lieven Who was “King” (S)asychis? ...... 899

A.P. Zingarelli Comments on the Egyptian Term whyt: Family or Quasi-Village?. . . . 909

PART III: BELIEF SYSTEM AND RITUAL

B. Arquier Décans nocturnes et décans diurnes...... 923

J. Assmann The “Structure” of Ancient Egyptian Religion...... 935

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J.A. Belmonte, M. Shaltout and M. Fekri Astronomy and Landscape in Ancient Egypt. Temple Alignments and Impli- cations for Chronology...... 951

R. Bussmann Changing Cultural Paradigms: From Tomb to Temple in the Eleventh Dynasty...... 971

E. Constas Une lecture de la façade du tombeau de Petosiris. Les piliers d’ante: approche sémiologique...... 987

D. Czerwik The Afterlife Beliefs in the Sixth-Dynasty Private Inscriptions . . . . . 1003

M. Dolinska The Bird at the Back of the Atef Crown ...... 1017

K. Lahn Dumke Some Reflections on the Function of a Particular Triad Constellation in New Kingdom Religious Iconography...... 1041

Kh. Elgawady Die Schranken in den ägyptischen Tempeln der griechisch-römischen Zeit. 1053

A. el-Tayeb Sayed Coffin Texts Spell 823 and the Rites of Passage: The Archaeological Context of the Coffin of Mentuhotep...... 1073

F. Feder Egyptian Mortuary Liturgies in the Papyri of the Ptolemaic Period. . . . 1083

A. Gaber Some Snake Deities from the Temple of Edfu...... 1093

K. Griffin Links between the rekhyt and Doorways in Ancient Egypt...... 1115

N. Guilhou La constellation de la tortue: proposition d’identification...... 1131

S. Tower Hollis Hathor, Mistress of Byblos...... 1143

L.J. Kinney The (w)nwn Funerary Dance in the Old Kingdom and its Relationship to the Dance of the mww...... 1153

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Y. Koenig The Papyrus of the Seven Utterances of the Goddess Mehet Weret. . . . 1167

L. Díaz-Iglesias Llanos The Role of Osiris in the Mythological Cycle Devised around Heracleopolis Magna and its Territory...... 1173

R. Lucarelli Ancient Egyptian Demons: The Evidence of the Magical and Funerary Papyri of the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period. . . . . 1187

L. Martzolff L’adaptation d’un rituel sur les murs d’un temple à la période tardive: l’exemple du rituel divin journalier ...... 1195

A. Pries Standard Rituals in Change – Patterns of Tradition from the Pyramid Texts to Roman Times ...... 1211

G. Schreiber Crocodile Gods on a Late Group of Hypocephali...... 1225

J.M. Serrano Nouvelles données concernant le rituel de l’Ouverture de la Bouche: la tombe de Djehouty (TT 11) ...... 1237

R. Sousa and T. Canhão Some Notes on Sinuhe’s Flight: The Heart as a God’s Voice ...... 1247

C. Wade Sarcophagus Circle: The Goddesses in the Tomb...... 1259

D.A. Warburton The New Kingdom Solar Theology in Scandinavia? ...... 1271

A. Wüthrich Un exemple de l’évolution des concepts funéraires à la Troisième Période Intermédiaire: le chapitre 166pleyte du Livre des Morts...... 1281

PART IV: langUAGE, LITERATURE AND EPIGRAPHY

E.M. Ciampini, F. Contardi and G. Rosati Hathor Temple Project: The Epigraphic Survey at Philae (2006). . . . . 1293

D. Cilli Funny Signs, a New Perspective...... 1307

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M. Dessoles et V. Euverte Projet Rosette: une assistance informatique pour l’étudiant, l’épigraphiste et le philologue...... 1317

C. Di Biase-Dyson Two Characters in Search of an Ending: The Case of Apophis and Seqenenre. 1323

B. Egedi Greek Loanwords and Two Grammatical Features of Pre-Coptic Egyptian. 1333

J. Gee Textual Criticism and Textual Corruption in Coffin Texts 131-142. . . . 1345

T. Gillen Thematic Analysis and the Third Person Plural Suffix Pronoun in the Medinet Habu Historical Inscriptions...... 1351

R. Jasnow “From Alexandria to Rakotis”. Progress, Prospects and Problems in the Study of Greco-Egyptian Literary Interaction...... 1363

F. Kammerzell Egyptian Verb Classifiers...... 1395

R. Landgráfová and H. Navrátilová Texts from the Period of Crisis. A Database of the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom Biographical Texts...... 1417

E.-S. Lincke The “Determinative” is Prescribed and Yet Chosen. A Systematic View on Egyptian Classifiers...... 1425

M.Á. Molinero Polo L’identification des Textes des Pyramides des tombes de Haroua (TT 37) et de Pabasa (TT 279)...... 1435

L.D. Morenz Kultursemiotik der Alphabetschrift. Ein mentalitätsgeschichtlicher Rekon- struktionsversuch...... 1447

K. Muhlestein Those Who Speak Rebellion: Refining our Understanding of the Words Used to Describe “Rebellion” ...... 1473

F. Naether Magic in the Internet: Investigation by Genre in Trismegistos...... 1485

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J.R. Pérez-Accino Who is the Sage Talking about? Neferty and the Egyptian Sense of History. 1495

S. Polis and J. Winand Structuring the Lexicon...... 1503

J. Winand, S. Polis and S. Rosmorduc Ramses: An Annotated Corpus of Late Egyptian ...... 1513

V. Ritter La littérature sapientiale du Nouvel Empire. Un état de la question. . . . 1523

A. Roccati Alien Speech: Some Remarks on the Language of the Kehek...... 1531

H. Satzinger What Happened to the Voiced Consonants of Egyptian?...... 1537

I. Cordón Solà-Sagalés Four Daughters of the King from the Second Dynasty: Epigraphic and Iconographic Analysis of the Stelae of Hepetkhenmet, Satba, Shepsetipet (?) and Sehefner...... 1547

J. Stauder-Porchet Relations between Verbs and Simple Prepositions in Earlier Egyptian . . 1559

U. Verhoeven Literarische Graffiti in Grab N13.1 in Assiut/Mittelägypten...... 1569

K. Vértes Ten Years’ Epigraphy in Theban Tomb 65. Documentation of the Late Twentieth Dynasty Wall Paintings in the Tomb of Imiseba...... 1577

PART V: art AND VITREOUS MATERIAL

K.E. Bandy Scenes of Fish and Fishing in Middle Egypt: An Examination of Artistic Continuity and Change ...... 1589

E. Bernhauer Zyperns Hathorkapitelle aus altägyptischer Sicht ...... 1603

M. Casanova, G. Pierrat-Bonnefois, P. Quenet, V. Danrey and D. Lacambre Lapis Lazuli in the Tôd Treasure: A New Investigation...... 1619

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S. Einaudi Le Livre des Morts dans la cour de la tombe d’Haroua (TT 37): nouvelles découvertes ...... 1641

L. Evans Animal Behaviour in Egyptian Art: A Brief Overview...... 1653

S. Grallert Integrated Sets of Model Vessels in Late Period Burials from Lower Egypt. A Preliminary Report ...... 1667

M.C. Guidotti Essai de classification de la céramique d’Antinoopolis...... 1681

A. Milward Jones Faience Bowls of the Late New Kingdom...... 1693

T. Kikuchi The Decoration Program in the Burial Chamber of the Royal Tomb of Amenophis III...... 1709

É. Liptay Panther-Head on the Cloak...... 1719

N.C. McCreesh, A.P. Gize and A.R David Pitch Black: The Black Coated Mummies, Coffins and Cartonnages from Ancient Egypt...... 1731

S. Medeksza, R. Czerner and G. Bąkowska Forms and Decoration of Graeco-Roman Houses from Marina el-Alamein. 1739

P.T. Nicholson Glass and Vitreous Materials at Tell el-Amarna...... 1759

M. Panagiotaki, M. Tite and Y. Maniatis Egyptian Blue in Egypt and Beyond: The Aegean and the Near East. . . 1769

G. Pieke Principles of Decoration: Concept and Style in the Mastaba of Mereruka at Saqqara ...... 1791

C. Raedler Potsherd Scrapers and their Function at the Workshops of the Residence at Piramesse...... 1807

J. Revez Déconstruction intellectuelle et restitution monumentale: le temple d’Amon- Rê de Karnak comme laboratoire d’idées...... 1819

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G. Robins The Flying Pintail Duck...... 1833

N. Staring Contextualizing Old Kingdom Elite Tomb Decoration: Fixed Rules versus Personal Choice...... 1839

I. Stünkel Analysing CT-Scans of a Mummy: The Amulets of Nesmin...... 1849

G.J. Tassie “I’m Osiris, No I’m Osiris, No I’m Osiris”: Hairstyles and the Afterlife. 1873

A. Woods Five Significant Features in Old Kingdom Spear-Fishing and Fowling Scenes ...... 1897

G. Xekalaki The Royal Children as Signs: Reading New Kingdom Princely Iconography. 1911

PART VI: egypt AND THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD

A. Altman Was Ugarit ever Subordinated to the Eighteenth Dynasty Pharaohs?. . . 1925

N.D. Ayers Egyptian Imitation of Mycenaean Pottery...... 1935

K. Blouin Mendès et les reines: reconsidération historique des mosaïques navales de Thmouis (Alexandrie 21739 et 21736)...... 1951

P.A. Butz Egyptian Stylistic Influence on Stoichedon and the Hekatompedon Inscrip- tion at Athens ...... 1961

L. Haguet Ceci n’est pas l’Égypte: toponymes, monuments et mythes grecs en Égypte dans la cartographie occidentale entre les XVIe et XVIIIe siècles. . . . . 1975

A. Hassler Mycenaean Pottery in Egypt Reconsidered: Old Contexts and New Results. 1989

I. Hein Cypriot and Aegean Features in New Kingdom Egypt: Cultural Elements Interpreted from Archaeological Finds...... 1999

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F. Höflmayer and A. Zdiarsky Synchronising Egypt and the Aegean: A Radiocarbon-Based Approach. . 2015

S. Iskander Merenptah and the Sea Peoples: A New Perspective ...... 2035

N. Lazaridis A Description of the Project “Wisdom Sayings in Ancient Egyptian and Greek Literature” and its Significance as a Comparative Study . . . . . 2047

R. Müller-Wollermann Ägypten in Iran...... 2051

J. Phillips Egyptian Amethyst in Mycenaean Greece...... 2057

J.-L. Podvin Lampes à décor isiaque du littoral égéen d’Asie mineure...... 2071

T. Pommerening Milch einer Frau, die einen Knaben geboren hat...... 2083

O.A. Vasilyeva “Lost Child” of Isis: Towards the Problem of the Interpretatio Graeca of the Osirian Myth in Texts of Later Antique and Christian Authors. . . . 2097

PART VII: cULTURAL HERITAGE AND MUSEOLOGY

A. Amenta The Vatican Mummy Project. A Preliminary Report on the Restoration of the Mummy of Ny-Maat-Re (MV 25011.6.1)...... 2107

G. Andreu News from the Louvre Museum...... 2119

M. Hanna and M. Betrò Exploring 3D Mapping Applications for the Risk Assessment and Monitoring of Mural Paintings in Theban Tomb 14...... 2127

J.-L. Bovot Le catalogue des chaouabtis du Louvre: réflexions sur une publication. . 2137

V.I. Chrysikopoulos À l’aube de l’égyptologie hellénique et de la constitution des collections égyptiennes: des nouvelles découvertes sur Giovanni d’Anastasi et Tassos Néroutsos...... 2147

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E. David A Louvre Museum Project: The Prosopographical Index of Monuments of the Egyptian Department and its Publication...... 2163

C. De Simone A Memorandum of Understanding between Egypt and Sudan in the Field of Cultural Heritage...... 2167

A. Dodson The Egyptian Coffins in the Collection of Bristol’s City Museum and Art Gallery...... 2171

K. Exell Innovation and Reaction: A Discussion of the Proposed Re-display of the Egyptian Galleries at the Manchester Museum (UK) in the Context of Consultative Curatorial Practice...... 2187

M. Helmy Hidden Histories Project at the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology. 2199

M. Trapani Kha’s Funerary Equipment at the Egyptian Museum in Turin: Resumption of the Archaeological Study...... 2217

W. Wendrich, J. Dieleman and E. Waraksa Ideas Concerning a New Egyptological Knowledge Base: The UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology (UEE)...... 2233

94487_OLA_Kousoulis_Vol_1_VWK.indd 17 7/01/16 08:45 TIGA: A GEOARCHAEOLOGIC PROJECT IN THE THEBAN NECROPOLIS, WEST BANK, EGYPT

Marie-Pierre AUBRY (Rutgers University), William A. BERGGREN (Rutgers University), Christian DUPUIS (Wallonie-Brussels Academy), Emily POORVIN (Rutgers University), Holeil GHALY (Zagazig University), David WARD (The Natural History Museum, London), Chris KING (Bridport, Dorset), Robert O’BRIAN KNOX (British Geological Survey), Khaled OUDA (Assiut University), Wael FATHY HASSAN (Assiut University)

Introduction

The Pharaonic empire of Ancient Egypt was established over 5000 years ago and spanned approximately 2600 years (ca. 3000-343 BC); the last native rulers Amyrtaios and Nectanebo I and II of the Twenty-eighth to Thirtieth Dynasties were succeeded by the Thirty-first Dynasty ruler Artaxerxes (343-332 BC) following Persian conquest. The Greco-Roman Period followed (332 BC -642 AD) with the Macedonian Dynasty ushered in following the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great (332-304 BC). Following the death of Alexander (323 BC) Macedonian members of his military com- mand divided up the kingdom. This was followed, in turn, by the Ptolemaic Dynasty (304-30 BC) led by a succession of 15 Ptolemys. This dynasty came to an end with the death of the last ruler Cleopatra who was allied with Marc Antony against Rome but who was defeated by the Roman Imperial army at the battle of Actium. Egypt then became a Roman province until its demise in 642 AD. In the 16th century BC Egyptian rulers moved their capital from Memphis to Thebes on the West Bank of the Nile (fig. 1). For nearly 500 years, following the initiative of the great Queen Hatshepsut, the tombs of the pharaohs of the 18th to 20th Dynasties (ca. 1539-1075 BC) would be excavated into the limestones and shales of the Theban Mountain, whereas the funerary temples were built on the nearby floodplain, where religious rituals where regularly celebrated. Over 80 royal and several thousand tombs of nobles and numerous temples — many with inscribed hieroglyphics and wall paintings in various stages of preservation — have been discovered. Today, this magnificent art, a main source of understanding of this ancient civilization, is endangered by, i. al., pollution engendered by tourism, flash floods associated with torrential rains, and modern agricultural practices, all of which 22 M.-P. AUBRY, W.A. BERGGREN, ET AL.

Fig. 1. Map of the Nile Valley. Http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image: River_Nile_Route.jpg. This map of the Nile and its two tributaries gives a sense of the importance of the flow when reaching Thebes/Luxor. have enhanced the structural weakness that the surrounding geology imposes on the tombs. The beauty of their monumental architecture and delicate decoration leads one to easily forget that tombs are man-made caves excavated deep in the heart of a litho- logical complex of limestones and shales. The serene stillness of the Theban Mountain conceals the irremediable powers of the geological forces that have produced it and would continue to shape it (fitting for a place that the Ancient Egyptians considered the home of their gods, and in particular of the turbulent Hathor)1. Here we first review the seminal papers that have attracted the attention of the broad professional community interested in the preservation of the Eighteenth to Twentieth Dynasty tombs. Despite their authors’ emphasis on the benefit of integrated geological, archaeological and geotechnical studies, geological studies have been essentially ignored in preserving the tombs. We thus review preliminary and potential contributions of geology to the preservation effort.

Geology and preservation of the West Bank Two seminal reports have set the framework for management and preservation of the monuments of the Theban Mountain. These fundamental contributions, partly published over the years, are reviewed here because they constitute useful starting points

1 C. DESROCHES-NOBLECOURT, La Reine mystérieuse (Paris, 2002). TIGA: A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT IN THE THEBAN NECROPOLIS 23 for TIGA, the Theban GeoArcheological Project (http://tiga.rutgers.edu/) that we have begun on the West Bank. We discuss the Curtis’ report first2, although it was produced two years after the Rutherford et al.’ report3, because it provides a geological framework to archaeological studies.

A geological report by Curtis4

The first comprehensive overview of the geology of the Thebes Mountain and the con- sequent problems associated with the conservation of its monuments is an unpublished report in which emphasis is placed on the Valley of the Kings (VK hereafter) and its pharaonic tombs5. Recognizing that the latter were excavated in the fine-grained limestone that forms the lower part of the Thebes Formation6, Curtis established a working stratigraphic subdivision of this formation, dividing it into four informal members. The lowest member I is estimated at ~80-85 m in thickness, and is itself divided into four lithologic zones with marker horizons that are traceable regionally (fig. 2). Aside from this useful framework, Curtis7 made the important observation of extensive gravitational collapse structures8 at the foot of the Theban Mountain, separating the flat alluvial plain of the Nile from the vertical Theban cliffs. He observed that the slumps occurred along different slippage planes characterized by a high content of montmoril- lonitic clay, one being within the Esna Shale in the Valley of the Queens (VQ hereafter), another one being in the lower part of Member II of the Thebes Formation at the entrance of VK. He further established that the detachment of a “huge mass of strata” occurred long ago and was restricted in time, since they were overlain by gravels, fanglomerates

2 G.H. CURTIS, The geology of the Valley of the Kings, Thebes, Egypt, Theban Royal Tomb Project, The Brooklyn Museum Theban Expedition, Unpublished (Brooklyn Museum, 1979), 1-44. 3 J. RUTHERFORD, M. CHEKENE, and J. ROMER, Damage in the Royal Tombs in the Valley of the Kings: A Preliminary Report to the President of the Egyptian Organization of Antiquities Requested of the Brook- lyn Museum by H.E. Dr. Gamal Mokhtar in January 1977. Brooklyn: Brooklyn Museum (1977), 1-40, 2 appendices (unpublished). 4 CURTIS, Geology of the Valley, 1-44. 5 Idem. These two reports contain the conclusions of a team of Egyptologists, epigraphers, photographers, artists, geologists, architects and engineers, organized by the Brooklyn Museum in 1975. The content of these two reports is briefly summarized in G.H. CURTIS, and J. RUTHERFORD, ‘Expansive shale damage, Theban royal tombs, Egypt’, Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Stockholm 9 (1981), 71-4. 6 R. SAID, The Geology of Egypt (Amsterdam, 1962). 7 CURTIS, Geology of the Valley, 1-44 8 CURTIS does not use this term, but refers to them as “landslides” (as do P. COBBOLD, J. WATKINSON, and J. COSGROVE, ‘Faults of the Pharaohs. Did the pharaohs of Egypt make their tombs in solid rock on the Theban Plateau?’, Geoscientist 18 [2008], 18-22). This latter term, which implies a sudden catastrophic event, is inappropriate to describe the structures aligned at the foot of the Theban cliffs. The coherency of bedding in the blocks could not be maintained if failure was catastrophic. Gravitational collapse is a gradual process that allows for fault movement without much internal deformation within the fault blocks. 24 M.-P. AUBRY, W.A. BERGGREN, ET AL.

Stratigraphic Column, Valley of the Kings and El Gurn

Fig. 2. Informal lithostratigraphic framework (Redrawn from CURTIS, Geology of the Valley, fig. 1). TIGA: A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT IN THE THEBAN NECROPOLIS 25 and “lacustrine” limestones e.g., the Limestone of Hatshepsut in the Quarry of Hashep- sut9, which is probably a playa deposit (all of which were included by Said in the Pleistocene Armant Formation)10. Curtis reasoned that slumping required an extensive period of wet conditions so that the water table would rise as high as the Esna Shale or Member II of the Thebes Limestone. Climatic conditions subsequently changed from arid (characterized by alluvial deposition) to wet (characterized by the cutting of can- yons, not only through the gravels and lacustrine limestones, but also through the slumps) and finally back to arid as it was at the beginning of the Dynastic period and it is today11. Curtis also recognized the presence of multiple faults on the West Bank12. All but one have little displacement. He reported that the “Valley of the Kings Fault” oriented essentially north–south along the western side of VK has a displacement of ~30 m. He described the other prominent “Rest House Fault” as terminating westwards against the former fault, and running eastwards towards the cliffs of Deir El Bahari. Curtis excluded a tectonic origin for the faults, which he attributed to differential subsidence after elimination of ground water. He also determined that the faults have not been active since excavation of the tombs, as indicated in particular by the unbroken crystals of calcite that fill them in places. Open rock joints are numerous in the vicinity of VK, some as wide as 50 cm or more and as long as 50 m or more, and many were exploited by the workers to facilitate excavation13. Curtis explained the formation of the joints as resulting from repeated soaking and drying of the limestone, as cycles of absorption – elimination of rainwater caused the rock to expand and contract. Curtis performed tests on the Esna Shale collected in the tombs of Hatshepsut and Ramesses XI and the Thebes Limestone14. He reported that disaggregated fragments of shales absorb almost 50% of water by weight. He also reported that clay content in the Thebes Limestones decreases upwards and that there is no direct correlation between porosity and clay content in the marly limestones. His two main conclusions were 1) that large changes in atmospheric humidity have limited effect on the marly limestones in the walls and ceiling of the tombs, but that “running” water (as opposed to humidity) had a devastating effect, and 2) that not only shales but also limestone

9 T. DE PUTTER and C. KARLSHAUSEN, ‘Provenance et caractères distinctifs des calcaires utilisés dans l’architecture du Moyen Empire à Karnak’, Cahiers de Karnak XI fasc. 2 (2003), 373-86. 10 R. SAID, The Geological Evolution of the River Nile (1981). 11 R. KUPER, and S. KRÖPELIN, ‘Climate-controlled Holocene occupation in the Sahara: motor of Afri- ca’s evolution’, Science 313 (2006), 803-7; S. KRÖPELIN, D. VERSCHUREN, A.-M. LÉZINE, H. EGGERMONT, C. COCQUYT, P. FRANCUS, J.-P. CAZET, M. FAGOT, B. RUMES, J.M. RUSSELL, F. DARIUS, D.J. CONLEY, M. SCHUSTER, H. VON SUCHODOLETZ, D.R. ENGSTROM, ‘Climate-driven ecosystem succession in the Sahara: The past 6000 years’, Science 239 (2008), 765-68. 12 CURTIS, Geology of the Valley, 1-44. 13 RUTHERFORD, CHEKENE and ROMER, Damage in the Royal Tombs; J. ROMER, Ancient Lives, Daily life in Egypt of the Pharaohs (New York, 1984). 14 CURTIS, Geology of the Valley, 1-44. 26 M.-P. AUBRY, W.A. BERGGREN, ET AL. expands when wet. He thus recognized water as “clearly the most destructive single agent to the art works decorating the walls of the royal tombs at Thebes”, having entered the tombs either “directly from subsurface run-off during flash floods through the main entrance” or “through open joints (and possibly faults)”. Curtis’ recommendations to avert further damage to the tombs by running water included the construction of diversion walls near the tomb entrances or diversionary dams, the installation of water proof doors, the filling and plastering of the open rock joints. Some of his recommendations have been followed, in particular the construction of diversion dams and walls. The mapping of the joints and faults remain to be undertaken, as does the analysis of discrete cores taken in the tombs at appropriately undecorated locations.

Rutherford, Chekene, and Romer15

Prior to Curtis’s paper, Rutherford et al. wrote a remarkably comprehensive report16 on the state of preservation of the great tombs in VK and the causes of their destruction. They offered equally comprehensive archaeological, scientific and technical recommendations to assist in the conservation of these unique monuments. After stating that the tombs have suffered great damage since their excavation, and that their physical deterioration had increased between 1967 and 1977, Rutherford et al. identified the (eight) major agents of their destruction. Aside from the human agents (19th century theft and vandalism, casual damage by visitors), the geological setting was held respon- sible for much of the humidity-related damage. Thus, repeated flooding associated with violent rainstorms bring debris into the tombs, causing high humidity, leading to the swelling of shales (where present) and contributing to rock movement along natural joint planes. The drying of air in the tombs, in particular during careless clearing, contributes to the rapid desiccation of exposed surfaces and the migration of salt from the encasing rocks. Additionally, changes in rock stress caused by excavation may contribute to the development of cracks in walls and ceilings of the tombs. Three tombs, KV7 (Ramesses II), KV17 (Seti I) and KV11 (Ramesses III), were described to illustrate the role of these destructive agents. Rutherford et al. remarked on the unprecedented architectural precision achieved by the workmen in tomb KV717. As Rutherford would summarize in general18, and with regard to KV7, “the corners of these chambers are within 30 minutes of a true right angle and opposing slides of the chambers are within about 15 minutes of being parallel. Wall dimensions are even

15 RUTHERFORD, CHEKENE and ROMER, Damage in the Royal Tombs. 16 See n. 5. 17 RUTHERFORD, CHEKENE and ROMER, Damage in the Royal Tombs. 18 J. RUTHERFORD, ‘Geotechnical Causes of Ancient Tomb Damage, Valley of the Kings, Egypt’, in: Symposium on Geotechnical Aspects of Restoration and Maintenance of Infrastructures and Historical Monuments, Asian Institute of Technology (Bangkok, 1990), 3-15. TIGA: A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT IN THE THEBAN NECROPOLIS 27

F C

Fig. 3. Destruction of the tombs as a consequence of humidity-induced swelling of the lithologies in which they were excavated. A-D: sequential steps leading to the collapse of walls, ceilings and columns/pillars (here limestone) as the rock (here shale) that underlies the chamber swells (B) after being drenched with debris-loaded flash-flood waters and then dries out (C, D) as debris are removed (modified from Rutherford et al., 1977, Figs. 7-10, to explain the destruction of the lower chambers in KV7. Rutherford (1990, Fig. 4) and Rutherford and Ryan (1995, plates 1-4) have published variations of these explanatory figures. We have modified them here because the lowest chambers in KV 7 do not penetrate in the Esna Shale, but were excavated just above its roof). (E) Example of destruction of a pillar in KV7 (compare with D) (F) Exfoliation of pillars occurs also in the Tarawan Chalk (TT182), but involves processes other than the swelling of shales. 28 M.-P. AUBRY, W.A. BERGGREN, ET AL. more accurate”19. However, major damage has occurred to Tomb KV7 as a result of the swelling of the Esna Shale under the lowest chambers. Rutherford et al. illustrated with photographs and explained with a series of simple sketches how the swelling of the shale and the removal of flashflood-induced fillings have contributed to the collapse of pillars, ceilings and walls, in particular in the 8-pillared funerary chamber (fig. 3). Similarly “Belzoni’s tomb” (KV17) was made vulnerable to flash floods once unsealed in 1817. In 1819, sediment-loaded waters aushed into the tomb causing extensive damage that was subsequently worsened by the removal of the sediments that had accumulated in it.

Table 1. Geological investigations recommended for the preservation of monuments of the West Bank20.

1. Perform surface geological reconnaissance to locate and map expandable shale exposures. 2. Perform subsurface geological reconnaissance in tombs to locate and map expandable shale layers and Theban Limestone/Esna Shale contact 3. Map major surface faults in the region 4. Map fault traces and major fractures and joints in tombs 5. Study remaining surface layers of flood deposits to determine sequence, chronology and intensity of flooding 6. Study flood deposits in tombs such as KV7 to determine sequence, chronology and flooding intensity and correlate surface and subsurface flood deposits 7. Prepare a detailed geological map of the Valley of the Kings and adjacent Necropolis showing contours of Esna Shale surface, location of expandable shales, and major faults, fractures and joints in bedrock.

Most of the recommendations by Rutherford et al. have been implemented21. Archae- ological recommendations led to the establishment of Theban Mapping Project by Romer in 1978. Remarkably detailed maps of each of the 62 tombs in VK are now available (http://www.thebanmappingproject.com/). Geochemical analyses and geotechnical tests have been undertaken22 and drainage patterns studied23. Geological recommendations

19 RUTHERFORD, CHEKENE and ROMER (Damage in the Royal Tombs, 23) remarked with regard to Tomb KV7: “The precision of horizontal construction in each series of rooms was found to range between 1/5000 to 1/10,000 and the right angle bend is within 1/7500 of a true right angle”. 20 RUTHERFORD, CHEKENE and ROMER, Damage in the Royal Tombs. 21 Ibid. 22 R.A.J. WÜST, and J. MCLANE, ‘Rock deterioration in the royal tomb of Seti I, Valley of the Kings, Luxor, Egypt’, Engineering Geology 58 (2000), 163-90; R.A.J. WÜST, and C. SCHLÜCHTER, ‘The origin of soluble salts in rocks of the Thebes Mountains, Egypt: The damage potential to Ancient Egyptian wall art’, Journal of Archeological Science 27 (2000), 1161-72. 23 For example, AMERICAN RESEARCH CENTER IN EGYPT, Flood hydrological study, Valley of the Kings, Luxor, Egypt, Prepared by CCJM in association with Chemonics-Egypt & ACCESS Engineers (2003). TIGA: A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT IN THE THEBAN NECROPOLIS 29 have received much less attention, however, despite the emphasis that Rutherford et al. placed on it. They stated24: “The importance of the geological investigations cannot be overestimated”, and listed seven necessary geological approaches (Table 1) to be applied both in surface and subsurface (tombs) reconnaissance, leading to the prepara- tion of a detailed geological map of VK and adjacent areas to show the contours of the top of the Esna shale, the occurrence of expandable shales (including in the Thebes Formation), and the location of major faults, fractures and joints.

Subsequent studies

Subsequent papers have drawn from various aspects of these two reports, adding new information as required by new observations25. Thus, Curtis recognized the role of ambient humidity on the preservation of the tombs, including the effect of increased humidity as a result of the respiration of thousands of visitors, and recommended the installation of air conditioning26. His description of King Ramesses XI tomb left unsealed for over 2000 years gives a chilling feeling about the ultimate fate of unpro- tected tombs. Rutherford expanded on the seriousness of the destruction of the imposing KV7 and proposed new solutions to protect tombs from flash-flood damages27. Ruther- ford and Ryan reconsidered the agents of tomb damage and evaluated the potential damage risks of 62 tombs28. McLane and Wüst re-emphasized the measures required to effectively preserve and manage the pharaonic monuments of the West Bank29, whereas El Ramli and Abdel Rahman30 and Mallory31 examined geotechnical aspects of this management. Other papers have stressed the problems faced by Egyptian monuments32.

24 Ibid., 15. 25 G.H. CURTIS, ‘Deterioration of the Royal Tombs’, in: R.H. WILKINSON (ed.), Valley of the Sun Kings: New Explorations in the Tombs of the Pharaohs (Tucson, 1995), 129-33; G.H. CURTIS, and J. RUTHERFORD, ‘Expansive shale damage, Theban royal tombs, Egypt’, Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Stockholm 9 (1981), 71-4; RUTHERFORD, Symposium on Geotechnical Aspects, 3-15; J. RUTHERFORD, and D.P. RYAN, ‘Tentative Tomb Protection Priorities, Valley of the Kings, Egypt’, in: R.H. WILKINSON (ed.), Valley of the Sun Kings: New Explorations in the Tombs of the Pharaohs (Tucson, 1995), 134-56. 26 CURTIS, in: R.H. WILKINSON (ed.), Valley of the Sun Kings, 129-33. 27 RUTHERFORD, Symposium on Geotechnical Aspects, 3-15. 28 RUTHERFORD, and RYAN, in: R.H. WILKINSON (ed.), Valley of the Sun Kings, 134-56. 29 J. MCLANE, and R. WÜST, ‘Flood hazards and protection measures in the Valley of the Kings’, CMR 6 (2000), 35-8. 30 A.H. EL RAMLI, and M.M. ABDEL RAHMAN, ‘Geotechnical aspects of the salvage of Egyptian monuments’, in: Symposium on Geotechnical Aspects of Restoration and Maintenance of Infrastructures and Historical Monuments, Asian Institute of Technology (Bangkok, 1988), 325-35. 31 L. MALLORY, ‘Geophysics in the Valley of the Kings’, Geotimes 31 (2007), 30-3. 32 For example, Z. HAWASS, ‘The Egyptian monuments: problems and solutions’, in: M.-J. THIEL (ed.), Conservation of stone and other materials (London, 1993), 19-26; Z. HAWASS, ‘Saving the monuments of Egypt’, Minervia 615 (1995), 6-11; S. RICKERBY, ‘Report on the condition of the wall paintings and 30 M.-P. AUBRY, W.A. BERGGREN, ET AL.

A brief, descriptive overview of the structural geology of the West Bank was recently published33, and a study linking geological features to deterioration in Eight- eenth to Twentieth Dynasties tombs, not only in VK, but over the Theban Mountain, is in the process of publication34. Both studies illustrate the complex structural setting of the Theban tombs confirming the early findings of Curtis35.

The Theban International GeoArcheology Project, TIGA

In 2005, His Excellency Dr. Z. Hawass and the Supreme Council of the Antiquities (SCA) endorsed our proposal to conduct an integrated geoarcheological study of the West Bank of Thebes for preservation and sustainable management of the monuments (tombs and temples). This project has been denominated the Theban International GeoArcheologicy Project (TIGA). We have recently been funded (2008) by the National Geographic Society Research Foundation to conduct a detailed mapping of surface geology (including structural features) and to establish a geological reference section (400 m thick), complemented by subsurface studies within selected Pharaonic (and other) tombs which will allow them to be placed within the surface stratigraphic framework. Integration of these data sets will result in construction of the first GIS- based geological map of the West Bank area at 1/10,000 scale, thereby providing archaeologists with a framework in which to conduct their investigations on the restoration, preservation and management of Pharaonic monuments. Mapping of the Theban Mountain will begin in earnest next Spring (2009), but preliminary investigations of the West Bank reveal a lithostratigraphic succession and geological structure similar to those in the Dababiya Quarry area located on the east bank of the Nile, ~35 km south of Luxor, and known in detail36. We will thus approach the geology of the Theban Mountain from a regional rather than local perspective. conservation proposals: Theban Tombs Publication Project: Tombs 72 (Ray) and 121 (Ahmose)’ (Univer- sity of Charleston and Serapis Research Institute, 1999), 1-20; A.K. FRONABERGER, ‘Preliminary report on the geology and structural stability of three Theban tombs, TT72, TT121, and MMA850’ (Serapis Research Institute, 2002), 1-16. 33 COBBOLD, WATKINSON and COSGROVE, Geoscientist 18 (2008), 18-22. 34 M.-P. AUBRY, W.A. BERGGREN, C. DUPUIS, H. GHALY, D. WARD, C. KING, R. O’B. KNOX, K. OUDA, M. YOUSSEF and W.F. GALLAL, ‘Pharaonic Necrostratigraphy: A review of geological and archeological studies in the Theban Necropolis, Luxor, West Bank, Egypt’, Terra Nova 21 (2009), 237-256. 35 CURTIS, Geology of the Valley, 1-44. 36 K. OUDA, and M.-P. AUBRY (eds), ‘The Upper Paleocene-Lower Eocene of the Upper Nile Valley: Part 1 Stratigraphy’, Micropaleontology 49 (2003), 1-212; C. DUPUIS, M.-P. AUBRY, E. STEURBAUT, W.A. BERGGREN, K. OUDA, R. MAGIONCALDA, B. CRAMER, D.V. KENT, R.P. SPEIJER and C. HEILMANN- CLAUSEN, ‘The Dababiya Quarry Section: Lithostratigraphy, clay mineralogy, geochemistry and pale- ontology’, Micropaleontology 49 (2003), 41-59; M.-P. AUBRY, K. OUDA, C. DUPUIS, W.A. BERGGREN, J.A. VAN COUVERING, and the Members of the Working Group on the Paleocene/Eocene Boundary, ‘Global Standard Stratotype-section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Eocene Series in the Dababiya Section (Egypt)’, Episodes 30/4 (2007), 271-286. TIGA: A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT IN THE THEBAN NECROPOLIS 31

Regional framework The cliff-forming rocks that parallel the Valley of the Nile comprise a vertical succession of chalk, shales, and heterogeneous limestones (Table 2)37. The lowest stratigraphic unit with which we are concerned is the Tarawan Chalk Formation, 15 to 20 m thick, and which lies above the Dakhla Shales. Its outcrops are related to anticlinal structures, known around Dababiya and near the temple of Deir El Bahari. The Esna Shale Formation, over 60 m thick in the area, is a heterogeneous succession of shales subdivided into four formal members (Table 2). The youngest Abu Had Member is tran- sitional with the Thebes Limestone Formation, and consists of an alternation of shale and limestone stringers. The Thebes Formation, 340 m thick or more, has been subdivided into several members38, exhibiting a decrease in clay content from the lower member, a clay-rich limestone, to the middle member which is a pure limestone (see above). The succession ends with a coarse and heterogeneous limestone. Lithostratigraphy constitutes a primary means of correlation that has been relied upon in previous studies of VK. However, it cannot be assumed that the lithostratigraphic units maintain a constant character even in an area as small as the Theban Mountain. For example, extensive exposures of the Esna in the Dababiya and El Quda Quarries reveal that the contact between its two lower members is irregular because of major channeling (DUPUIS et al., unpublished manuscript). To the South of Dababiya (Gebel Owaina)39, the contact between the Esna and Theban Formations is also irregular, the upper member of the shale being absent. We suspect that the situation is similar in the Deir El Bahari amphitheater, in particular in the Senenmut Quarry. Biostratigraphy constitutes a superior tool for accurate correlations, and a comprehensive upper Paleocene-lower Eocene biostratigraphic scheme based on several groups of microfossils (< 500 mm) is available for the Tarawan Chalk through the lower Thebes Formation40. The lithostratigraphic units in which the tombs of the Pharaohs (and lesser nobles and attendants) were excavated in VK, VQ and adjacent areas are located in the biostratigraphic interval from (planktonic foraminiferal) Zone P4 and (calcareous nannoplankton) Zone NP8 (Tarawan Chalk)41 to at least Zones E5-6 and

37 R. SAID, ‘Planktonic foraminifera from the Thebes Formation, Luxor, Egypt’, Micropaleontology 6 (1960), 277-86; SAID, Geology of Egypt (Amsterdam, 1962); R. SAID, The Geology of Egypt (Rotterdam, 1990); AUBRY et al., Episodes 30/4 (2007), 271-286. 38 CURTIS, Geology of the Valley, 1-44; P.D. SNAVELY, R.E. GARRISON and A.A. MEGUID, ‘Stratigraphy and regional depositional history of the Thebes Formation (Lower Eocene), Egypt’, Annals of the Geo- logical Survey of Egypt 9 (1979), 344-62. 39 OUDA, and AUBRY (eds), Micropaleontology 49 (2003), 1-212. 40 Idem; AUBRY, BERGGREN, DUPUIS, GHALY, WARD, KING, KNOX, OUDA, YOUSSEF and GALLAL, Terra Nova 21 (2009), 237-256. 41 W.A. BERGGREN, and P.N. PEARSON, ‘A revised Paleogene tropical to subtropical planktonic foraminiferal zonation’, Journal of Foraminiferal Research 35 (2005), 279-98. 32 M.-P. AUBRY, W.A. BERGGREN, ET AL.

NP12 (lower Thebes Limestone)42 spanning an interval of ~ 7 Myr, from ~ 57 to 50 Ma43. Note, however, that our preliminary investigations suggest that some tombs may be situated in stratigraphically higher levels within the upper Thebes Formation.

Table 2. Lithostratigraphic subdivision of the Upper Paleocene-Lower Eocene succession in the Luxor area. Designation as in original publication. Bold indicates formal units. Thicknesses as given in CURTIS (1970) for the Thebes Formation; as measured in the stratotype at Dababiya (DUPUIS et al., 2005; AUBRY et al., 2007).44

FORMATION MEMBERS ZONES/BEDS THICKNESS Snavely et al. 1979 Curtis 1979 Curtis 1979 (m) Said 1960 upper member Member IV 40 Member III 70 Thebes Limestone Fm middle member Member II 95 Zone D 15–17 Zone C 30–35 lower member Member I Zone B 15 Zone A 13-14

Said 1960 Aubry et al., 2007 Aubry et al. 2007 Esna Shale Fm Abu Had Member 43.5 El-Mahmiya Member El Quda Bed 65 Bed 5 1 Bed 4 0.71 Dababiya Quarry Member Bed 3 0.84 Bed 2 0.50 Bed 1 0.63 El Hanadi Member 7 Tarawan Chalk Fm44 20 m

42 Unit 1 of SAID, Micropaleontology 6 (1960), 277-86. 43 W.A. BERGGREN, D.V. KENT, C.C. SWISHER, and M.-P. AUBRY, ‘A revised Cenozoic geochronology and chronostratigraphy’, in: W.A. BERGGREN, D.V. KENT, M.-P. AUBRY, and J. HARDENBOL (eds.), Geochro- nology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation, Society of Sedimentary Geology Special Pub- lication 54 (1995), 129-212. 44 G.H. AWAD, and M.G. GHOBRIAL, ‘Zonal stratigraphy of the Kharga Oasis’, Geological Survey of Egypt 34 (1965), 1-77. TIGA: A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT IN THE THEBAN NECROPOLIS 33

Other means of correlation that will be used include chemostratigraphy (successfully used for Dababiya)45, and, importantly, logging. Based on non-invasive techniques, the latter will be easily applied in the tombs as well as on outcrops.

Initial results

Guided visits in several tombs have allowed us to measure the extent of damage respective to lithology, and to evaluate the potential of detailed stratigraphic studies to contribute substantially to resolve the difficulties encountered in preserving and man- aging the tombs.

(1) Lithologic context of the Theban tombs (fig. 4)

Tombs in VK were excavated mostly in the fine-grained marly limestone (Member I of CURTIS 1979) at the base of the Thebes Limestone Formation. The lowest chambers in KV17 are in Zone A of this member, as are the lowest chamber in KV7. The entrance in KV2 (Ramesses IV) is in the flint nodule-rich Zone B. Tomb KV20 is an exception. The first tomb to have been excavated, it penetrates deep (~90 m) into the Esna Shale. Outside of VK, the tombs were excavated in various lithologies. In the tomb of Senenmut (TT353) the long entry corridor penetrates at a steep angle through the Esna Shale, until the Tarawan Chalk is reached. The chamber famed for the first astronomical ceiling of its kind46 was excavated in the fine grained Tarawan Chalk. Further towards the Nile, a series of tombs of Nobles (e.g., TT192, Cheruef) were also excavated in the Tarawan Chalk47. The above tombs were (mostly) excavated in the bedrock. But to the south, as in VQ, the tombs were excavated in displaced units of the Thebes Formation48. Our preliminary investigations show that the village of Deir El Medina, where the two gangs of workmen who excavated the royal tombs lived49, was built on a rotated slumped rock unit50. Because in situ and displaced lithologies may behave differently, it is important to determine the structural context in which tombs lie.

45 DUPUIS, AUBRY, STEURBAUT, BERGGREN, OUDA, MAGIONCALDA, CRAMER, KENT, SPEIJER, and HEIL- MANN-CLAUSEN, Micropaleontology 49 (2003), 41-59. 46 P. DORMAN, The Tombs of Senenmut at Thebes: The Architecture and Decoration of Tombs 71 and 353 (New York, 1991). 47 M. HERMINA, ‘The surroundings of Kharga, Dakhla, and Farafra oases’, in: R. SAID (ed.), The Geology of Egypt (Rotterdam, 1990), 259-92. 48 P. COBBOLD, J. WATKINSON, and J. COSGROVE, ‘Faults of the Pharaohs. Did the pharaohs of Egypt make their tombs in solid rock on the Theban Plateau?’ Geoscientist 18 (2008), 18-22. 49 ROMER, Ancient Lives. 50 See also FRONABARGER 2002 (see n. 32 above). 34 M.-P. AUBRY, W.A. BERGGREN, ET AL.

KV17 Sety 1st

KV20 Hatshepsut

TT192 TT353 Cheruef Senenmut

Fig. 4. Lithostratigraphic location of selected tombs (not to scale). (Partly from AUBRY et al., Terra Nova 21 [2009])

Fig. 5. Schematic structural subdivision of the Theban Mountain. TIGA: A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT IN THE THEBAN NECROPOLIS 35

(2) Structural context of the Theban tombs We recognize four different structural units on the West Bank (fig. 5). The tabular structure is clearly visible in the cliffs of Deir El Bahari and in VK and its vicinity; it characterizes the gebel. The foothills are formed of tilted blocks. The three main ones correspond to the Valley of the Queens, the Qurnet Mura’i, and the Sheik Abdel Qurna. The alluvial plain of the Nile is a flat area filled with sediments, the most recent (until the damming of the river in Aswan) brought in from Sudan by the annual flood, and by the loose stones of all sizes eroded from the flanks of the wadis as waters from flash floods run towards the Nile. A different structural type occurs to the north, in what we have dubbed the “Northern Basin”. No tombs were excavated in its rocks. Because of its tabular structure the plateau will provide us with the reference sec- tions for a comprehensive lithobiostratigraphic description of the Theban Mountain, and a sound understanding of its structural dynamics. Special attention will be paid to the mapping of the faults (fig. 6) and to the gravitational collapse structures.

Fig. 6. Google Earth Map (http://earth.google.com/) showing the area immediately to the S-SW of the El Qurn peak. Faults are delineated. Firm delineation of faults will involve examination of aerial photographs as well as Google Earth maps, and field reconnaissance. 36 M.-P. AUBRY, W.A. BERGGREN, ET AL.

Fig. 7. Tilted fault blocks, Valley of the Queens. A. View from the southwest of the tilted fault blocks. The presumed fault scarp exposes the tabular structure of the Theban Mountain on the left side of the photograph. B. View of the same tilted fault block as seen in opposite direction (from the northeast). The fault scarp is out of the field of view on the right side (see A). Bedding in the block is highlighted. This photograph clearly shows how the beds moderately dip towards the fault scarp.

The Theban Mountain area contains a number of fault scarps and tilted fault blocks that trend sub-parallel to the Nile River (figs. 7A, B, 8A, B, 11A, B). The fault scarps and blocks are interpreted to be gravitational collapse structures51. Gravitational collapse

51 In agreement with, in particular, CURTIS, Geology of the Valley, 1-44; WÜST, and MCLANE, Engineering Geology 58 (2000), 163-90; COBBOLD, WATKINSON and COSGROVE, Geoscientist 18 (2008), 18-22. TIGA: A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT IN THE THEBAN NECROPOLIS 37

Fig. 8. Cliffs and tilted fault blocks near the Temple of Hatshepsut. This view towards the south was taken northwest of the Temple of Hatshepsut. The cliffs of the Thebes Limestone Formation dominate the temple; beyond to the southeast, a tilted block forms the low foothills. The cliffs are believed to be fault scarps along which the tilted block slid. is the tectonic failure due to gravitational instability of an unsupported slope or scarp52. Failure manifests as listric faults that dip towards the unsupported scarp, forming tilted fault blocks that dip toward the faults53. Small normal faults accommodate rotation of the fault blocks as they slide down the non-planar fault surfaces. Commonly, the fault blocks dip towards the fault scarp (fig. 7A, B), but other dip orientations are possible (fig. 8). One mechanism to create gravitational collapse is scarp creation. This entails some agent of erosion, such as a river, to down-cut into rock and carve an erosional scarp. When a critical scarp height is reached, the erosional scarp becomes unstable and gravitational collapse occurs. The presence of a weaker lithologic unit, such as salt or shale, beneath the rock can accelerate failure. The non-planar fault commonly

52 G.E. MCGILL, and A.W. STROMQUIST, ‘The grabens of Canyonlands National Park, Utah: geometry, mechanics, and kinematics’, Journal of Geophysical Research 84 (1979), 4547-63; J. HESTHAMMER, and H. FOSSEN, ‘Evolution and geometries of gravitational collapse structures with examples from the Statfjord Field, northern North Sea’, Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999), 259-81; S.A. STEWART, and A. REEDS, ‘Geomorphology of kilometer-scale extensional fault scarps: factors that impact seismic interpretation’, Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 87 (2003), 251-72. 53 P.W. HUNTOON, ‘The Meander anticline, Canyonlands, Utah: An unloading structure resulting from horizontal gliding on salt’, Geological Society of America Bulletin 93 (1982), 941-50; HESTHAMMER and FOSSEN, Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999), 259-81. 38 M.-P. AUBRY, W.A. BERGGREN, ET AL.

Fig. 9. Cliffs of the Theban Mountain. A. These cliffs are similar to those found behind the Temple of Hatshepsut. Some small blocks near the center of the photograph appear tilted and may have rotated during gravitational collapse. B. Slickenlines. This close-up view of a section of these cliffs shows slickenlines on the scarp surface. These slickenlines likely formed during gravitational collapse as fault blocks slid down the fault scarp. TIGA: A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT IN THE THEBAN NECROPOLIS 39 detaches into this weaker layer54. As recognized by Curtis55 the Esna Shale provides superb slippage surfaces. Cobbold et al. explain that the abundant horizontal gypsum veins would cause overpressure in the Esna Shale56.

Did the physiography of the Theban Mountain result from the Messinian down- cutting of the Nile canyon?

Curtis and subsequent authors, including Cobbold et al., have attributed the emplacement of the gravitational collapse structures to high water table during wet climatic conditions (see above). The regime of the Nile River has varied through the Pliocene and Pleisto- cene57, with times of complete (1.800–0.8 Ma) or intermittent (0.4 Ma–12.5 Ka) interrup- tions of the flow, and times of vigorous flows (800-400 Ka, Pre-Nile) originating from the Ethiopian highlands or weak flows (3.3-1.8 Ma; Paleo-Nile) under arid conditions during which only lateral runoff of local sources occurred. It would thus be possible that structural collapse occurred during the Pleistocene when the water table was higher. Wüst and McLane viewed the cutting of the Nile Canyon (incorrectly given a late Oligocene-early Miocene age) as having contributed indirectly to the formation of the slumps58. They infer that a wetter climate and erosion induced by canyon-cutting led to the reactivation of faults and resulted in slumps. We tentatively propose an interpretation in which the gravitational collapse was a direct result of the cutting of the Nile Canyon during the latest Miocene (fig. 10). The collapse resulted directly from the physical destabilization of the rims of the canyon by shear stress placed on a rigid rock unit (Thebes Formation) underlain by a plastic one (Esna Shale). During the Late Miocene salinity crisis (Messinian, 6.0-5.3 Ma)59, when sea level in the Mediterranean Sea dropped by >1000 m60, the (Eo-)Nile cut through the bedrock to form a deep canyon. The depth of this canyon is impressive61. Its bottom near Cairo is buried under >1500 m of Pliocene to Recent sediments. The depth of the canyon near Aswan is ~300 m; it is ~800 m near Luxor. Thus, the natural scarp creation

54 S.A. STEWART, A.H., RUFFEL, and M.J. HARVEY, ‘Relationship between basement-linked and gravity- driven fault systems in the UKCS salt basins’, Marine and Petroleum Geology 14 (1997), 581-604; HEST- HAMMER and FOSSEN, Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999), 259-81. 55 CURTIS, Geology of the Valley, 1-44. 56 COBBOLD, WATKINSON and COSGROVE, Geoscientist 18 (2008), 18-22. 57 R. SAID, The River Nile: Geology, Hydrology, and Utilization (London, 1993). 58 WÜST and MCLANE, Engineering Geology 58 (2000), 163-90. 59 K. HSÜ, W.B.F. RYAN, and M.B. CITA, ‘Late Miocene desiccation of the Mediterranean’, Nature 242 (1973), 240-44; I. CHUMAKOV, ‘Geological history of the Mediterranean at the end of the Miocene–the beginning of the Pliocene according to new data’, in: W.B.F. RYAN, K.J. HSÜ et al. (eds.), Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 13 (Washington D.C., 1973), 1241-42. 60 W. KRIJGSMAN, F.J. HILGEN, I. RAFFI, F.J. SIERRO, and D.S. WILSON, ‘Chronology, causes and pro- gression of the Messinian salinity crisis’, Nature 400 (1999), 652-5. 61 SAID, Geological Evolution. 40 M.-P. AUBRY, W.A. BERGGREN, ET AL.

Fig. 10. Diagrammatic interpretation of the emplacement of the gravitational collapse structures (forming the foothills) of the Theban Mountain. During the Paleocene-middle Eocene, a shallow sea occupied a vast area of Egypt. Sedimentaton produced the Esna, Thebes and El Minia formations. By the late Eocene Upper Egypt had emerged, and a river system began forming. During the latest Miocene desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea, the south-north flowing river (Eo-Nile) cut through the bedrock (as did all the rivers around the Mediterranean Basin), forming parallel cliffs on both sides of the river. As the river cut through the Esna Shale, the tall cliffs through the limestone became poorly supported and the hanging cliffs collapsed, sliding over a weak slippage plane in the shales. TIGA: A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT IN THE THEBAN NECROPOLIS 41

Fig. 11. Experimental model showing the formation of collapse structures (photographs courtesy of Emily Poorvin, Marttha Withjack, and Roy Schlische, Rutgers University) A. Erosional scarps formed by vertical removal of clay visible on left side of photograph. Several normal faults with varying displacement magnitudes and rotated fault are visible. B. Closeup view highlighting the non-planar fault surfaces; the fault surface is steeper at the top and shallower at depth. process that created the gravitational collapse in the Theban Mountain area may have been fluvial incision by the Nile River during the Messinian salinity crisis62. The Nile River cut down through the Theban Limestone and into the Esna Shale, exposing it along the erosional scarp. The Esna Shale may have differentially eroded compared to the relatively stronger Thebes Limestone and undercut the limestone, contributing to the gravitational slumping of the overlying Thebes Limestone along the erosional scarp.

62 AUBRY, BERGGREN, DUPUIS, GHALY, WARD, KING, KNOX, OUDA, YOUSSEF and GALLAL, Terra Nova 21 (2009), 237-256. 42 M.-P. AUBRY, W.A. BERGGREN, ET AL.

Scaled experimental models have produced gravitational collapse by scarp creation. In the models run at Rutgers University (courtesy of Poorvin, Withjack and Schlische), a rectangular box was filled with wet porcelain clay. To simulate scarp creation by river incision, clay was removed along one edge of the box at a vertical removal rate of two millimeters every two minutes. At a critical scarp height, normal faults began to form that were parallel to the erosional scarp. These normal faults continued to develop as clay removal continued, eventually leading to the formation of large normal faults and tilted fault blocks (fig. 11). The critical scarp height for failure depended on the strength of the clay; stronger clay allowed for taller critical heights. Similarities between the modeling results and the structures found in the Theban Mountain area makes plausible our interpretation that the tilted fault blocks near VK are gravitational collapse structures that may have formed as a result of the remarkably deep fluvial incision by the Nile River (during the Messinian).

Conclusions

Despite the early recognition that geological studies are required for sustainable conservation and management of the Pharaonic treasures of the Theban Necropolis (Eighteenth to Twentieth Dynasty), no integrated geological study has yet been undertaken. The TIGA project aims to remedy this situation. Our preliminary survey has shown that the studies we have conducted on the east bank south of Luxor are applicable to the west bank. It has also shown that the tombs were excavated in various lithologies, and that many are located in gravitational collapse structures (in agreement with previous studies). TIGA will therefore undertake a systematic field mapping of the Theban Mountain coupled with a solid survey of the stratigraphy of the tombs with the objec- tive of establishing a precise, GIS-referenced 3D-reconstruction of the West Bank in which the location of each corridor and chamber of the tombs (as currently referenced in http://www.thebanmappingproject.com/) will be known with respect to geology. Once identified with respect to lithologies and structures (faults, joints, collapse structures) efficient remedies will be determined. Our interpretation of the origin of the foothills as gravitational collapse structures that formed during the terminal Miocene down-cutting of the Nile Canyon, and not to the height of the water table under wet climatic conditions, imply that the geological structure of the Theban Mountain would not be affected should the water table rise, either because of agricultural practice or increased river flow. The risk of mass wasting in the Thebes Mountain would be small63. But another episode of severe down-cutting by the Nile, as during the late Miocene, would likely result in new scarp development and the collapse of large

63 T. ABDALLAH, and H. HELAL, ‘Risk evaluation of rock mass sliding in El-Deir El Bahary Valley, Luxor Egypt’, Bulletin of the International Association of Engineering Geology 42 (1990), 3-9. TIGA: A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT IN THE THEBAN NECROPOLIS 43 blocks of strata, causing devastation of the Pharaonic antiquities of Theban Mountain. All things considered, a tectonic closure of the flows from the Atlantic into the Medi- terranean (which led to the desiccation of the Mediterranean)64 is however less immi- nent (by human standards) than a climatic change. However, increased humidity in the tombs would jeopardize their conservation effort, and TIGA is designed to assist with this long-standing problem.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Irene Forstner-Mueller, Vice director of the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Cairo, for presenting our paper at the Tenth International Conference on Egyptology in Rhodes. We thank the department of the Egyptian Antiquities, and in particular Dr. Zahi Hawass, for giving us access to various tombs in the Valley of the Kings. We thank Kent Weeks, Christian Leblanc and other colleagues on the West Bank for initiating us to archaeological problems of the West Bank. Experimental models were performed by Emily Poorvin under the supervision of Martha Withjack and Roy Schlische (Rutgers University). We thank them for allowing us to publish here photographs of the gravitational collapse structures generated in their modeling experiments. We are grateful to Rustie Said for discussion and to Panagiotis Kousoulis for his review of the manuscript.

64 S. DUGGEN, H. HOERNLE, P. VAN DEN BOGAARD, L. RÜPKE, and J.P. MORGAN, ‘Deep roots of the Messinian salinity crisis’, Nature 422 (2003), 602-6.