Multicultural Shakespeare: Translation, Appropriation and Performance vol. 15 (30), 2017; DOI: 10.1515/mstap-2017-0010 ∗ José Manuel González Remote Islands as Fictional and Metaphorical Places in Cervantes, Fletcher and Shakespeare Abstract: Islands have always occupied a significant place in literature and have been a source of inspiration for the literary imagination. Fictional islands have existed as either lost paradises, or places where law breaks down under physical hardships and a sense of entrapment and oppression. Islands can be sites of exotic fascination, of cultural exchange and of great social and political upheaval. However, they are more than mere locations since to be in a place implies being bound to that place and appropriating it. That means that the islands narrow boundaries, surrounded by the sea and cut off from mainland, can create bridges between the real and the imaginary as a response to cultural and social anxieties, frequently taking the form of eutopias/dystopias, Edens, Arcadias, Baratarias, metatexts, or cultural crossroads, deeply transforming that particular geographical location. This article is concerned with insularity as a way of interrogating cultural and political practices in the early modern period by looking at the works of Cervantes, Fletcher and Shakespeare where insular relations are characterized by tensions of different sort. The arrival of Prospero and Miranda, Periandro and Auristela (The Trials of Persiles and Segismunda), and Albert and Aminta (The Sea Voyage) to their respective islands take us to a different world, revealing different political and cultural interests and generating multiple perspectives on the shifting relationship between culture, society and power. Keywords: islands, sea, travels, Cervantes, Shakespeare, Fletcher, barbarism, gender, culture, metaphorical, exotic. But all the islands have that legendary oarsman Slapping down dominoes on a rumshop table, Then raking the slabs in with a gravedigger’s breath. Derek Walcott, Omeros, LVII.ii Islands are everywhere. They were places for merchants, travelers and adventurers that take us back to early modern England where the theatre was seen as a metaphorical location. Tom Brown in Amusements Serious and ∗ University of Alicante. Brought to you by | Hospital General Universitario de Alicante Authenticated Download Date | 10/16/17 9:42 AM 134 José Manuel González Comical (1700), compares it with an island, claiming “The Play-House is an Inchanted Island, where nothing appears in Reality what it is, nor what it should be” (12). His comment refers to The Tempest, or the Enchanted Island, one of the most successful theatrical productions in the last decades of the seventeenth century, as drama was one of the key means by which early modern English society strove to make sense of space. Islands have always occupied a significant place in literature and have been a source of inspiration for the literary imagination. They have become fictions whose natural boundaries have helped shape and contain narratives. Fictional islands have existed as either lost paradises, or places where law breaks down and conventional morality gets tested due to physical hardships and/or a sense of oppression. Islands can be sites of either exotic fascination, or great social and political upheaval. But in both cases, they are more than mere locations since being in a place implies being bound to that place and appropriating it. We should not regard islands simply as geographical features. We should think of them as “a construction and a way of seeing the world” for “landscape is not merely an aesthetic product or the object of scientific inquiry. Instead, a landscape is a materialization of the external world, a way by which topography is brought into discourse and into knowledge (Denis Cosgrove qtd. in Sullivan 2). We should consider islands not only as literary settings, but also as narratives about people’s lives. Barbara Bender reminds us that islands as landscapes “are created by people through their experience and engagement with the world around them (Bender 1-2). The landscape of islands shapes the manner in which people conceptualize and give meaning to their world and location. That means that the islands’ narrow boundaries, surrounded by the sea and cut off from the mainland, can create bridges between the real and the imaginary as a response to cultural and social anxieties, frequently taking the form of utopias/dystopias, Edens, Arcadias, and Baratarias, deeply transforming that particular geographical location and leading to multiple and profound transformations in early modern narratives. It goes without saying that islands as places “aren’t inert physical shells, but localities of experience or of being where interaction not only takes place but also makes place” (Hutchinson 84) under a particular social, cultural and economic system subject to a network of power, authority and duty. In the medieval period, the island was simply a setting, a site for the articulation of stories. In the fourteenth century, Sir John Mandeville’s Travels represented the peoples and societies of Asia in terms of islands: islands where the natives have faces on the front and back of their heads or gems in their eyes; islands with pygmies where the sick are hung from trees to be eaten by birds; and islands as the earthly paradise. Thomas More’s Utopia is not only “a revolutionary book” as “it challenges major tenets of western thought, above Brought to you by | Hospital General Universitario de Alicante Authenticated Download Date | 10/16/17 9:42 AM Remote Islands as Fictional and Metaphorical Places . 135 all in the economic, social, political and religious organization” (Cro 238), but also the text that establishes insularity as an early modern location: it introduces a way of thinking that is properly called utopian, and opens its consideration as of a more complex phenomenon. It explores how the imagined geography of the island form is linked to the possibility of social change and suggests that utopia is a dream that comes out from our fallen state just as islands have their origins in ruptured continents. Utopia’s transformation from land to island expresses the social desire for self-containment, autonomy, and unchangeable stability. It is in the literature of the early modern period that a major shift in the use of insular geographies occurred with profound consequences: “There was a kind of synthesis or co-existence between the real and the imaginary, truth and fantasy, literal reality and metaphor [...] considerable tension remained between the constraints of exactitude or realism and men’s appetite for marvels” (Marientras 161). The shift is conveyed in Renaissance narratives through a process of metaphorization and relocation of marvelous contents that reveal the configuration of a new way of writing and creating new fictional worlds. As islands are susceptible to articulate metaphoric perspectives on the shifting relationship between culture, society and power, I shall be dealing with islands as metaphorical places that attach themselves to people and possess them as well as with insularity as a way of questioning cultural and political practices in the early modern period. To this end, I shall examine the works of Cervantes, Fletcher and Shakespeare, where insular relations are invariably tense, ambiguous and contradictory, revealing different political and cultural interests and generating multiple meanings and metaphors in the relationship between past and present, civilization and barbarism, and fiction and reality. Their narratives also show a transnational concern decentering particular views that join people and places in a complex geographical network and create problematic representations of the new imaginary locations in contrast to the real geographies from which their different narratives depart. They unfold “in a heterogeneous world containing a series of different fictional realms, which sometimes butt up against one another in outright contradiction, and sometimes interpenetrate” (Childers 127). These realms present various images of political and social exchange, with particular attention paid to the struggle for political power, the regulation of social behaviour, and the confrontation of cross-cultural values, showing the conflicts that result from them and suggesting new ways to resolve them. Cultural identity, intercultural dialogue, and social change become major topics in their fictional accounts, including moments of instability and confusion which are often initiated by a transgression of social norms in relation to political power, gender role and sexual conduct. That transnational dimension, which is the result of different transactions and exchanges, leads, in the end, to a transformation of that particular society as seen in the works of Cervantes, Shakespeare, and specifically Fletcher, who “is above all a European dramatist Brought to you by | Hospital General Universitario de Alicante Authenticated Download Date | 10/16/17 9:42 AM 136 José Manuel González […] With a compendious habit that drew him repeatedly to Spanish literature and to Cervantes in particular.” (McManus 16-17) References to islands throughout Don Quixote are numerous: there are in fact 118 cases of the word insula in the text, and the plural insulas occurs an additional twenty-eight times. Though there are few allusions to specific, named islands, paninsularity becomes central in Persiles and Segismunda. As Jonathan Bate points