ISSN 1359-9321 The Galton Institute NEWSLETTER

Galtonia candicans Issue Number 69 December 2008

there has been much speculation that Contents there exist ‘ for…’ many types of Cannabis and Psychosis: mental illness.2 However, as the evi- The Environment Trigger dence mounts which suggests - Cannabis and Psychosis 1 by environment interactions in human Benjamin Capps and David development – particularly in the effects Nutt of exposure to an environmental patho- Professor John Thoday 8 (Centre for Ethics in Medicine and gen on a person’s health is conditional Henry Wellcome L.I.N.E., upon her genotype3 – emphasis has IUSSP Seminar on University of Bristol) switched from discovering the Medelian Trade-offs in Female ‘units’ that cause phenotypes, to the Life Histories: 9 understanding of the complex relation- Introduction ship between genes and environment.4 Apparent IQ stability across There is growing evidence to suggest This paper addresses the ethical issues several decades 12 that there is a gene-environment interac- that arise from evidence that suggests tion between drug-taking and mental that some of the negative health effects health, that includes known environ- of cannabis use, in particular psychosis, mental pathogens and risk factors to may be predicted by genetic polymor- Milo Keynes specific substance-use disorders, and a phisms. We attempt to balance a heterogeneity in responses to these I am sad to have to announce that ‘genetic determinist’ view of disease Milo Keynes (our current Newsletter specific causes.5 One such drug is (e.g. a ‘gene for psychosis’) with the Editor) suffered a stroke on August cannabis, whose use is associated with concurrent evidence that the phenotypic 19th, 2008. After a difficult period psychosis: a disorder that is categorised expression of a gene, such as adult-onset he is now back in active rehabilita- as conditions in which a person’s ability tion and we all wish him a good and psychosis, may require an environmental to test reality is impaired.6 A relation- speedy recovery from here. trigger. Our primary aim is to offer ship between psychosis, in particular David Galton tentative suggestions as to how the ‘post- schizophrenia, and cannabis has been genomic era’ – a period in which society suggested for some time see6 but only is inundated with genetic data and novel Published by: recently have Caspi et al claimed applications of gene modification, evidence for a gene-environment The Galton Institute screening, and selection – may influence interaction in the effects of adolescent- 19 Northfields Prospect drug policies in the UK, specifically with onset cannabis use on adult psychosis.7 Northfields regard to cannabis use. In light of our They present data that suggest that LONDON SW18 1PE emergence from the Genomic Revolu- cannabis-induced psychosis has a genetic Telephone: 020-8874 7257 tion, it is appropriate that society component (a functional considers the ethico-social implications General Secretary: of the catechol-0-methyltransferase of the ‘nature-nurture’ debate in this Mrs Betty Nixon (COMT) gene), thus strengthening the context.1 Newsletter Editor: view that gene-hunters can locate gene- to-disorder connections, even for David Galton (present issue) Cannabis and Psychosis multifactoral disorders, which minimally Web site: Genotype has long been associated represent a risk factor for asymptomatic www.galtoninstitute.org.uk with various mental health disorders, and carriers. Others have reported a similar

GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER 1 DECEMBER 2008 link between COMT genotype and Neuropharmaceuticals are often autonomous decision to experience a psychotic symptoms, but as of yet the referred to as ‘drugs’, and tend to be certain mental state, despite the potential exact nature of the gene-environment either strictly controlled as medicines, or physical, psychological, legal and social and gene-gene relationship between when then fall outside this ‘legitimate’ costs, is a ‘voluntary’ action (as opposed psychosis and cannabis use remains use, classified as illicit, and therefore out to the burden of disease that compels unresolved, despite a growing number of of bounds for recreational use. When drug use on patients). However, many other human and animal studies.8 PSs are used outside the medical setting, drugs used in medicine have a hedonistic they are seen as being ‘misused’ on the value for recreational users (and evi-

grounds that they can be categorically dence suggests that cannabis may also Importantly, Caspi et al argue that regarded as ‘harmful’ to the user or have a medicinal value for some pa- such a connection may only be apparent others around him, and intrinsically tients), and the therapeutic advantage is among individuals in a sample that has related to poverty, mental health and replaced by the attainment of ‘out of it’ been exposed to specific non-genetic illness, and criminality. There is experiences. Thus, the legal distinction risks: specifically adolescent-onset overwhelming evidence that widespread is one of medical indication (regulated cannabis use. They do not rule out other use of many drugs has massive eco- by the Medicines and Healthcare possible environmental risks and nomic and social costs; however, the link Products Regulatory Agency) and the pathogens; and they conclude: ‘Our to drug misuse is not always straightfor- socio-historical context of specific drugs. findings suggest that a rôle of some ward, and furthermore, it is often not Thus, understanding the circumstances susceptibility genes may be to influence helpful to describe different ‘drugs’ of drug (mis)use is part of a wider study response to these pathogenic environ- under a unified heading, since they often of the social construction and biochemi- ments’.9 This supports a (not uncontro- have very different pharmacological cal investigation of the effects of versial)10 view that ‘Cannabis use… is a effects, social acceptability, long and particular drugs.22 component cause, [but also] part of a short term psychological effects, medical complex constellation of factors leading uses, and legal status.14 There is evidence that cannabis has to psychosis’.11 Thus, it is proposed that medicinal benefits to offer, such as the risk of developing psychosis is The health-recreation distinction has controlling some forms of pain, alleviat- higher in those who are ‘genetically significant socio-political results. For ing nausea and vomiting due to chemo- vulnerable’ to the disease and are example, while medicines used as part of therapy, treating wasting due to AIDS, exposed at some time to cannabis, but therapy are considered as an acceptable and combating muscle spasms associated the aetiology and medical link is still medical intervention if properly pre- with multiple sclerosis. However, difficult to specify. This may include (or scribed (on the not unproblematic current research has not proved persua- an absence of) a family history of, or grounds of evidence-based medicine),15 sive to allow licensed use of cannabis, genetic predisposition to psychosis, and 23 recreational drug use is often dispropor- for example as an analgesic. A nega- a personal history of unusual tionately associated with social problems tive political view of cannabis as a ‘triggering’ (environmental) experiences. and crime,16 global instability,17 and the recreational drug remains a dominant

‘global burden of disease’.18 The political force, because of the sugges-

comorbid effects of many drugs19 tions that its use increases the use of The Regulation of Neuropharma- therefore become a justification for other illicit drugs or that it is a ‘gateway’ ceuticals and Cannabis paternalistic government intervention.20 drug, encouraging uptake of other drug 24 Cannabis is a psychoactive substance However, this distinction is not as clear- use, though the evidence for this is 13 (PS), and is in the class of neuropharma- cut as some legal and social norms weak. The opposition to recognise ceuticals (pharmacological agents whose would indicate. Most drugs, whether cannabis as a medical treatment seems to primary mode of action is through used in medicine or for recreational be concerns as to potential side effects, altering the metabolism of neurotrans- purposes, have side effects. When used such as hallucinations, delusions and 25 mitters) many of which are widely used in therapy, these unwanted (and un- clinically significant schizophrenia, in medicine and for recreational pur- avoidable) effects are tolerated as a cost and that there are medical alternatives, 26 poses. It is primarily classified as a of curing, treating or elevating the for example, for pain management.

hallucinogen; its active ingredient is primary condition. This is despite the delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol; and it is large numbers of deaths caused by Cannabis Use in the Post-Genomic normally smoked or ingested. Cannabis adverse drug reactions, and the lack of Era is a widely used drug12 that is currently effectiveness for many patients of We now live in what some call the categorised in the UK as illicit though in particular prescribed drugs.21 This cost- ‘Post-genome era’. Data from the a lower class [C] than other drugs such analysis of health benefits is not evident human genome project, and potentially as heroin and cocaine [class A].13 in the recreational use of drugs, since the large amounts of raw epidemiological

DECEMBER 2008 2 GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER data stemming from projects such as UK may become integral to perspectives of as a ‘gene for…’. Biobank, provide society with a unprece- drug (mis)use and the prediction, dented understanding of human inheri- prevention and treatment of non- So, should carriers of this variant be tance, difference and diseases; and this commutable diseases. This paper told of their risk of developing a psy- potentially gives rise to novel genetic focuses on cannabis-induced psychosis, chotic condition if they are exposed to ‘tests’ and escalating lists of diagnosable which, like many other diseases, has a cannabis? The first case may be if diseases and risk predispositions. In complex multi-factorial aetiology, cannabis is offered as a therapeutic regard to medicinal drug use, pharmaco- involving genetic factors (‘genes for…), treatment. Here, patients with a specific (the study of specific genes in non-genetic risk factors (unproven genotype that predisposes one to the context of the hereditary basis of causal predictors) and environmental psychosis may be considered as ‘at risk’ person-to-person variations in drug pathogens (proven causes).28 to the deleterious effects of cannabis, response) and pharmacogenomics (the and therefore alternatives used instead. response of the entire genome to drugs; Cannabis and Predictive Genomic The evidence presented in the Caspi et al although such terms are often used Medicine report therefore might suggest policies to 27 interchangeably) raise the prospect of ‘Predictive genomic medicine’ refers rule out the prescription of cannabis, for tailoring prescriptions to our individual example, to adolescents. to a branch of ‘genomic medicine’ which genetic differences. In this way, thera- proposes screening healthy individuals pies may be offered which can maximise The problem is, however, that Caspi et to identify those who carry alleles that beneficial effects while minimising side al present evidence of only one possible increase their susceptibility to certain effects and adverse reactions. But this 29 path to psychosis. Psychosis is undoubt- diseases. The goals are to provide also means that drug users may be able edly a risk for those without a particular early warnings to individuals that certain to experience the hedonistic effects of (identified) phenotype and for those who behaviours may trigger ‘disease’ genes, recreational drugs, impervious to many never come into contact with cannabis. a n d t o o f f e r p r e v en t a t i v e of the risks; so for example, those Environmental causes may only be ‘treatments’ (e.g. gene therapy) or without a genetic ‘predisposition’ to contributory to an illness, because ‘avoidance behaviours’ that may reduce addiction may be able switch on and exposure to them may not always the likelihood of developing a certain switch off drug use without succumbing generate a disorder. In the Caspi study disease in the future. The relationships to any dependency. the majority of adolescents exposed to between genes, behaviour and risk are cannabis, even in the val/val group did complex. So when a gene-to-disorder How does the evidence that some not develop schizophrenia. Furthermore, connection is suggested, a careful people are genetically vulnerable to there may be (unknown) polygenetic appraisal of the scientific evidence and some of the major deleterious effects of interactions between a number of genes the role of the environment and behav- cannabis affect these perspectives? or a number of environmental triggers ioural triggers should be carefully Specifically, how will the possibility that for psychosis. The heterogeneity considered. it may be possible to screen individuals associated with a certain illness may before they use cannabis – for medicinal In the Caspi et al report, the authors suggest a genetic component, but this is or recreational purposes – and provide emphasised the limitations of the study also associated with individual differ- them with information of the risks for in determining the precise nature of a ences in temperament, personality, specific health aspects as a direct result possible ‘psychosis gene’ in the context cognition and autonomic physiology. of use and for future health problems of exposure to environmental pathogens. These all may (or may not) also be affect the use and regulation of canna- Thus, a psychosis gene may only be influenced by genetic and environmental bis? Will we see increased calls for activated if (a) cannabis (or some other factors. cannabis to be prescribed in therapy? psychosis ‘causing’ drug) is taken; and And will the pro-recreational use of (b) it is taken at a particular time (e.g. This raises the specific problem of cannabis be more forcefully argued? adolescence) or under certain environ- understanding the nature of ‘genetic risk’ mental conditions (e.g. the ‘threatening’ and ‘genetic predispositions’, and the In light of this growing evidence of environment associated with illegal feasibility of screening for certain genes. genetic susceptibility, understanding the drug-market cultures). Psychosis may A ‘risk’ is just that: in this specific case, genetic and biochemical aspects of drug therefore never be actuated in a ‘carrier’, Caspi et al. suspected that the presence use in the post genomic era will have to despite the presence of a certain gene, if of a specific COMT gene and the include an assessment of the social and either (a) or (b) are not concurrently adolescent-onset of cannabis use historical context of use. In this way, we present. In such circumstances, it establish a risk to developing psychosis may be able to predict and evaluate the therefore seems incoherent to refer to the in adulthood. But they realised that this potential legal and social changes that presence of a particular genetic variant risk was likely to be dependent on a

GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER 3 DECEMBER 2008 complex genetic-environment relation- further funds away from proven or more limits of the autonomous will’s ability to ship. At present, our knowledge about effectual interventions, such as drug act on itself. Cannabis, on the other hand, genes and their roles, and their interplay education and awareness programmes. is often used precisely to disinhibit the with environment triggers, is far from However, the usefulness of genomic will and to get ‘out of it’, as a mark of our sufficient to make reliable predictions screening becomes correlatively impor- dissatisfaction with the nagging demands about an individual’s risk of developing a tant as the number of suspected triggers of autonomy. Ashcroft concludes that ‘at disease. But does this mean that a policy and the prevalence of a particular illness a deeper level, this curiosity about the of screening for suspected alleles for increases; communities in which there is relation between drugs and autonomy can specific diseases is unwarranted? The a prevalence of triggered psychosis may lead to a whole series of worries about concern is that a policy of screening benefit from such screening, as may the the extent to which our human capacities would over-emphasise the (cannabis)- triaging of genetic screening of those of rationality and choice are malleable to gene-psychosis connection, thus leading considered to be vulnerable, for example, (if not determined by) physical interven- to neglect for other possible causes of on the basis of family histories.32 Thus, tions in our physical being, the ways in psychosis, specifically the socio- uncertainty in predictive screening should which third parties may for various environmental triggers of poor mental not rule out the potential benefits of reasons want to weaken or alter our health, such as poverty and social conveying the relevant genetic risk of physical or social bodies, and the ways deprivation. developing, and triggers for, a given our present choices may bind our future disease to an individual or group, so that selves’.35 There are also questions over the they may avoid specific behaviours and usefulness of such screening pro- thus minimise the risk of the onset of a Drug misuse is therefore dependent in grammes. As we have already stated, disease by this specific trigger. part on motivation and the factors which

screening for a ‘gene for…’ will be futile drive an individual to embark upon a if the individual is never exposed to the Individual Choices and Drug particular project. Specifically, we are necessary drug or environment trigger. Misuse concerned with the motivation that leads Furthermore, there may be many more one to misuse a certain drug, and whether environmental pathogens which may One of the central considerations in the an explanation regarding genetic risks affect the user in unforeseen ways, and ethical analysis of drug use is that of will cause a positive change in lifestyle represent further health risk factors autonomy. Discussions on ‘autonomy’ or an avoidance of certain triggers. The associated to the deleterious effects of can lead to confusion because of hetero- reasons for drug misuse will be a com- cannabis use. For example, smoking geneity of understanding in the term. In plex relationship between personal cannabis raises risks of tobacco related this regard, autonomy does not stand in situation (including financial status and risks such as lung cancer (and other isolation (as an absolute right to do as pre-existing mental health illness) and smoking related illnesses) and addiction, one wills), but a reasonable claim that environmental circumstance (e.g. peer both of which themselves may have a one should have minimal access to the pressure or the availability of specific 30 genetic component. Furthermore, other goods that allow chosen purposes to be drugs). Thus, drug misuse may not social cost factors should also be consid- reached. This cannot be achieved in simply be a matter of a choice made at a ered in assessing the risks of cannabis isolation, and requires an other-regarding particular time, and will be affected by use, such as those that are related to commitment in the interests of socio- the personal assessment of the complex intoxicated behaviour, for example, an political stability.33 From this starting relationships between previous (and 31 impaired driving ability. Thus, would point, we can clarify certain aspects of prospective) actions, decisions, and screening for a specific gene lead to real the genetic-environment debate. experiences. Furthermore, experimenting benefits if it encouraged those with the with drugs (i.e. limited misuse) and “safe” genotype to consume more of the First of all, it should be noted that habitual use (caused by addiction and drug so putting themselves in the way of drugs are a standing challenge to the craving) will likewise be strongly more harms? ‘Treatments’ for genetic conceptual and empirical basis of effectual on later choices. These tempo- phenotypes are probably some way off, autonomy.34 Psychoactive drug use has a ral-specific ‘choices’ will therefore often such as gene therapy, and therefore direct effect on our ability to be autono- dictate the health effects of specific 36 abstinence and avoidance of triggers is mous. Ashcroft argues, that tobacco, for drugs. For example, a one-off use of the only course of action. example, may be used by some smokers cannabis in adulthood may be insufficient to enhance their sense of autonomy to trigger psychosis, unlike adolescent With limited resources already a through assisting in focussing their use, or prolonged or chronic use. concern for the health service, predictive attention, whereas addiction to tobacco screening of this kind would likely divert smoking is a very visible mark of the However, knowledge of genetic

DECEMBER 2008 4 GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER predispositions, whether to an illness partially dependent on a distinction thus straightforwardly avoiding the possibly triggered by cannabis use (e.g. between the presence of low risk disease environment pathogen that may cause the psychosis), an illness directly related to predispositions which represent pheno- onset of psychosis. drug use (e.g. addiction), or an illness types dependent on many related factors, indirectly associated to drug use (e.g. and ‘mendelian’ diseases which represent This simple case however, belies the lung cancer), may influence or change the genetic profiles which are strongly complexity of the social implications for user’s choices: in this case, to avoid or predictive, such as the gene associated genetic-environment research. As abstain from cannabis use. Thus genetic with Huntington’s disease; in the case of mentioned above, genetic information information may be used to prevent the latter, counselling is important to raises the possibility of both increasing cannabis use, and thereby reduce the avoid fatalistic tendencies and suicidal one’s autonomy, by enabling individuals prevalence of drug-induced psychosis. acts.41 to make better-informed choices, while For example, in a Dutch cohort, it was also leading to further restrictions on estimated that lack of exposure to canna- Concentrating on the genetic causes of individual liberty. Should tests become bis would have reduced the incidence of disease avoids dealing with social available for ‘genes for psychosis’ we psychosis requiring treatment by as much problems that may trigger certain condi- will have to contend with the issues of as 50%,37 and is similarly reflected in a tions (which are amenable to genetic whether such tests should be routinely Swedish cohort, showing that the use of screening). Caspi et al recognise the offered. The current debate about cannabis increased the risk of schizophre- association that may or may not be cannabis-triggered psychosis illustrates nia by 30%.38 However, evidence also present between psychosis and environ- many of the issues society will have to suggests that an increase in current mental triggers: they specifically mention deal with as gene-illness associations cannabis use has only had a marginal the possible psychosis-exaggerating become more and more common. We effect on increasing the reported cases of effect of illicit lifestyles. Such lifestyles have already seen that should cannabis be drug-induced psychosis.39 often (but not always) go hand in hand offered in the medical setting, then However, there is already evidence that with poverty and low social status. offering (or even mandating) ‘risk of inappropriate communication of genetic Genomic medicine therefore risks psychosis’ screening may be beneficial predispositions, triggers and risks may targeting at-risk individuals or communi- for patients and in their interests. lead to negative behaviour with regard to ties, rather than addressing the criminal However, the mandated testing for drug health. For example, being told that one and social environments that may trigger misuse and concurrent screens for has a ‘gene for addiction’ may lead to (or lower the risk-threshold of) psychosis. ‘disease genes’ may be used to dictate demoralisation with regards to stopping medical provision in light of scarce smoking, or that the absence of the same resources: for example clinical decisions ‘gene’ may lead to a false belief of being Conclusions: Changing Policies? may become prejudiced by positive impervious to the negative effects of results, especially if an undue weight is tobacco.40 (Again, what is this ‘gene How will the genomic era affect placed on taking responsibility for past for…’ if the carrier is never exposed to an cannabis policies in the UK? In the choices. addiction-triggering drug?). Of particu- physician-patient relationship there will As cannabis is categorised as an illicit lar concern for society will be if the use normally be a acceptable degree of drug this complicates the current debate of such information contributes to an paternalism-led choice: that the patient considerably. We do not here want to increase in cannabis use, and a correlative has presented themselves for treatment, engage in whether current drug – and increase in, for example, road traffic and therefore may be prescribed drugs specifically cannabis – policies are accidents, and encourages social prob- under the advice of her doctor or presid- effective42 or coherent.43 Our concern is lems associated with drug misuse. Any ing medical professional. In this case, the what role genomic information may have information with regard to the presence use of genomic medicine becomes an in the ethical debate. While cannabis of a ‘disease’ gene should be carefully issue of physician-mediated ‘best inter- possession remains an ‘arrestable of- communicated, since its presence may ests’; that if cannabis would be appropri- fence’, there seems little of benefit in lead to raised anxiety and reduced self- ate as a therapy (based on evidence which offering routine ‘psychosis’ screening; confidence despite there only being a risk may or may not be available in the users of cannabis could simply open of susceptibility. Past or current users current literature), then it may be offered. themselves to criminal sanctions and the may become anxious if they have the But, if a predisposition were detected, stigmatisation of ‘drug misuse’. The gene; for some this may be the motivation then alternatives would be more suitable. message is therefore if one makes choices necessary to make them stop, for others it Thus, ‘genes for…’ become targets for that transgress into illegal action, then may lead to resignation to their ‘genetic avoiding certain medical interventions one must also accept the risks, including future’. The degree of anxiety will be (minimising the ‘risk’); and specifically, possible health costs. Of course, this

GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER 5 DECEMBER 2008 means that society picks up the cost explanations of drug addiction as either a of the genetic-environmental interaction when users present themselves for ‘disease of the will’ or a ‘pathology of in drug use and its consequences will treatment (as well as the cost of policing choice’.45 require a multidisciplinary approach, policies). Such logic equally applies to including fundamental input from screening specific populations. The The ‘choice’, therefore, is not neces- neuroscience, biochemistry, social study paper by Caspi et al specifically ad- sarily an easy one to make, since and genetic epidemiology. dresses the issue of adolescent-onset of avoiding the ‘wrong choice’ could be cannabis use and the risk of psychosis in impossible for some depending on a

later life. But again, logic suggests that genetic vulnerability and exposure to This lecture was delivered at a Galton adolescents should be encouraged to certain environment triggers or patho- Institute conference Nature, Nurture or avoid cannabis use because of the gens found in areas of social deprivation, Neither? Genetics in the Post-Genome criminal risks, rather than provide poverty and socially excluded communi- Era held in 2006 in association with the potentially burdensome (or encouraging) ties. Avoiding risks may therefore be an Progress Educational Trust. genetic information. issue for society to solve, by (the

difficult task of) removing the social David Nutt is Professor of Psychophar- If cannabis use policies continue to be environments that encourage drug macology at the University of Bristol, liberalised (again, we do not here misuse. ‘Reintegration’ programmes are UK. question issues of ideology, and believe more likely to succeed through providing genetic information has no role in this housing, education, employment Benjamin Capps is Assistant Professor debate) – and personal use became opportunities, and family or social in Biomedical Ethics at the National acceptable – then genetic information support, rather then genetic screening. University of Singapore. regarding predispositions and risk would enable users (and potential users) to The evidence suggests, therefore, that Endnotes: 1 make informed choices. A possible we are no closer to a settled position Merikangas, K. and Risch, N. 2003. increase in the legal use of cannabis may with regard to acceptable cannabis use, Will the Genomics Revolution Revolu- lead to an increase in incidents of not least because the distinction between tionize Psychiatry? American Journal of psychosis, or drug related economic and legitimate therapeutic drug use and illicit Psychiatry 160:625-635. 2 social costs. We may therefore also see recreational misuse, in the context of the Kendler, K. 2005. ‘A Gene For...’: The a proportional increase in programmes of relationship between genetics, environ- Nature of Gene Action in Psychiatric screening and testing, and more innova- mental triggers, individual motivations, Disorders. American Journal of Psychia- tive and advanced detection measures, and social situation, remains unclear. try 162: 1243-1252. 3 resulting in stricter control measures to There still remains the enduring question Rutter, M. and Silberg, J. 2002. Gene- dissuade inappropriate and risky use. of the role of nature and nurture on our Environment Interplay in Relation to For some, this represents an unaccept- personal and social development. We Emotional and Behavioral Disturbance. able intrusion into personal choices and now have at our disposal unprecedented Annual Review of Psychology 53: 463- individual interests.44 With regard to information regarding the genetic basis 490. 4 drug-related illness, enabling individuals of agency (i.e. the genes that dispose us Insel, T. and Collins, F. 2003. Psychia- to avoid such risks may prove to be to particular paths, such as the onset of try in the Genomics Era. American beneficial for some carriers of the ‘risk’ diseases, character traits, risks and Journal of Psychiatry 160: 616-620; gene. The use of this information by predispositions) and the myriad of Hamer, D. 2002. Rethinking Behavior them therefore becomes a matter of environmental factors that contribute, Genetics. Science 298: 71-72. 5 personal responsibility, and questions limit and shape our lives. We still do not Moffitt, T., Caspi, A. and Rutter, M. whether individuals should knowingly know many aspects of the genetic basis 2005. Strategy for Investigating Interac- expose themselves to risks when they of disease and how environment contrib- tions Between Measured Genes and have such information? The choice that utes to a particular pathology, let alone Measured Environments. Archives of an individual makes in this regard is how each influences the other; specifi- Genetics and Psychiatry 62: 473-481. 6 interwoven with debates surrounding cally, we are unable to determine the Fergusson, D., Horwood, L. and Ridder, freewill and agency; which themselves extent to which some genetic phenotypes E. 2005. Tests of Causal Linkages are bound by the debates over the are dependent and conditional on Between Cannabis Use and Psychotic possible genetic basis of behaviour, and exposure to an environmental risk or Symptoms. Addiction 100: 354-366; its relationship between explanation and pathogen. The paper by Caspi et al is a Hall, W, and Degenhardt, L. 2000. justification of behaviour. In this regard, contribution to this debate, but it fails to Cannabis and Psychosis: A Review of the contrast can be clearly seen between resolve the matter in either direction. Clinical and Epidemiological Evidence. the debates concerning the causes and Eventually determining the exact nature Australian and New Zealand Journal of

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Journal of Medical Ethics 30: Pharmacogenomics: Translating Func- Induced Effects on Psychosis and 131-135. tional Genomics into Rational Therapeu- Cognition. Neuropsychopharmacology 16Stevens, A. Trace, M. and Bewley– tics. Science 286: 487-491. Aug 23; Advance Online Publication Taylor. 2005. Reducing Drug Related 28Caspi, A. and Moffitt, T. 2006. Gene- doi: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301197. Crime: An Overview of the Global Environment Interactions in Psychiatry: 9Caspi et al. op. cit. note 7, p. 1126. Evidence, Report Five. The Beckley Joining Forces with Neuroscience. 10For example: ‘Available evidence does Foundation Drug Policy Programme. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 7: 583-59 not strongly support an important causal London. The Beckley Foundation. 29Hall, W., Morley, K. and Lucke, J. relation between cannabis use and 17Roberts, M., Klein, A. and Trace, M. 2004. The Prediction of Disease Risk in psychosocial harm, but cannot exclude date?. Towards A Review of Global Genomic Medicine. EMBO Reports 5: the hypothesis that such a relation Policies on Illegal Drugs, Report One. S22-S26. exists’; MacLeod, J., Oakes, R., Copello, The Beckley Foundation Drug Policy 30Hall, W., Madden, P., and Lynskey, M. A., Crome, I., Egger, M., Hickman, M., Programme & Drugscope Report. 2002. The Genetics of Tobacco Use: Oppenkowski, T., Stokes-Lampard, H. London. The Beckley Foundation. Methods, Findings and Policy Implica- and Smith, G. 2004. The Psychosocial 18World Health Organisation. 2004. tions. Tobacco Control 11:119-124. Consequences of Use of Cannabis and Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance 31Bates, M. and Blakely, T. 1999. Role Other Illicit Drugs: Systematic Review Use and Dependence. Geneva. Geneva. of Cannabis in Motor Vehicle Crashes. of Longitudinal, General Population World Health Organisation. Epidemiological Reviews 21: 222-232; Studies. Lancet 363: 1579–1588; and: 19Swadi, H. and Bobier, C. 2003 Sub- Blows, S., Ivers, R., Connor, J., ‘Antecedent cannabis use appears to act stance Use Disorder Comorbidity Among Ameratunga, S., Woodward, M. and as a risk factor in the onset of schizo- Inpatient Youths with Psychiatric Norton, R. 2005. Marijuana Use and Car phrenia, especially in vulnerable people, Disorder. Australian and New Zealand Crash Injury. Addiction 100: 605-611. but also in people without prior history’; Journal of Psychiatry 37: 294-298. See 32Morgan, C., Dazzan, P., Morgan, K., Smit, F., Bolier, L. and Cuijpers, P. also: Hunt, N. with contributions from: Jones, P., Harrison, G., Leff, J., Murray R., 2004. Cannabis Use and the Risk of Ashton, M., Lenton, S., Mitcheson, L., and Fearon, P. 2006. First Episode Later Schizophrenia: A Review. Addic- Nelles, B. and Stimson, G. date? A Psychosis and Ethnicity: Initial Findings tion 99: 425–430. Review of the Evidence-Base for Harm From the AESOP Study. World Psychiatry

GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER 7 DECEMBER 2008 5: 40-46; Semple, D., McIntosh, A. and in genetical knowledge. He had made a Lawrie, S. 2005. Cannabis as a Risk Factor PROFESSOR JOHN THODAY decision to switch his research interest to for Psychosis: Systematic Review. Journal the study of quantitative and quasi 1916 - 2008 quantitative characters and with the help of Psychopharmacology 19: 187-19 33Capps, B. 2008. Authoritative Regula- of a succession of able research students John Marion Thoday, who died attracted by his enthusiasm and innova- tion and the Stem Cell Debate. Bioethics nd recently days short of reaching his 92 tive approaches he was essentially the 22: 43-55. birthday, was born in 1916. He claimed 34 first to demonstrate that the genes Ashcroft, R. 2004. Drugs symposium: that he could remember, as a child, being influencing such characters can be Introduction. Journal of Medical Ethics taken to see the celebrations at the end of mapped and their effects measured with 30: 332. WW1 in November 1918. He came some accuracy. Although he probably 35Ibid. from an academic family, his father at would not have emphasised the point, it 36Ashcroft, R., Campbell, A. and Capps, different times occupying chairs of is worth noting that that this work also B. 2005. Ethical Aspects of Develop- botany in South Africa, Egypt and the indicated that quantitative trait loci ments in Neuroscience and Drug University College of North Wales, (QTL) as we now denote them must vary Addiction (Chapter IV). Foresight: Drug Bangor. considerably (at least in some instances) Futures 2025? Brain Science, Addiction John Thoday’s life was one of in the magnitude of their effects on a and Drugs Project. London. Department academic distinction following a lively specific character. of Science and Technology. youthful period. He read botany at During his time in Cambridge his 37Van Os, J., Bak, M., Hanssen, M., Bijl, Bangor graduating just prior to the start manifold abilities and in particular his R., de Graaf, R. and Verdoux, H. 2002. of WW2 (and maintained a life-long insight and ability to develop thinking in Cannabis Use and Psychosis: A Longitu- interest in plants). He then started as a unconventional directions were deployed dinal Population-Based Study. American research student at Trinity College, in several ways. In addition to system- Journal of Epidemiology 156: 319-327. Cambridge in the autumn of 1939. atic and shrewd effort devoted to 38 Zammit, S., Allebeck, P., Andreasson, Soon, however, he entered the RAF to strengthening his own discipline and in S., Lundberg, I. and Lewis, G. 2002. Self work on photographic intelligence, a encouraging and supporting junior Reported Cannabis Use as a Risk Factor logical deployment of his talents given colleagues he was much involved in for Schizophrenia in Swedish Conscripts his deep interest in cytological studies. needed reform in teaching programmes Among those whom he encountered in of 1969: Historical Cohort Study. BMJ across the biological sciences and in this phase of his life was Enoch Powell, 325: 1199-1201. offering a broadly based degree course at that time the youngest (29) one star 39Hall, W. 2006. Is Cannabis Use in his own subject. He also played a very general in the British Army, and some- Psychotogenic? Lancet 367: 193-195. significant role in strategic planning and one whose ability in politics greatly 40Hall et al. op. cit. note 30. implementation at university level as impressed John even though their 41 well as playing a full part in the aca- Terrenoire, G. 1992. Huntington's political beliefs did not coincide. Disease and the Ethics of Genetic demic and social life of Emmanuel Following demobilisation in 1945 he College. Prediction. Journal of Medical Ethics resumed work on his Ph D and in 1946 18: 75–78. John’s distinction in science was moved to the Mount Vernon Hospital 42Roberts, M., Bewley-Taylor, D. and recognised by his election, in 1965, to and Radium Institute. His research here Trace, M. 2005. Facing the Future: The Fellowship of the Royal Society. He also resulted in a discovery of great funda- Challenge for National and Interna- served as President of the Genetical mental significance namely that biologi- Society in 1975-77 and was a member of tional Drug Policy, Report Six. The cal damage resulting from exposure to Beckley Foundation Drug Programme. the Galton Institute Council, in one form ionising radiation is greatly increased in or another, for virtually thirty years. The Beckley Foundation. London. the presence of oxygen. This discovery 43 Hayry, M. 2004. Prescribing Cannabis: had both academic and practical impor- He is survived by his wife of many Freedom, Autonomy, and Values. tance. years Doris, a daughter and a son. He Journal of Medical Ethics 30: 333-336. was in a number of respects a fortunate In 1947 he was appointed to the 44Centre for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics. man, not least in that he remained University of Sheffield charged with reasonably well until shortly before his 2004. Threats to Cognitative Liberty: developing the discipline of genetics and Pharmacotherapy and the Future of the death - a circumstance all the more by 1954 had succeeded in establishing remarkable in that his lifetime consump- Drug War. Davis, California: CCLE an independent department of that tion of cigarettes must have amounted to 44Ashcroft, A. and Franey, C. 2004. subject which he headed until 1960 a large six figure number. In the lottery Further Ethical and Social Issues in when he succeeded Sir as of the genes he drew a good ticket and Using a Cocaine Vaccine: Response to Balfour Professor of Genetics at Cam- all who knew him would be glad of that Hall and Carter. Journal of Medical bridge. It was in the Sheffield years that fact. Ethics 30: 341-343. he achieved a second important advance John A Beardmore

DECEMBER 2008 8 GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER and theoretical models of life history). given by Professor Kristen Hawkes from IUSSP seminar on The 29 papers were very broad ranging, the University of Utah, set the tone for encompassing empirical research across the workshop by exploring in detail the Trade-offs in Female Life the developed and developing world, and problem of how heterogeneity between Histories: including the use of historical datasets; women can obscure life history trade- Raising New Questions in an theoretical work on the mathematical offs. If women differ in their genetic Integrative Framework modelling of life history traits; compara- endowment or in their access to re-

Bristol, United Kingdom tive work on primate life histories; sources, then life history trade-offs will 23-25 July 2008 conceptual and review papers synthesis- be occurring across the surface of ing previous work on life histories to numerous different curves. This will Organized by the IUSSP Scientific generate new hypotheses; and the make it difficult to observe trade-offs at Panel on Evolutionary Perspectives in implications of such research for policy. the population level. This plenary Demography in collaboration with the A key theme to emerge from the seminar highlighted the importance of using University of Bristol was the importance of getting the appropriate methodology to try and methodology right in explaining life account for this problem, which in turn With financial support from history trade-offs. In particular, the highlighted the necessity for interdisci- the British Academy, the British Society difficulty of understanding variation in plinary work in this area. Demographers for Population Studies and life history trade-offs given the problem are also concerned with the problem of The Galton Institute of heterogeneity between women was heterogeneity and have been working to much discussed. Here a dialogue produce solutions in recent years. between disciplines such as demography Anthropologists and evolutionary Report by and is important in biologists must engage with and help to Rebecca Sear and Paul Mathews furthering the field, since both can bring further these methodological advances, their expertise to bear on this complex in order to advance their own research

issue. The importance of an integrated into life history theory. understanding of female life history for After this opening, the workshop The goal of this seminar was to bring making policy decisions was also continued with a further three plenary together researchers from a variety of highlighted: without an in-depth under- talks and seven sessions of proffered disciplines to explore female life history. standing of why female life histories papers. Four of the seven workshop Evolutionary biologists have developed vary, it is extremely difficult to develop sessions concerned key stages in female life history theory to identify the trade- effective policy which aims to improve life history: age at first birth, pregnancy offs individuals must make in allocating women’s lives. These wide ranging and birth intervals, parental investment resources between growth, reproduction papers will be published in a special and grandmotherhood. One session and the maintenance of body condition. issue of the American Journal of Human focussed exclusively on a particularly Demographers, anthropologists and Biology next year, in order to provide an important life history trade-off, that other human scientists have increasingly integrative framework for future re- between investment in reproduction and focused on these trade-offs, in an attempt search in this area. investment in somatic maintenance. The to understand the patterning of fertility, The meeting was held at the University remaining two sessions concerned the mortality, growth and ageing across of Bristol, 23-25 July 2008. The organis- applications of such life history analyses: human populations. This 2nd meeting of ers were Mhairi Gibson (local host) and how such work can shed light on the the IUSSP Evolutionary Perspectives on Rebecca Sear, with help from the IUSSP demographic transition, and how such Demography Panel brought together 36 Panel on Evolutionary Perspectives on research can be used to generate over- participants from the fields of demogra- Demography, particularly Monique arching models of female life history. phy, anthropology, physiology and Borgerhoff-Mulder and Ulrich Mueller. biology to explore this issue. The second plenary of the workshop As well as the generous financial and began the debate over whether fertility is Four plenary talks and 25 short administrative support offered by the traded off against longevity. Professor presentations were given at the seminar, IUSSP, this meeting received financial Emily Grundy, from the Centre for grouped into 7 sessions. These themes sponsorship from the British Academy, Population Studies at the London School represented both key stages in female the British Society for Population of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, life history (age at first birth; birth Studies and the Galton Institute, and presented data from England & Wales, intervals and pregnancy; parental administrative support from BIRTHA Norway and the US to show that the investment; and grandmotherhood) and (Bristol Institute for Research in the relationship between investment in the applications of such life history Humanities and Arts). reproduction and later life outcomes can analyses (to the demographic transition; The first plenary of the workshop,

GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER 9 DECEMBER 2008 differ even in industrialised countries Perhaps the most diverse session, workshop in the context of moving with similarly low mortality and fertility however, in terms of empirical evidence forward our understanding of female life rates. This plenary was neatly comple- was the session on parents and parental history trade-offs by appropriately mented by a paper which presented very investment. In this four-paper session, controlling for heterogeneity between similar analyses of historical data from Katherine Hinde, from UCLA, demon- women. Ruth Mace’s (University Quebec and Utah. Alain Gagnon, of the strated sex-biased parental investment in College London) paper, on contraceptive University of Western Ontario, began by rhesus macaques. David Lawson, from uptake in the Gambia, emphasised how remarking that the Quebeçois data has University College London, followed interactions between demographers and been used in three previous studies to this with his analysis of the trade-off anthropologists have already improved show a positive relationship between between wealth and family size in the the methods for investigating life history fertility and longevity, a negative large-scale, longitudinal UK database trade-offs. Anthropologists are now relationship, and no relationship at all. ALSPAC (Avon Longitudinal Study of increasingly making use of statistical Again, this illustrates the importance of Parents and Children). Eshetu Gurmu’s methods such as event history analysis, getting methodology right when analys- paper (from the University of Addis which can incorporate time varying ing the tricky issue of life history trade- Ababa) switched focus to the developing covariates. Such techniques are vitally offs. Grazyna Jasienska, from Jagiel- world, with his study of marital dissolu- important for interpreting the dynamic lonian University, drew this session to a tion in Addis Ababa. Finally, Kai Pierre processes that occur during the life close by highlighting gaps in the existing Willfuehr, from Giessen University, course. literature on this relationship in the hope ended the session with his analysis of The other theme that emerged was the that focussing attention on such lacunae another historical dataset, this time from importance of kin in female life histo- will stimulate research which closes northern Germany. All studies high- ries. A number of empirical papers these gaps. lighted the need to take context, particu- demonstrated the key importance of larly, though by no means exclusively, The third plenary, by Professor Gillian relatives in female life history, including access to resources, into account when Bentley of the University of Durham, Donna Leonetti’s (University of Wash- analysing parental investment decisions. was a first-rate demonstration of integra- ington) analysis of first births in two tive research. Gillian brought together The final plenary, by Professor Indian communities, Monique Borger- demography, evolutionary biology and Beverly Strassmann of the University of hoff Mulder’s (UC Davis) paper on physiology in her research on the effects Michigan, was a wide-ranging lecture contraceptive use in rural Tanzania, of developmental environment on female which showcased Professor Strass- Brooke Scelza’s (UCLA) paper on reproductive physiology. She and her mann’s long-term anthropological grandmaternal investment in Martu group have used the natural experiment research project among the Dogon in Aborigines, Australia and David Coall’s of migration to investigate the influence Mali. A number of different trade-offs (University of Basel) paper on grandpar- of developmental environment on female were considered during this plenary, ental investment in modern Switzerland. reproductive hormones, by comparing which also highlighted that women do Papers by Meredith Reiches (Harvard such hormones in Bangladeshi migrants not make life history decisions in University), Jonathan Wells (Institute of from Sylhet to the UK, with women still isolation, but in the context of a partner- Child Health, University College resident in Sylhet and UK women. This ship. Such partnerships may be charac- London) and Lesley Newson (University physiological theme was picked up in terised by sexual conflict. Conflict of Exeter) all explored the theoretical the session in birth intervals and preg- between partners may be particularly implications of the importance of kin. nancy, with papers by Virgina Vizthum, pronounced in this highly polygynous Reiches’s paper considered how female of the University of Indiana, and Claudia society, and much of Professor Strass- life history trade-offs would be better Valeggia, of the University of Pennsyl- mann’s research has focused on the understood in the context of ‘pooled vania, investigating the hormonal implications of polygyny for women’s energy budgets’, that is the energy correlates of pregnancy loss and the life history strategies. budgets of not just the woman herself resumption of post-partum fecundity but all her relatives, including her Perhaps two key themes dominated the respectively. Both papers involved partner, who may be contributing to her workshop, one methodological, one with small-scale studies of non-Western reproductive effort. Wells’s paper both empirical and theoretical implica- populations (a Bolivian agropastoralist discussed the importance of kin in the tions. Already discussed is the emer- community and an indigenous Argentin- context of genomic imprinting, and how gence of a consensus that researchers ean population), in dramatic contrast to this may have influenced the across disciplines must unite to develop the large scale datasets used by Grundy of female reproductive behaviour. Lesley rigorous methodology to analyse life and Gagnon, demonstrating the diversity Newson brought the influence of kin to history trade-offs. This issue was of evidence brought to bear on female bear on the puzzle of the demographic discussed at several points during the life histories during the workshop. transition, and suggested that part of the

DECEMBER 2008 10 GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER explanation for low fertility in industrial- India: Transitions in Total Fertility and nance and Survival ised societies is a lack of kin support, Age of First Reproduction Chair: Virginia Vitzthum given the evidence that kin provide both Lesley Newson Alejandra Nunez-de-la-Mora Cultural versus Reproductive Success: Why encouragement and practical support for Trade-offs Between Growth, Maintenance Does Economic Development Bring New raising children. and Reproduction in Human Female Life Trade-offs for Women at all Stages of Life? History: What Do We Know? Much of the research presented at the Session: Age at First Birth workshop has important policy implica- Ilona Nenko Chair: Grazyna Jasienska Relationship Between Fertility and Body Size tions, touched upon by the presenters. Karen Kramer and Shape: An Empirical Test of the Covert For example, Alejandra Nũnez-de-la- Early First Birth among Pumé Foragers. Maternal Depletion Syndrome Hypothesis Mora’s paper on the trade-off between Implications of a Pooled Energy Budget Alain Gagnon immune defence and reproduction to Life History Tradeoffs Are There Trade-offs Between Fertility highlighted the need to take a holistic Donna Leonetti and Survival to Old Ages? Evidence approach to development, since a Age at First Reproduction in the Context From Three Large Historical Demo- reduction in disease prevalence may of Differing Kinship Ecologies graphic Databases inadvertently lead to an increase in Sarah Johns Grazyna Jasienska fecundity. One paper focused exclu- Teenage Pregnancy and Motherhood: Reproduction and Lifespan: Overall How Might Evolutionary Theory Inform Energy Budgets, Trade-offs, Intergen- sively on the implications of such life Policy? erational Costs and Costs Neglected by history research for policy-makers. Sarah Session: Birth Intervals and Pregnancy Research Johns, from the University of Kent at Chair: Barry Bogin Plenary: Gillian Bentley Canterbury, demonstrated how an Developmental and Environmental Virginia Vitzthum integrative understanding of female life Trade-offs in Female Fecundity Modulation of Reproductive Investment

history trade-offs can be used to inform during Early Pregnancy policy surrounding teenage motherhood, Plenary: Beverly Strassmann Claudia Valeggia Menopause and the Trade-off Between a subject of some concern to the UK Interactions Between Metabolic and Offspring Number and Offspring Quality government, as well as a number of Reproductive Functions in the Resump- Session:Grandmothering and Allocare other industrialised countries. She tion of Postpartum Fecundity Chair: Monique Borgerhoff Mulder suggested that teenage motherhood is a Daryl Shanley rational strategy in the context of social A Mathematical Modelling Framework David Waynforth Mothers’ Decisions to Provide Direct for the Study of Optimal Interbirth marginalisation and low life expectan- Care to Their Infants Versus Using cies. Therefore policies targeted solely at Intervals Daycare and Family-based Childcare: a improving adolescent’s knowledge of Life-history Perspective with Data on Plenary: Emily Grundy contraception are unlikely to result in Biology or Sociology? What Can We Learn British Mothers and Children substantial decreases in the instance of From Associations Between Reproductive Brooke Scelza teenage pregnancy, without also tackling Histories and Later Life Mortality in The Grandmaternal Niche: Critical social inequality and poverty. Contemporary European Populations caretaking among Martu Aborigines Session: Parents and Parental Investment David Coall Chair: Tom Dickins Grandparental Investment: The Influence Programme of Events Katherine Hinde of Early Reproduction and Family Size Plenary: Kristen Hawkes Lactational Performance in Primiparous Jonathan Wells Vital rates in human & chimpanzee and Multiparous Rhesus Macaques: Cooperative Breeding and the Evolution populations: how within species variation Milk Energy Density and Milk Yield of Flexibility in Female Reproductive complicates cross-species comparisons. David Lawson Behaviour Session: Contraception and the Trade-offs in Modern Parenting: a Session: Models of Life History Demographic Transition Longitudinal Study of Sibling Competi- Chair: Mhairi Gibson Chair: Rebecca Sear tion for Parental Investment Monique Borgerhoff Mulder Duncan Gillespie Women’s Fertility Preferences and Kai Pierre Willfuehr When Fecundity Does Not Equal Family Planning: Tradeoffs, Biased Is There a Trade-off Between Early Fitness: Evidence of an Offspring Cultural Transmission, or Men? Versus Late Survival? Long-term Quantity-Quality Trade-off in Pre- Consequences of Early Parental Loss in industrial Humans Ruth Mace the 18th to 19th Century Krummhörn Barry Bogin Social Influences on the Decision to Population Start Using Contraception: a Study Childhood, Adolescence, Fertility and the From Rural Gambia Eshetu Gurmu Variant Nature of Human Life History Determinants of Marital Dissolution in Meredith Reiches Mary Shenk Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) Causes and Consequences of the Pooled Energy Budget and Human Life Demographic Transition in Urban South Session: Fertility, Somatic Mainte- History

GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER 11 DECEMBER 2008 Letter to the Editor Whilst there may be some truth in this a Although IQ remains the same the couple of pedigrees have been included proportion of first degree with as low a Dear Sir showing both high and low levels of score as 118, which one would have Apparent IQ stability across tested intelligence indicating a possible thought impossible. Nevertheless it is a several decades in an extended local lack of dominant mediocre genes. recruitment of all available talent, family In addition an important local council ranging from astronomers to fine arts but within the County found that eighteen of with a bias towards biological sciences. Much has been made of the world- its twenty six members had been The earliest degree was in the pre-1898 wide increase in intelligence quotient measured by the author, exposing birth decade, when in theology, the scores amounting to 0.3 points per relationships that had not previously individual recorded the highest IQ ever, annum. However, this is a statistical been realised. The family has found in his college. That was only equalled result and apparently backed by very few local eminence for about four centuries once later and none quite reached longitudinal studies of actual families. which may indicate abilities above the brilliance (IQ 160). average. The two related pedigrees show one Intelligence is considered to be James R Flynn considers that the group that remains successful by between 50 - 70% inherited according to reported rise in IQ is an artifact based on choosing suitable breeding mates, and a the various observers, and the rise has the sub-tests developed in a generally second, where the breeding is haphazard been blamed upon better nutrition, test pre-scientific age of concrete thinking and suffers from having a lady in a sophistication and even playing com- but still used on subjects maturing in a former generation who is reported to puter games that might stimulate visual post-scientific phase when generalities abilities. are more important, thus providing a have had some undiagnosed mental malady which from biased verbal reports I provide here an eleven decade skewed result. Common sense must seems to have been bipolar. Many of her presentation of IQ results in an extended support this. In the family there is little descendants fail to thrive. Pembrokeshire family that is currently significant difference in IQ across the

undergoing diaspora. The tests used time span. Dyslexia is common throughout the had a Standard Deviation of 20 and the The oldest survivors of their pre- family and this may possibly account for results corrected for age at the time of twentieth century cohort were probably many with low IQ scores, who, in the testing. the fittest, the brightest and therefore the real world has married for wealth or land longest lived. Those surviving the first Volkmar Weiss (personal communi- gain. It may be that Pembrokeshire is a World War (1899-1918) seem most cation) suggested that the high mean little behind the times. level of IQ is due to the author only depressed but as a farming group they attending the houses with the best cooks. always fed well and few died in any war. Patrick James RESULTS The Galton Institute

Birth Decade Number Mean IQ S.D. Percentage with First Degrees We are currently compiling a Degrees database of members’ email 13 Pre 1898 128.0 11.3 (1 individual) addresses in order to inform 26 120.6 15.7 0 1899 - 1908 members more efficiently of 1909 - 1918 26 118.0 20.1 3.8 news and events at the Institute. 1919 - 1928 35 128.4 23.9 28.6 The information will not be 1929 - 1938 46 127.5 16.8 28.3 1939 - 1948 37 123.5 19.1 24.3 shared with any other organisa- 1949 - 1958 37 123.9 21.1 35.0 tion. Please could members let 1959 - 1968 68 125.9 18.5 29.4 the General Secretary have a 1969 - 1978 29 120.0 23.2 31.0 note of their e-addresses at: 1979 - 1988 16 127.6 18.0 - [email protected]. 1989 - 1998 4 133 - - Thank you.

DECEMBER 2008 12 GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER