Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: a Challenge for Conservation

BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) DOSSIER 19 CONSERVATION / CONSERVATION

Tropical montane cloud forests: a challenge

Silvia Hostettler École polytechnique fédérale for conservation de Lausanne (EPFL) Faculté environnement naturel, architectural et construit Institut du développement territorial NCCR North-South (IP5) BP 2 234, Ecublens CH-1015 Lausanne Switzerland Many challenges need to be overcome to ensure the sustainable management and conservation of cloud forests. However, various successful conservation and sustainable use projects illustrate the potential of a range of approaches to conserve these forests. Furthermore, networks and initiatives promote their conservation. Much hope is placed in the International Year of the Mountain and Rio +10 to conserve the cloud forests that still remain.

Photo 2. Henri Pittier National Park, Venezuela. Photo T. Hartmann. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) 20 DOSSIER MONTANE FORESTS / CONSERVATION Silvia Hostettler

RÉSUMÉ ABSTRACT RESUMEN

FORÊTS TROPICALES TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD BOSQUES NUBLADOS TROPICALES NÉPHÉLIPHILES DE MONTAGNE : FORESTS: A CHALLENGE FOR DE MONTAÑA: UN RETO PARA LA UN DÉFI POUR LA CONSERVATION CONSERVATION CONSERVACIÓN

Les forêts tropicales néphéliphiles de Tropical montane cloud forests Se identificaron bosques nublados montagne ont été identifiées sur 736 (TMCF) have been identified in 736 tropicales de montaña en 736 zonas sites, dans 59 pays. Leur importance sites in 59 countries. The important de 59 países. Es sabida la importan- est reconnue pour la survie des popu- role of TMCF in sustaining the liveli- cia que tienen para la supervivencia lations locales, en termes de protec- hoods of local populations by pro- de las poblaciones locales, en cuanto tion des bassins-versants et d’ali- tecting watersheds and sustaining a la protección de las cuencas hidro- mentation en eau. Ces forêts sont unpolluted freshwater sources has gráficas y de alimentación de agua. une source majeure de produits been generally recognised. Cloud Estos bosques constituyen una forestiers non ligneux et un habitat forests are important sources of non- fuente principal de productos foresta- vital pour de nombreuses espèces timber forest products and are an les no leñosos y un hábitat vital para endémiques. Toutefois, depuis vingt essential habitat for many endemic numerosas especies endémicas. No ans, on constate un déclin rapide de and threatened plant and animal obstante, desde hace veinte años se ces forêts. Localement, elles sont gra- species. During the past 20 years, observa una decadencia rápida de vement menacées par le déboise- cloud forests worldwide have been estos bosques. Localmente, están ment et le mitage consécutifs à la disappearing rapidly. They are facing amenazados seriamente por la defo- pression démographique, à l’exploi- considerable localised threats from restación y la parcelación que son tation non viable et aux pratiques de clearance and further fragmentation, consecuencia de la presión demográ- gestion inadaptées. Des pressions as a result of population pressure, fica, la explotación no viable y prácti- externes comme l’extraction minière, unsustainable harvesting and poor cas de manejo inadaptadas. Las pre- la construction de routes, la pollution management practices. External pres- siones externas como la extracción atmosphérique et le réchauffement sures such as mining, road building, minera, la construcción de carreteras, climatique exacerbent ces problèmes. air pollution and global warming fur- la contaminación atmosférica y el La conversion vers d’autres usages ther exacerbate the problem. Con- recalentamiento climático incremen- affecte la qualité des eaux, et peut verting TMCF to other uses almost tan estos problemas. La conversión fortement réduire en aval la disponi- invariably affects water quality, and hacia otros usos afecta la calidad de bilité en eau. La conservation et la may significantly reduce water avail- las aguas y puede reducir mucho la gestion durable de ces forêts se heur- ability further downstream. Sustain- disponibilidad hídrica aguas abajo. tent à la pression démographique, la able management and conservation La conservación y el manejo sosteni- méconnaissance de leur valeur et au of cloud forests faces many chal- ble de estos bosques chocan con la manque de données fiables, d’aides lenges including population pressure, presión demográfica, el desconoci- financières et de volonté politique. poor awareness of their value and the miento de su valor y con la falta de Cependant, le succès de projets lack of reliable information, political datos fiables, ayudas financieras y de conservation et d’exploitation will and donor assistance. However, voluntad política. Sin embargo, el durable illustre la pertinence d’un various successful conservation and éxito de proyectos de conservación y éventail d’approches. Par ailleurs, sustainable use projects illustrate the explotación sostenible ponen de des réseaux et des initiatives à potential of a range of approaches to manifiesto la adecuación de una serie diverses échelles favorisent la cloud forest conservation. Further- de enfoques. Por otra parte, redes e conservation de ces forêts. On espère more, networks and initiatives are iniciativas a distintas escalas favore- que l’année internationale de la mon- promoting cloud forest conservation cen la conservación de estos bos- tagne et le sommet Rio + 10 vont inci- at local, national, regional and global ques. Se ha puesto mucha esperanza ter les bailleurs de fonds, les gouver- levels. Much hope is being placed in en el año internacional de la montaña nements, les entreprises, les ONG et the International Year of the Moun- y la cumbre Río + 10 para concientizar les communautés locales à conserver tain and Rio +10 to raise awareness y motivar a los donantes, gobiernos, les forêts néphéliphiles qui n’ont pas and encourage donors, governments, empresas, ONGs y las comunidades disparu. businesses, NGO’s and local commu- locales a conservar los bosques nities to conserve the cloud forests nublados que aún existen. Mots-clés : forêt tropicale néphéli- that still remain. phile de montagne, eau, diversité bio- Palabras clave: bosque nublado tro- logique, gestion, conservation. Keywords: cloud forest, mountain, pical de montaña, agua, diversidad water, biodiversity, management, biológica, manejo, conservación. conservation. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) DOSSIER 21 CONSERVATION / FORÊTS DE MONTAGNE

Introduction “Hach Akyum, dios de todos los dioses, creó el cielo y la selva. En el cielo sembró estrellas y en la selva sembró árboles, The important role of tropical son una sola las raíces de los árboles y las raíces de las estrellas… montane cloud forests (TMCF) in sus- Por eso, cuando cae un árbol cae una estrella.” taining the livelihoods of local popula- Chan K’in viejo (1900-1996), traditional leader of the Hach Winik, Chiapas, Mexico. tions by protecting watersheds and sustaining unpolluted freshwater sources has been generally recog- Deﬁning cloud nised. Whilst all mountain forests help regulate the flow of rivers from their forests headwaters, cloud forests are unique as they intercept wind-driven cloud TMCFs have been disappearing Cloud forests typically occur moisture on leaves, branches and epi- rapidly in recent decades because the between 1 500 m and 3 000 m above phytes, which then drips to the use of forest resources is increasingly sea level, usually within an altitude ground. This “cloud stripping” phe- driven by the immediate benefits to range of about 300 m. Cloud forests nomenon is generally equivalent to be derived from them. The growing have been broadly defined as “forests 15-20 percent of ordinary rainfall, but interest in tropical montane cloud that are frequently covered in cloud can reach 50-60 percent in more forests today is largely due to the or mist” (Hamilton, 1995) (photo 1). exposed conditions. Tropical montane untiring efforts of Professor Lawrence However, the definition of cloud cloud forests are known in many lan- S. Hamilton, Vice Chair of the World forests is controversial, as it is diffi- guages as unique vegetation systems Commission on Protected Areas for cult to make a useful distinction through names such as cloud forests, Mountains of IUCN – The World between true “cloud forest” and more mist forests, elfin forests, moss Conservation Union. Prof. Hamilton general montane rain forest. The forests, Nebelwald, forêt néphéliphile, has stressed the hydrological and main reasons are the scarcity of accu- matinha nebular, unmu-rin and many ecological importance of cloud rate data on the duration of cloud others. In Africa, cloud forests form forests for many years. This paper cover and the actual inputs of mois- part of the Afromontane forest type, explains the role of cloud forests in ture from interception of horizontal although the term “cloud forest” is watershed management and the con- cloud precipitation, and the tendency rarely used. In the Gulf of Aden, low- servation of biological diversity. It dis- to use the term “cloud forest” to elevation cloud forest is described as cusses some of the socio-economic describe any montane forests that are mist forest. In South East Asia, cloud issues at stake in cloud forest man- sometimes observed to have cloud forests are commonly equivalent to agement. A few examples of cloud cover. the term “upper montane rain forest”, forest conservation and sustainable During the first international although in Malaysia and the use projects are given, together with “Tropical Cloud Forest Symposium” in Philippines they are also described as an overview of major initiatives aimed Puerto Rico in 1993, organised by moss forest (Aldrich et al., 2001). at cloud forest conservation. Prof. Hamilton, the following working definition was developed by scientists and conservation professionals: The tropical montane cloud forest is com- posed of forest ecosystems of distinc- tive floristic and structured form. It typically occurs as a relatively narrow altitudinal zone where the atmospheric environment is characterised by persistent, frequent or seasonal cloud cover at the vegetation level. Enveloping cloud or wind-driven clouds influence atmospheric interac- tion through reduced solar radiation and vapour deficit, canopy wetting, and general suppression of evapo- transpiration. The net precipitation (throughfall) is significantly enhanced (beyond rainfall contribution) through direct canopy interception of cloud water (horizontal precipitation or cloud stripping) and low water use by the vegetation. In comparison with

Photo 1. View of a tepui ringed with cloud forest, Venezuela. Photo T. Hartmann. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) 22 DOSSIER MONTANE FORESTS / CONSERVATION

Table I. the form of humus and peat (his- Occurrence of cloud forests. tosols). Biodiversity in terms of tree Total number of tropical montane cloud forest (TMCF) sites per region, with the species, herbs, shrubs and epiphytes number of sites protected. can be relatively high (considering the small extent of each area) when com- Region Total number Total number Total number of TMCF pared with lowland rain forests that of countries of TMCF sites sites with protection are rich in tree species. Endemism is Asia 15 230 115 often very high. TMCF occurs on a global scale within a wide range of Africa 21 97 38 annual and seasonal rainfall regimes Mesoamerica / Caribbean 13 218 98 (i.e. 500-10 000 mm/year). There is South America 6 160 76 also significant variation in the altitu- Pacific/Oceania 4 31 n.a. dinal position of this mountain vegetation belt. For large, inland mountain World Total 59 736 > 327 systems, TMCF may typically be found between 2 000-3 500 m (Andes, Source: Aldrich et al., 1997; Chaverri, 2001; Hamilton, 1993 Ruwenzori), whereas in coastal and insular mountains this zone may lower latitude tropical moist forest, leaves. TMCF is also characterised by descend to 1 000 m (Hawaii). Under the stand characteristics generally having a high proportion of biomass exceptionally humid marine equato- include reduced tree stature and as epiphytes (bryophytes, lichens and rial conditions, a TMCF zone may increased stem density. Canopy trees filmy ferns) and a correspondingly develop on small, steep island moun- usually exhibit gnarled trunks and lower proportion of woody climbers. tains at elevations as low as 500 m or branches, dense compact crowns and Soils are wet and frequently water- even lower (Micronesia and Gau in small, thick, hard (sclerophyllous) logged, with a high organic content in Fiji) (Hamilton et al., 1993).

Map 1. Cloud forest sites and montane forest in Africa. Data source: UNEP-WCMC. Reproduction authorized by UNEP-WCMC. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) DOSSIER 23 CONSERVATION / FORÊTS DE MONTAGNE

Map 2. Cloud forest sites and montane forest in Latin America and the Pacific. Data source: UNEP-WCMC. Reproduction authorized by UNEP-WCMC.

Occurrence of cloud Importance of forests result in significant declines in overall cloud forests and dry season flows. (Brown et al., Worldwide, a total of 736 cloud 1996; Bruijnzeel, 2000; Bruijnzeel, forest sites have been identified in 59 Hydrological value Proctor, 1993; Stadtmueller, 1987). countries by the World Conservation In 2001, the Forestry Research Monitoring Centre (WCMC, 1997), While the importance of the addi- Programme of the Department for Hamilton et al. (1993) and Chaverri tional water input from cloud forests is International Development in the (2001) (table I, map 1-3). 378 sites are undisputed, it has been very difficult United Kingdom decided to fund a found in Latin America and the to quantify. In reality, little is known long-term study of the effects on water Caribbean, mainly in Venezuela (pho- about the effect on down-stream water flows and quality of land-use changes to 2), Mexico, Ecuador and Colombia. yield of cloud forest conversion to cat- in water catchment basins with signifi- In South East Asia and the Pacific- tle pasture or other land uses. cant cloud forest cover. In parallel, Oceania region, 261 sites have been However, research results indicate socio-economic research has been ini- identified, principally in Indonesia that water yields for a given amount of tiated to identify mechanisms for and Malaysia. In Africa, 97 sites have rainfall from cloud forested headwater downstream users to compensate been recorded in 21 countries. In the areas tend to be higher than stream- upstream land-managers for sustain- 1970s, it was estimated that cloud flow emanating from montane forests able watershed management. forests covered 500 000 km2, a fourth not affected by fog and low cloud. In In many parts of the world, peo- of the montane and submontane for- addition, flows from cloud forest areas ple and industries depend on the est or 11 percent of all tropical forests. seem to be more stable during periods freshwater flowing from the cloud The area covered by the remaining of low rainfall. Therefore, there is good forests (photo 3). For example, the cloud forests today is unknown reason to believe that converting cloud forests in La Tigra National Park (Bruijnzeel, 2000). cloud forests to other land uses could in Honduras sustain high-quality BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) 24 DOSSIER MONTANE FORESTS / CONSERVATION

Map 3. Cloud forest sites and montane forest in South East Asia. Data source: UNEP-WCMC. Reproduction authorized by UNEP-WCMC.

water flow throughout the year, pro- cloud forest water include Quito and Mist forests in arid and viding over 40% of their water supply Panama City (Aldrich et al., 2001). In semi-arid regions to the 850 000 people in the capital the Sierra de las Minas Biosphere city, Tegucigalpa. In Africa, the 2.5 Reserve, 63 permanent rivers drain Interception of moisture from million people in the Tanzanian capi- the area, making it Guatemala’s clouds is especially important in arid tal of Dar es Salaam rely on drinking biggest single water resource and and semi-arid regions, where water water from the Ulugura mountains providing water to the 37 industries sources are few and unreliable (pho- and for hydroelectric power from the in the semi-arid Motagua valley to 4). However, their contribution to cloud forests of the Udzungwa moun- (Brown et al., 1996). water availability for urban and rural tains. Other capitals supplied by people, livestock and crops remains unrecognised in most cases and Photo 3. needs to be further investigated. Water from Henri Pittier National Park (Venezuela) supplies the villages of Uraca, There are few practical experiences of Puerto Colombia and numerous smaller communities with freshwater. the conservation of cloud forests and Photo T. Hartmann. their management for water supplies, especially in semi-arid areas in Africa. In the arid coastal areas of Peru, Chile, Ecuador, Cap Verde and Oman with few or no trees, artificial fog col- lectors have been constructed where clouds may be intercepted. Fog col- lectors are built in the form of vertical mesh panels. The largest project to date has provided up to 11 000 litres of water per day to a village of 330 BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) DOSSIER 25 CONSERVATION / FORÊTS DE MONTAGNE

people in the arid coastal desert of northern Chile. In some areas, col- lected fog water has been used to reforest such areas to restore this valuable hydrological function (Schemenauer, Cereceda, 1994).

Cloud forest biodiversity

Cloud forests make up an essential habitat for many endemic and threatened plant and animal species. They provide a wide range of goods and services for local communities and strong cultural values are attached to them. TMCF provide a unique habitat for species such as Photo 4. tree ferns, bromeliads and many rare In arid and semi-arid areas, patches of cloud forest are even more crucial for and endemic orchids, as well as water supply to surrounding communities, especially during the dry season. Mount Kenya National Park. several important tree species. Photo T. Kohler. Economically valuable plants from cloud forest habitats include wild rel- atives of strawberries, raspberries, tus) in the Andes are specific to cloud rivers, blocking up lakes and reser- blueberries and some bean species. forest environments. They are flag- voirs. Despite this, cloud forests con- Quinine is extracted from the bark of ship species for cloud forest conser- tinue to be cleared for new farming the cinchona tree, an Ecuadorian vation and sustain many ecotourism land as population pressure grows cloud forest tree species. Much of the ventures (Aldrich et al., 2001). and existing farmland becomes knowledge on cloud forest species impoverished. Other regionally and their uses resides in the indige- important causes for cloud forest loss nous communities that have lived for Threats include: conversion to temperate veg- many years in or adjacent to cloud etable cropping in the tropics, gather- forests. Cloud forest plant species are Cattle and crops are ing wood for charcoal production, used for instance for medicines, cos- encroaching on cloud forests timber harvesting, mining, unsustain- metics, birth control, stimulants and able extraction of non-timber forest ornaments. (Aldrich et al., 2001). Over the past 20 years, cloud products (e.g. orchids and bromeli- Researchers in the Monteverde Cloud forests worldwide have been disap- ads), introduction of alien species Forest Reserve are presently investi- pearing at nearly twice the rate of and the construction of telecommuni- gating cloud forest plants that may average global deforestation. This cations installations in cloud forests yield useful medical or commercial trend has been recognised by the UN on mountain tops. chemicals for the future. Intergovernmental Forum on Forests, A biodiversity project report by which stated that “cloud forests are The impacts of climate BirdLife International showed that of particular concern” in soil and change 400 of the world’s 1 200 threatened watershed protection and in the con- bird species are associated with trop- servation of biological diversity in There is increasing evidence ical montane forests. Similarly, the environmentally critical areas that cloud forests are also threatened WWF Global 200 Priority Ecoregions (Aldrich et al., 2001). There are many by global warming and air pollution for conservation action include causes of cloud forest disappearance (photo 5). Global warming causes 90 percent of the TMCF sites known and degradation. Worldwide, the clouds to form at higher altitudes, to date. The resplendent quetzal greatest losses come from their con- resulting not only in the forest losing (Pharomachrus mocinno) of Central version to grazing land. When cloud this water input but in the extinction America is now virtually restricted to forests are cleared for timber, cattle of many plant and animal species in a few cloud forest “islands” on sepa- or crops, the loss of their “cloud strip- cloud forests that are finely adapted rate mountains. Species such as the ping” capacity diminishes the water to the prevailing climatic and soil con- mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla yields available for domestic use and ditions. The disappearance of 20 beringei) in Central/East Africa and irrigation. At the same time, erosion species of frogs and toads from the the spectacled bear (Tremarctos orna- of topsoil causes sedimentation in Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve, BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) 26 DOSSIER MONTANE FORESTS / CONSERVATION

including the endemic golden toad (Bufo periglenes), is closely corre- lated with the years when there is low mist frequency in the forest (Pounds et al., 1999). Cloud formation patterns can also be altered by deforestation in lowland areas, further adding to the stresses on these frag- ile ecosystems. It is very likely that climate change will affect the species composition and distribution of potential cloud forest locations and it may force those situated near mountain tops out of existence (Still et al., 1999). Because epiphytes, amphib- ians and other cloud forest species are highly vulnerable to changes in Photo 5. radiation, temperature and humidity, Small-scale mining and air pollution in the northern Andes of Colombia. these forests make ideal “canaries in Photo S. Hostettler. the coal-mine” to detect ecological responses to climate change (pho- Photo 6. to 6), as has been recognised by View at 1 700 m a.s.l. of cloud forest on the cliff face Hamilton of tepui Roraima, Venezuela. (1995) and others. Photo T. Hartmann. The Challenges Cloud forest conservation and sustainable use face many challenges. Awareness of the value of cloud forests needs to be raised at all levels, from local to international. In 1997, the WCMC produced a global directory of TMCFs. Whilst this data- base provides the best available information on the location and sta- tus of TMCFs, considerable work is required to develop the level of detail on a site by site basis. In particular, detail is required on protection sta- tus, biological importance, socio-economic conditions and current threats. Although detailed information exists in some cases for specific sites, it is widely scattered and often not generally available (Aldrich et al., 1997). Few development aid donors have heard of cloud forests and therefore tend to focus on biodiversity conservation in lowland rain forests. Rural poverty is still common in many developing countries, especially in the highlands, leading to great pressure in terms of forest clearing or unsustainable harvesting of a wide range of forest products. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) DOSSIER 27 CONSERVATION / FORÊTS DE MONTAGNE

Photo 7. Photo 8. Participatory planning workshop in Ecuador. Preparation of material for oil drilling near Photo S. Hostettler. Limoncocha Biological Reserve (lowland rain forest) in Ecuador. Photo S. Hostettler.

The absence of economically viable National Park management alternatives often forces local com- needs to be improved and legal pro- Conservation of munities to exploit cloud forest tection implemented. Numerous ecosystems for short-term gain and National Parks containing cloud cloud forests today discourages long-term stewardship. forests suffer from degradation and Securing livelihoods for local commu- encroachment due to a lack of nities by providing alternatives to the resources and commitment from gov- According to Chaverri (2001), conversion of cloud forest areas to ernments to ensure legal implemen- there are at least 40 ongoing conser- grazing or agricultural land use is tation. In many countries, even where vation and sustainable use projects in essential for the conservation and mining is specifically prohibited, min- cloud forest areas in Mesoamerica. sustainable management of cloud ing both on a small scale and by Since cloud forest conservation is forest. For sustainable land uses to multinational corporations has been most advanced in Mesoamerica, be acceptable, they need to be devel- continuing for years. Protected areas there are probably between 60 and oped in partnership with the local are also under constant threat from 80 projects running at this moment in communities who are meant to apply oil production (photo 8). In Ecuador, the world. In addition, assuming that them (photo 7). the government is planning to build a there is at least one ongoing project A review of the degree of recog- new pipeline for heavy crude oil. This in each country where cloud forest nition of TMCFs in National highly controversial project would occurs, and many more in countries Biodiversity Strategies and Action bisect the Mindo Nambillo Cloud such as Costa Rica, at least the same Plans (NBSAPs) was conducted in July Forest Reserve and surrounding intact number of research projects are in 2000 by UNEP-WCMC. Among the 59 forests. progress. However, these are very countries where TMCFs have been A key challenge to achieving rough estimates. identified, only 8 countries recog- sustainable management is the cre- At least four cloud forest net- nised montane forests as a conserva- ation of mechanisms to pay for envi- works have been formed during the tion priority or of high importance for ronmental services. Mechanisms past 5 years. At international level, a biodiversity (Cameroon, Kenya, need to be developed and imple- Tropical Montane Cloud Forest Rwanda, Uganda, Bolivia, Peru, Costa mented that reward communities for Initiative was formed in 1999 to Rica and the Philippines). However, maintaining the environmental serv- strengthen recognition and resources lack of political will is not the only ices provided by intact cloud forests, for cloud forest conservation around reason for this low degree of recogni- such as clean water and erosion con- the world, with an emphasis on their tion. Governments in developing trol. Both the public and private sec- role in providing freshwater (table II). countries have limited capacity and tor benefit from these environmental These networks potentially strengthen resources to produce NBSAPs and services and must therefore be conservation and management efforts reports, and the situation is exacer- involved in cloud forest conservation. by increasing knowledge and bated by the lack of awareness and In order for that to happen, a support- exchanges, raising awareness and available information on the distribu- ive policy environment with appropri- promoting cooperation on specific tion and importance of montane ate laws, institutional arrangements, projects. Progress has, however, been forests. market frameworks and information severely impeded by funding con- is needed. straints. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) 28 DOSSIER MONTANE FORESTS / CONSERVATION

Table II. There are several ways of Tropical montane cloud forest networks. approaching the conservation of cloud forests (table III). Name Objectives / approach

Awareness and Tropical Montane Cloud environmental education Forest Initiative The TMCF Initiative was established in 1999 by IUCN, WWF, UNEP- WCMC and the UNESCO International Hydrological Programme. It At regional level, the Cloudforest includes the hydrological expertise of the Free University of Alive website is raising awareness Amsterdam. The TMCF Initiative is currently developing a project about cloud forests in Mesoamerica. In proposal for the Global Environmental Facility (GEF). Honduras, Friends of Celaque National (www.unep-wcmc.org/forest/cloudforest/english/homepage.htm) Park launched a web site to help con- Mexican Cloud Forest serve Celaque Mountain and its cloud Network In 1999, PRONATURA a Mexican NGO, whose mission is to protect forest. It attracts attention to illegal and conserve Mexico’s biodiversity, initiated the Mexican Cloud clearing for coffee plantations, cattle Forest Network to establish a national network and action plan. ranching, and logging within the park Membership of this network includes over 50 members from and is meant to initiate a process NGOs, government agencies and the scientific community. which will involve local communities in (www.pronatura.org.mx) restoring degraded buffer-zones and linking the park to nearby natural areas African Cloud Forest through green corridors (www.genera- Network The Albertine Rift Conservation Society (ARCOS) in Central Africa tion.net/~derekp/celaque.html). includes member organisations from five countries. After a priority-setting workshop in Uganda in 1999, ARCOS is presently Many local environmental education developing a project proposal for conservation of montane forests programmes on cloud forests already in the Albertine Rift Valley. exist in Latin America: Volcan Mom- (www.wcmc.org.uk/arcos/projectstop.html) bacho Nature Reserve in Nicaragua, Montecristo National Park in El Cloud Forest Alive Salvador, and Guandera Reserve in The Cloud Forest Alive web site aims to enhance global Ecuador are some examples. understanding of the cloud forests of Central America. The website provides information on the impact of cloud forests on water and soil quality, climate patterns, and numerous plant and Photo 9. animal species. Cloud Forest Alive was implemented through Henri Pittier National Park, Venezuela. assistance by the Central American Commission for Environment Photo T. Hartmann. and Development under the auspices of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor initiative. (www.cloudforestalive.com)

Protected areas

Over 327 legally protected areas (Costa Rica), El Triunfo Biosphere with cloud forest have been estab- Reserve (Mexico), Sierra de las Minas lished (Aldrich et al., 1997; Biosphere Reserve (Guatemala), La Chaverri, 2001) (photo 9). However, Tigra National Park (Honduras), some of these protected areas are Volcán Mombacho Natural Reserve small remnants of once extensive (Nicaragua) and Volcán Barú National areas of habitat. Others are not big Park (Panama). A number of the enough to contribute substantially to national parks and other areas conservation, many exist only on included in the Mesoamerican paper and relatively few are suffi- Biological Corridor (MBC), such as La ciently well managed to achieve their Amistad Reserve on the Costa conservation objectives. According to Rica/Panama border, already contain the recent survey by Chaverri (2001), cloud forest. The inclusion of further the only well managed protected cloud forest sites into the MBC is cloud forest areas in Central America being promoted by IUCN and WWF are Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve offices in Mesoamerica. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) DOSSIER 29 CONSERVATION / FORÊTS DE MONTAGNE

Table III. Cloud forest conservation and sustainable use projects.

Name Approach

The Tropical Rainforest Programme of the Netherlands Committee for IUCN The funds of the Netherlands Committee for the IUCN/Tropical Rainforest Programme support projects in the field of conservation and sustainable management of tropical rainforests. Worldwide, 45 projects aimed at cloud forest conservation or sustainable management have been funded by providing small grants to local NGOs. (www.nciucn.nl)

The DGIS-WWF Tropical Forest Portfolio The DGIS-WWF Tropical Forest Portfolio provides support to two integrated conservation and development projects in Sangay National Park in Ecuador and on Mount Guiting Guiting in the Philippines, both containing important cloud forest areas. (www.panda.org/resources/publications/forest/dgis1)

Kilum-Ijim forest project, Cameroon Birdlife International is supporting this project focusing on sustainable farming systems, securing land tenure and ecological monitoring. (www.birdlife.org/people/kilum-ijim.cfm)

Sierra de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve, Mexico The Manantlán Institute of Ecology and Conservation of Biodiversity (IMECBIO) is doing research in restoration with native cloud forest species and has implemented various integrated conservation and development projects in the Sierra de Manantlán. (www.cucsur.udg.mx)

Conservation of the Andean bear in Ecuador This project, led by EcoCiencia, an Ecuadorian NGO, is focusing on surveys, sustainable management, education and communication to conserve the Andean bear and its cloud forest habitat. (www.ecociencia.org)

Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines This project is led by the University of the Philippines, Los Baños. Downstream users pay upper catchment owners to maintain and improve hydrological conditions in the catchment area by protecting the cloud forest ecosystem. Due to its success, it will be replicated in two other sites in the Philippines. (www.eepsea.org)

Eco-tourism large number of visitors needed to pro- Rica and El Salvador (Aldrich et al., vide local communities and park man- 2001; Campos, Calvo, 2000; Chaverri, There are many examples where agement with enough revenue to con- 2001). However, more work is needed (eco)-tourism is used as a tool for the serve the area and leakage of the to link successful local compensation sustainable management of cloud for- revenue back to urban areas and to schemes with national policy making, est. Best known are the National Parks, developed nations : relatively little is to achieve a fair distribution of costs but there are many smaller projects, actually spent on conservation (Cebal- and benefits and to implement effec- primarily in Central and South America, los-Lascurain, 1996). tive and efficient mechanisms to trans- that are lesser known but very promis- fer benefits from downstream to ing. These range from extremely basic Payment for upstream stakeholders. accommodation and interpretative environmental services trails through the Sierra de la Botija Sustainable agricultural cloud forest in Honduras to the very Payment for environmental serv- systems exclusive private cloud forest reserve ices preserves cloud forest ecosystems at Bosque de Paz in Costa Rica. There by compensating cloud forest man- There is increasing interest in is much potential for ecotourism to agers for the environmental services organic coffee growing to help con- support cloud forest conservation, they provide, such as a steady water serve biodiversity at the same time. especially in Africa where the concept supply and attractive tourist locations. This is an opportunity to increasingly still has to be fully explored. The main Such mechanisms exist in the associate organic coffee cultivation problems with eco-tourism are the Philippines, Ecuador, Colombia, Costa with cloud forest conservation, as has BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) 30 DOSSIER MONTANE FORESTS / CONSERVATION

Photo 10. Mount Kenya National Park. References Photo T. Kohler.

ALDRICH M., BUBB P., HOSTETTLER S., 2001. Tropical montane cloud forests. Time for action. Arborvitae. WWF, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 29 p.

ALDRICH M., BILLINGTON C., EDWARDS M., LAIDLAW R., 1997. Tropical montane cloud forests: an urgent priority for conservation. WCMC Biodiversity Bulletin n° 2. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom, Conclusion 18 p. been successfully done in Selva BROWN M.I., DE LA ROCA I., VALLEJO Negra cloud forest (Nicaragua), Sierra A., FORD G., CASEY J., AGUILAR B., de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve The importance of cloud forests HAACKER R., 1996. A valuation analy- (Mexico) and a recent project on for local communities and down- sis of the role of cloud forests in “Conservation through Market stream freshwater supplies has been watershed protection: Sierra de las Mechanisms” promoting organic cof- not been adequately addressed in Minas Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala fee growing in the cloud forest in El conservation strategies. Given the and Cusuco National Park, Honduras. Triunfo Biosphere Reserve in Mexico ecological and socio-economic fac- RARE Centre for Tropical Conserva- (www.gefweb.org). tors affecting cloud forest conservation, Philadelphia, United States of tion, there are no easy solutions to America, 134 p. A successful the problem of over-utilisation of cloud forests and the corresponding BRUINZEEL L.A., 2000. Hydrology of combination of problems of securing sustainable tropical montane cloud forests: a livelihoods. However, expertise, net- reassessment. In: Proceedings of the approaches works and project experience exist second international colloquium on and constitute an initial knowledge hydrology of the humid tropics. In Ecuador, cloud forest and base for the sustainable management Gladwell J.S. (ed.), Cathalac, Panama paramo forest is being cleared by and conservation of cloud forests. City, Panama (in press.) farmers to open new fields for potato Commitments from govern- cultivation. In the past, hundreds of ments and the donor community have BRUIJNZEEL L.A., HAMILTON L.S., hectares have been cut annually. been inadequate so far. The key chal- 2000. Decision time for cloud forests. Because soil nutrients are quickly lenge is to raise awareness of the WWF, UNESCO, IUCN, UNESCO, Paris, depleted, new fields have been importance of cloud forests for water France, 40 p. opened continuously to produce supplies and the conservation of bio- more cash income. In 1995, the “Eco- logical diversity, prompting donors, BRUIJNZEEL L.A., PROCTOR J., 1993. Papas” project in the Guandera governments, businesses, NGOs and Hydrology and biogeochemistry of Reserve began an environmental edu- local communities to take action tropical montane cloud forests: what cation and alternative agricultural before the world’s remaining cloud do we really know? In: Tropical mon- programme. It fosters an appreciation forests disappear. Cloud forests merit tane cloud forests. Proceedings of an of the value of the forest while work- special conservation action (photo international symposium. Hamilton ing towards developing economic 10). Much hope is placed in Rio +10 L.S., Juvik J.O., Scatena F.N. (ed.), activities that do not involve clear- and the International Year of the East-West Center, Honolulu, p. 25-46. cutting, such as planting fruit trees. Mountain 2002 as unique opportuni- The environmental education pro- ties to increase political, institutional, CAMPOS J.J., CALVO J., 2000. gramme stresses how the intact for- and financial commitments for con- Compensation for environmental est contributes to everyday life by crete action on sustainable cloud for- services from mountain forests. providing a clean freshwater supply est management. The second Mountains of the World – Mountain and a variety of useful plants, birds International Symposium on Tropical forests and sustainable development. and insects. Results have been posi- Montane Cloud Forests – planned to Mountain Agenda, p. 26-27. tive, and additional income has been take place in Hawaii in 2004 – will generated through eco-tourism and help in finding out how much has research activities been achieved in the past 10 years or, (www.bchip.com/equafor). which is more likely, how much still remains to be done. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 274 (4) 31

CEBALLOS-LASCURAIN H., 1996. Tourism, ecotourism and protected areas: The state of nature-based tourism around the world and guide- lines for its development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, United Kingdom, 301 p.

CHAVERRI A., 2001. Estado de la con- servación de bosques nubosos en Mesoamérica. UICN-ORMA, San José, Costa Rica. Unpublished, 66 p. ARPIN P., BETSCH J.-M., PONGE J.-F., OAB, 2001. HAMILTON L.S., 1995. A campaign for VANNIER G. ET AL., 2000. LES DEUX ENSEMBLES DE PRINCIPES, cloud forests, unique and valuable LES INVERTÉBRÉS DANS L’ÉCOSYSTÈME CRITÈRES ET INDICATEURS (PCI) DE ecosystems at risk. IUCN Focus FORESTIER. COLL. DOSSIERS FORESTIERS L’ORGANISATION AFRICAINE DU BOIS Series, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, N° 9, MNHN-ONF, 224 P. (OAB) POUR LA GESTION DURABLE DES FORÊTS TROPICALES AFRICAINES. Cambridge, United Kingdom, 20 p. ISBN 2-84207-210-3 OAB, 28 P.

HAMILTON L.S., JUVIK J.O., SCATENA Office national des forêts Organisation africaine du bois F.N. (ed.), 1993. Tropical montane Département recherche et développement (OAB) cloud forests. Proceedings of an inter- Boulevard de Constance BP 1077 77300 FONTAINEBLEAU LIBREVILLE national symposium. East-West France Gabon Center, Honolulu, 407 p. [email protected] Diversité des formes des structures des peu- POUNDS J.A., FOGDEN M.P.L., CAMP- plements, des adaptations, des niches occu- Cette publication contient l’un des princi- BELL J.H., 1999. Biological response pées, du trophisme et surtout des fonctions paux résultats d’un projet sur la gestion to climate change on a tropical moun- accomplies sont autant de facettes de la durable des forêts tropicales africaines. Elle diversité biologique des invertébrés sapro- présente deux ensembles de principes, cri- tain. Nature, 398: 611-615. phages développées dans cet ouvrage. Il tères et indicateurs (PCI) de l’Organisation s’agit d’une étude synthétique, analytique africaine du bois (OAB), dont un est à utiliser SCHEMENAUER R.S., CERECEDA P., et critique des interrelations complexes au niveau national et l’autre à celui de 1994. Fog collection’s role in water entre les invertébrés et le milieu forestier. l’unité forestière d’aménagement (UFA). planning for developing countries. Chaque chapitre analyse une situation voire Ces ensembles de PCI sont issus de résul- Natural Resources Forum, 18: 91-100. une étape évolutive de l’écosystème fores- tats de tests de terrains réalisés dans cinq tier, où transparaît une conception novatrice pays membres de l’OAB : la Côte d’Ivoire, le de l’écologie. Les invertébrés sont considé- Cameroun, le Gabon, la Centrafrique et le STADTMUELLER T., 1987. Cloud rés comme des facteurs actifs de l’évolution Ghana. Ils sont le fruit d’une étroite collabo- forests of the humid tropics: A biblio- des milieux et comme d’excellents indica- ration entre l’OAB et le Centre pour la graphic review. The United Nations teurs écologiques. L’analyse des insectes recherche forestière internationale (Cifor), University, Tokyo, Japan and CATIE, saproxylophages et leurs actions principales sous la direction du Dr Robert Nasi. Les sub- Turrialba, Costa Rica, 85 p. dans la transformation des bois morts ainsi divisions de ces ensembles couvrent les que l’étude des ravageurs de la canopée sous-indicateurs (SI), qui peuvent servir de montrent une biodiversité élevée, organisée modèle ou donner des orientations lors de STILL Ch.J., FOSTER P.N., SCHNEIDER en guildes spécialisées, avec des consé- l’élaboration des vérificateurs ou des stan- S.H. 1999. Simulating the effects of quences importantes sur le fonctionnement dards à l’échelle nationale ou de l’UFA. climate change on tropical montane de l’écosystème. La fragmentation des mas- Ces ensembles ont été mis en cohérence cloud forests. Nature, 398: 608-610. sifs, l’effet de lisière, le rôle de réservoir de avec les ensembles de PCI internationaux du faune que jouent les haies et corridors sont Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) et de WCMC, 1997. A global directory of étudiés avec un esprit de gestion de la forêt l’Organisation internationale des bois tropi- et de conservation de la diversité. L’ouvrage caux (OIBT). Ils ont été validés lors de tropical montane cloud forests. se termine par la place de l’écologiste dans réunions internationales sur les PCI tenues Aldrich M., Billington C., Edwards M., une politique de la biodiversité. Un glossaire en 2000 et 2001. Laidlaw R. (eds.). WCMC, Cambridge, détaillé et une bibliographie étendue com- Les pays membres de l’OAB disposent ainsi United Kingdom, Unpublished, 268 p. plètent l’ouvrage. d’outils pour mettre en œuvre la gestion Résumé adapté d’après l’annonce de l’édi- durable de leurs forêts. L’OAB, en collabora- teur. tion avec les autres partenaires du dévelop- pement, les assistera dans le processus d’in- ternationalisation de ces outils qui sont indispensables pour l’avenir des forêts tropicales africaines. Résumé adapté d’après l’annonce de l’édi- teur.