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3 Abstract Heikkilä Lydia Reindeer talk – Sámi reindeer herding and nature management Rovaniemi: University of Lapland 2006, 386 pp., Acta Universitatis Lapponiensis 110 Dissertation: University of Lapland ISSN: 0788-7604 ISBN: 952-484-057-X This study characterizes the central problematique between reindeer herding and modern nature management. The objects of study are the Wilderness Area Planning Projects in North Western Lapland (Finland). They are examined as cases of implementing nature management in practice adapting the global ideas of environmentalism and national objectives and interests. As a contrast surface are used corresponding cases of nature management in Western Finnmark (Norway). I inspect how the proposed institutional arrangements and argumentations related to nature management are produced and legitimized, and how reindeer herding is taken into consideration. In particular, I search for traces of environ- mentalism in the ways of constructing nature management. Environmentalism is understood as a kind of epistemological break in the principled ways of conceiving and arranging governance of nature. Related to it, I inspect how the new practices of nature management reframe the local ways of organizing use of nature, and how it is received in the local community. I approach the matter expressly from the perspective of reindeer herding, and inspect how the role and space of reindeer herding as a traditional land use form is affected. In particular, I am concerned about the relationship between the particular way of constructing nature management and the conflicts that pertain to implementing management. In theoretical terms, on the foci are the discourses and institutional practices through which nature is made manageable and managed. I depart from a functional perspective, where discourses and practices are seen mutually intertwined. The discourses are produced in the course of an actual negotiation process, and along with it have material consequences and influences. I explore the main contents of the argumentations of the two parties and seek to find out the most important argumentation principles and contextual understanding that they draw from. The target is to provide new understanding to the current management situation, and perspectives for bringing together the divergent views in practical management issues. Second target is to illuminate which aspects of the naturalized ways of thinking and organizing the institutional practices the talking back of reindeer herders’ addresses and how. In connection with it, especially three factors are brought into focus; the particular adaptation of the concept of diversified use of nature in wilderness areas, the numerous side-negotiations that are run parallel with the official negotiation agenda and partly undermine the balance of power of the negotiations, and the authority questions at large. Reindeer herders refer to the immemorial usage rights and raise a question of the principles of common use 4 and enhancing productivity of nature. As the dominating principled objectives of nature management they have contributed to promoting new uses of nature and increased average usage level. Moreover the argumentation of reindeer herders reminds that power and responsibility are inseparably intertwined and should be returned in more substantial form to immediate users. Key words: Sámi, Reindeer Herding, Nature management, Environmentalism, Naturalized way of thinking, Dominant discourse, Talking back, Apparatus 5 CONTENTS Figures........................................................................................................... 7 Preface........................................................................................................... 9 1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................. 15 2 RESEARCH PROBLEM, THEORETICAL BASES AND METHODOLOGICAL CHOICES................................................. 20 2.1 The research problem and theoretical bases ............................... 20 2.2 Defined research questions and the comprehensive research design .........................................................................................44 2.3 The research material and methods ............................................ 54 2.3.1 Research field ................................................................. 54 2.3.2 Research material............................................................ 62 2.3.3 Research methods: Research of argumentations ............ 67 2.3.4 Researcher’s subject position ......................................... 72 2.4 Previous research and relevant research contexts....................... 83 3 SITUATING REINDEER HERDING............................................ 88 3.1 What reindeer herding?............................................................... 89 3.1.1 Perspectives to the origin of reindeer herding and the Sámi.......................................................................... 94 3.1.2 Reindeer herding and land rights.................................... 96 3.2 Reindeer herding and the emerging governance ...................... 101 3.2.1 Emerging local governance .......................................... 101 3.2.2 National reindeer herding management emerges ......... 108 3.3 Reindeer herding management institutions............................... 115 3.4 Discourses of reindeer herding management............................ 127 4 NATURE MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTALISM.... 142 – The cases of Northern Lapland and Western Finnmark ................ 142 4.1 Building the institutional framework for nature management.. 143 4.1.1 Modern nature management emerges........................... 143 4.1.2 Major legislative work-ups........................................... 148 4.1.3 Categorized nature........................................................ 156 4.1.4 Central actors and division of tasks.............................. 160 4.2 The contextual comprehension of nature management and ideational links with environmentalism.................................... 165 4.2.1 The broad outline – from nature conservation to environmental concern.................................................. 166 4.2.2 The discursive practices of environmentalism ............. 172 4.2.3 Management problem ................................................... 188 6 4.3 Management of wilderness-like nature..................................... 196 4.4 The major interpretative resources of environmentalism with reference to reindeer herding management – Concern for carrying capacity and overgrazing........................ 202 5 NATURE MANAGEMENT AND REINDEER TALK .............. 206 5.1 Argumentation of the management principles.......................... 207 5.1.1 Rational management ................................................... 208 5.1.2 Production of goods and nature services ...................... 213 5.1.3 Statutory protection and sustainable use ...................... 223 5.1.4 The principle of common use ....................................... 229 5.2 Reindeer herding in the operative practices of wilderness management .............................................................................. 236 5.2.1 Characteristics of the argumentation of wilderness area management.................................................................. 249 5.2.2 The role and space of reindeer herding ........................ 267 5.3 The reindeer herders’ argumentations ...................................... 287 5.3.1 Encroachments and disturbances.................................. 292 5.3.2 The place of reindeer herding....................................... 313 5.3.3 Talking back to the management discourse.................. 320 6 DISCUSSION .................................................................................. 326 6.1 The diverse contexts ................................................................. 329 6.2 The paradoxical role and space of reindeer herding................. 337 6.3 Numerous side-negotiations...................................................... 342 6.4 Reconsidering environmentalism ............................................. 345 References ................................................................................................. 352 Appendixes................................................................................................ 382 7 FIGURES Figure 1. The research set-up: The central actors, spaces and discourses involved in nature management ............................ 28 Figure 2. Map of the research area in Northern Lapland (Finland) and Western Finnmark (Norway).................................................. 55 Figure 3. Official reindeer herding management in Finland................ 119 Figure 4. Official reindeer herding management in Norway ............... 120 Figure 5. The resource foundation (production factors) of reindeer herding .................................................................................. 136 Figure 6a. Elaborated presentations of the production factors in reindeer herding by Bjørklund & Brantenberg (1981) ......... 139 Figure 6b. Alternative presentation of the production factors by Sara (1993).................................................................................... 139 Figure 6c. Production factors represented by Paine (1994)................... 140 Figure 7. Nature management and planning authorities in Finland..... 151 Figure 8. Nature management and planning authorities in Norway .... 151