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CSIRO

DIVISION HEADQUARTERS West Entrance, Riverside Corporate Park, Delhi Road, North Ryde, Sydney. PO Box 136, North Ryde, NSW 1670 | Tel: (02) 9490 8666 | Fax: (02) 9490 8909 | www.det.csiro.au

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RENEWABLE ENERGY UTILISATION AND DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL IN OCEANIA

Restricted Investigation Report ET/IR294R

by

S D Sharma G J Duffy J H Edwards

CSIRO Energy Technology

Prepared for New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), Japan

March 2000 i

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), an administration and implementation arm of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) in Japan has contracted CSIRO Energy Technology to undertake research on actual and potential renewable energy uptake in South Pacific countries. The South Pacific countries specified by NEDO for this study are Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Republic of Fiji, Solomon Islands, Western Samoa, Republic of Vanuatu, Federated States of Micronesia, Kingdom of Tonga, Republic of Kiribati, Republic of the Marshall Islands and Republic of Nauru. The types of renewable energy to be covered in this study are Solar photo voltaic (PV), Solar thermal, Wind, Biomass, Hydro (including mini and micro hydro) and Geothermal.

As required by NEDO, this report describes the results of a survey conducted on the following aspects of renewable energy development for the above countries:

• Uptake of renewable energy (in terms of number of installations, manufacturer or installation companies, location and year of installation plant by plant basis). • Renewable energy policies and promotion programs. • Technology level of manufacture. • Non-grid and grid connected renewable energy supply areas and their population and population of non-electrified areas. • Weather data: sunlight hours, wind resource etc. • Policy on foreign investment. • Possibility of renewable energy introduction if it is not introduced to date, or promotion if it has already been introduced (focus on these issues especially for South Pacific Countries).

Based on the information contained in this report the following recommendations can be made:

With their relatively large populations and stable governments Australia and New Zealand represent the two most important markets for renewable energy technologies in the South Pacific region. Both currently utilise substantial quantities of renewable energy and have well-developed programs in place to encourage its further uptake. In order to achieve their respective carbon dioxide reduction targets under the Kyoto agreement, further investment in the development of new and existing renewable energy technologies should be required. However, while both Australia and New Zealand have a well-developed manufacturing industry, they often lack the technological or capital resources to invest in the high risk, high cost development programs required. There should therefore be significant opportunities for Japanese organisations with their technological and manufacturing base to collaborate with appropriate local organisations in renewable energy projects to the benefit of both Japan and Australia or New Zealand.

Apart from Papua New Guinea, other South Pacific countries have a much smaller population than Australia and New Zealand, and therefore represent a much smaller market for renewable energy systems. As recent events in Fiji and the Solomon Islands have shown, their governmental systems can quickly become unstable making investment in these markets a higher risk undertaking. The nature of the communities in these countries with their less developed electricity grids means that much of the market will be for smaller scale, distributed energy power generation systems. There is obviously an opportunity for Japanese companies to sell renewable technologies directly into these markets. Collaboration with local organisations is recommended as a way of facilitating entry into such markets. However, the very small or poorly developed manufacturing base in these countries compared to Australia and New Zealand means that it may be difficultto find local companies who can play a major role in any developmental programs in these countries. Interactions may well have to be with government organisations, possibly through one of the funding bodies such as the World Bank, Asian Development Bank or various UNDP programs. Again, these markets represent a possible avenue for collaboration between Japanese and Australian/New Zealand organisations, particularly in countries that are also members of the Commonwealth of Nations.

Apart from Australia and New Zealand, there is a lack of detailed information on the renewable energy resources in South Pacific countries. Data and information provided in this report are based on the latest available in the public domain. It is Ill

clear from this study that the energy problems and opportunities are specific to each country, and each has to be considered in its own right. While the overall market size in these countries may not be large, there may be significant niche opportunities. A detailed survey of renewable energy resources and the market for renewable technologies is required before undertaking any major programs in these countries. Such databases need to be regularly updated.

• Papua New Guinea is the only other country apart from Australia and New Zealand that has significant resources of natural gas. Given that it also has good insolation levels there may well be significant opportunities for the development of some form of solar-fossil energy hybrid system that would suit its electricity generation and other energy needs

• Fiji has good potential for hydro, wind, solar and biomass power generation, and the Fiji DOE has been actively involved in evaluating this potential. Having the fourth largest population among the South Pacific countries it would represent a significant market for renewable technologies once the current political instabilities have been resolved. iv

CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. ENERGY BALANCE AND UPTAKE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY WITHIN VARIOUS COUNTRIES 3 2.1 Hydropower 3 2.2 Biomass 4 2.3 Solar 7 2.4 Wind 9 2.5 Geothermal 11 2.6 Tidal, Wave and Ocean Thermal 12 3. RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICY AND PROMOTION PROGRAMS 14 4. MANUFACTURING CAPABILITIES FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES 23 5. GRID CONNECTED RENEWABLE ENERGY SUPPLIES 26 5.1 Non-Grid Connected Areas 29 6. WEATHER DATA 33 6.1 Sunshine 33 6.2 Wind 37 6.3 Rainfall 40 7. RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL 43 7.1 Wind 43 7.2 Hydro 45 7.3 Solar 47 7.4 Biomass 47 7.5 Wave 50 7.6 Tidal 53 7.7 Geothermal 54 7.8 Ocean Thermal 55 7.9 Hybrid Power System 56 8. POLICY ON FOREIGN INVESTMENT 58 8.1 Australia 58 8.2 New Zealand 60 8.3 Other Pacifc Countries 64 9. POSSIBILITY OF RENEWABLE ENERGY INTRODUCTION 70 V

10. RECOMMENDATIONS 72 11. REFERENCES 74 12. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 78 13. APPENDICES (A to F) 79 VI

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Hydropower: Capability (Dec 1996) 3 Table 2 Hydropower: Status of Development at December 1996 (All 4 Schemes) Table 3 Utilisation of Biomass Derived Fuels (other than fuel wood) 5 Table 4 Geothermal Energy: Electricity Generation and Direct Use at 12 End-1996 Table 5 Household connection to green power schemes - March 1999 17 Table 6 Qualitative Assessment of Level of Renewable Energy 23 Manufacturing Technology Table 7 Average monthly insulation (kWh/m2/day) 34 Table 8 Potential wind farm sites and annual power outputs in New 38 Zealand Table 9 Average monthly wind data for the South Pacific countries 39 (m/s) Table 10 Average rainfall (mm) 41 Table 11 Potential Wind Farm Sites and Annual Power Outputs of New 44 Zealand Table 12 Biomass - Forests and Fuel wood Production in 1996 48 Table 13 Woody biomass resource supply and delivered fuel cost in 49 New Zealand Table 14 Biogas Energy potential from New Zealand Waste 49 Table 15 Estimates of waste streams in Nauru 50 Table A1 a Energy Balance of Australia 80 Table A1 b Energy Balance of New Zealand 81 Table A1c Energy Balance of Papua New Guinea 82 Table Aid Energy Balance of Fiji 83 Table A1 e Energy Balance of Solomon Islands 84 Table A1f Energy Balance of Western Samoa 85 Table A1 g Energy Balance of Republic of Vanuatu 86 Table A1 h Energy Balance of Kingdom of Tonga 87 Table A1 i Energy Balance of Republic of Kiribati 88 Table A1j Energy balance of Republic of Nauru 89 Table A2 Uptake of Renewable Energy and Fossil Energy 90 Table A3 Comprehensive Database of All Renewable Energy 91 Generators in Australia Table A4 Comprehensive Database of All Renewable Energy 100 Generators in New Zealand Table A5a Solar Hot Water Pilot Systems in Fiji 103 Table A5b GovernmentSponsored PV Installations in Fiji 104 Table A5c Rural Electrification Units (REU) Installed in Fiji 106 Table A5d DOE (Fiji) Pilot Projects in Fiji 107 Table B1 Fijian DOE’s corporate plan on energy 109 Table C1 Regional Population in New Zealand 112 Table E1 Proposed Renewable Energy Plants in Australia 128 Table E2 Potential Small Hydro Schemes (1 to 10 MW) in New Zealand 132 Table F1 Economic Features of South Pacific Countries 141 Table F2 Summary of Selected Incentives Provided to Foreign 142 Investment VII

Table F3 Limitations on Foreign Investors 143 Table F4 Forum Island Countries - Examples of Legislation Relating to 144 Control of Foreign Investment Table F5 Forum Island Countries - Review and Approval Mechanisms 145 for Foreign Investment Proposals Table F6 Forum Island Countries - Summary of Controls Relating to 146 Competition Policy and Pricing Controls. Table F7 Forum Island Countries - Summary of Labor Market 147 Regulations Table F8 Forum Island Countries - Summary of Taxation Situation 148

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Wind Rose 37 Figure 2 Deep water wave estimate around New Zealand 52 Figure 3 Global sites for tidal power development 53 Figure C1 Electricity grid connection in Australia 113 Figure C2 Location of National Grid in New Zealand 114 Figure C3 Population Distribution in Australia (1998) 115 Figure D1 Wind map of Australia 117 Figure D2 Wind map of Australia 118 Figure D3 Wind map of Australia 119 Figure D4 Wind map of Australia 120 Figure D5 Wind map of Australia 121 Figure D6 Wind map of Australia 122 Figure D7 Wind map of Australia 123 Figure D8 Wind map of Australia 124 Figure D9 Isovent map of annual average wind speed (m/s) at 10 m 125 above ground level in New Zealand Figure D10 Rainfall in Australia 126 Figure E1 Global distribution of deep water wave power resources 138 Figure E2 Potential wave site areas in New Zealand(shaded areas 139 1

1. INTRODUCTION

The New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), an administration and implementation arm of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) in Japan has contracted CSIRO Energy Technology to undertake a survey of actual and potential renewable energy uptake in South Pacific countries. The South Pacific countries specified by NEDO for this study are Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Republic of Fiji, Solomon Islands, Western Samoa, Republic of Vanuatu, Federated States of Micronesia, Kingdom of Tonga, Republic of Kiribati, Republic of the Marshall Islands and Republic of Nauru. The types of renewable energy to be covered in this study are solar photovoltaic (PV), solar thermal, wind, biomass, hydro (including mini- and micro-hydro) and geothermal.

NEDO has requested that the survey cover the following aspects relating to renewable energy in these countries:

• Uptake of renewable energy (in terms of number of installations, manufacturing or installation companies, location and year of installation on a plant by plant basis). • Renewable energy policies and promotion programs. • Level of manufacture of renewable energy technologies. • Non-grid and grid connected renewable energy supply areas (and their populations) and populations not serviced by electricity. • Weather data: sunlight hours, wind resource, rainfall. • Policy on foreign investment. • Possibility of renewable energy introduction if it is not introduced to date, or further promotion if it has already been introduced • Recommendation to NEDO regarding potential for some cooperative international or global environmentally sustainable energy project, and opportunities for Japanese investment. • Creation of a comprehensive database with respect to renewable energy capacity, manufacturer, operator, location and year of installation (plant by plant basis). 2

This survey involved a search of relevant literature in the public domain, as well as contacting of respective renewable energy agencies or authorities in each country. Embassies and commercial attaches in Australia were also contacted, as well as manufacturing or operating companies associated with renewable energy in the various countries. It should be noted that the information on Fiji and the Solomon Islands was gathered prior to the current political instabilities in these countries. 3

2. ENERGY BALANCE AND UPTAKE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY WITHIN VARIOUS COUNTRIES

Energy balances for all countries except Micronesia and the Marshall Islands are given in Tables A1a to A1j in Appendix A (DOE, 2000). No such data could be found for Micronesia or the Marshall Islands. Except for Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Fiji and Western Samoa, the main energy source for electricity generation is diesel fuel and the use of renewable energy sources for power generation is almost negligible. Table A2 in Appendix A shows the total installed generating capacity and the percentage of power supplied by various energy sources, including renewable energy, for each country. The total power generation capacity of the various fossil energy and renewable energy power generation plants is given in Table A1 in Appendix A.

2.1 Hydropower

Table 1 shows the gross theoretical, technically exploitable and economically exploitable capabilities of various countries. As shown in Table 2 the existing hydropower capacity in Australia is around 7000 MW (WEC, 2000).

Table 1 - Hydropower Capability (Dec 1996)

Country Gross Theoretical Technically Economically Capability Exploitable Exploitable (TWh/y) Capability (TWh/y) Capability (TWh/y) Australia 264 >30 30 New Zealand 152 77 40 Papua New Guinea 175 123 37 Republic of Fiji 1 1 1 Solomon Islands 1 1 - Western Samoa 0.025 0.025 0.025 Republic of Vanuatu - - -

States of Micronesia - - - Kingdom of Tonga - - -

Republic of Kiribati - - -

Republic of the Marshall Islands - - -

Republic of Nauru - - -

In New Zealand the current installed capacity for large hydro power schemes (size greater than 10 MW) is just under 5000 MW, with an additional potential resource of 4

about 10000 MW. For small hydropower systems of less than 10 MW, the current installed capacity is 126 MW, with an estimated additional potential resource of about 930 MW.

Table 2 - Status of Hydropower Development at December 1996 (All Schemes)

In Operation Under Construction Planned

Actual Probable Probable

Country Capacity, generation Capacity, annual Capacity, annual

MW in 1996, MW generation, MW generation,

GWh GWh GWh

Australia 7466 15212 - - - -

New Zealand 5120 25750 175 645 - -

Papua New Guinea 155 570

Republic of Fiji 80 385 0 0 0 0

Solomon Island 0 0 0 0 0 0

Western Samoa 6 25 0 0 0 0

2.2 Biomass

Details of biomass based power plants in Australia (AGSO, 2000) are given in Table A3 in Appendix A. A summary of biomass utilisation in Australia and New Zealand is given in Table 3.

Major users for woody biomass in New Zealand are households and the forest industry. Data on use by the domestic sector are particularly limited. A number of the energy-use analyses either ignore firewood or group its use with coal. However, firewood is estimated to supply some 4 to 7 PJ/y out of a total energy consumption by the domestic sector of around 42 PJ/y. Estimates of energy supply from wood and black liquor range up to 22 PJ/y. The bulk of woody biomass is currently used within the timber processing industry, either directlyto provide process heat or through conversion to electricity or both using cogeneration systems. The total energy consumption for the industry is at present around 53 PJ/y. The largest single user is the chemical pulping industry where regeneration of the pulping chemical involves 5

burning of lignin contained in black liquors. The New Zealand forest processing industry is thus around 40% energy self-sufficient (EECA/CAE, 1996).

Table 3 - Utilisation of Biomass Derived Fuels (other than fuel wood) [WEC, 2000] Australia Municipal Solid Waste Electricity generation capacity (kW) 71900 (MSW) Electricity generation (TJ) 3500 Sugar Cane Bagasse Quantity of raw material available (million 9.4 (SCB) tonnes) Direct use from burning (TJ) 90300 Wood Residue Quantity of raw material available (million 7.0 tonnes) Direct use from burning (TJ) 109700 Crop Residues - sugar Ethanol production (TJ) 300 molasses, starch Sewage Gas Electricity generation capacity (kW) 7450 Electricity generation (TJ) 300

New Zealand Wood Residues Electricity generation capacity (kW) 41320 Electricity generation (TJ) 1210 Various - biogas Electricity generation capacity (kW) 19950 Electricity generation (TJ) 730

Bioenergy use in the New Zealand timber products industry includes heat raising, steam production and electricity generation. A survey of heat and steam production in the industry indicates that individual plants have installed capacities in the range 2 to 22 MW output (EECA/CAE, 1996).

As shown in Table A4 in Appendix A, there is only one landfill gas fuelled electricity plant that can also be considered as bioenergy/biomass plant. It is located in Greenmount, New Zealand (MCo, 2000).

Fiji’s Navakawau Co-generation Steam Plant: The Navakawau Co-generation Steam Plant has been used to produce electricity in the Navakawau village for more than a decade. However, relocation of this plant had been planned for the year 1999. DOE (Fiji) has funded a consultant (Kingston Morrison) to determine a viable site. This consultancy work had been completed in February 1999. Lakemba in Fiji was 6

identified as the site for the relocation. However, the relocation has been postponed due to budget cuts in year 2000 and the exact date for the relocation has not been decided (Prasad, 2000).

Fiji’s Pilot Biogas Project: Biogas can be produced through the anaerobic digestion of rural and urban refuse such as human and animal excreta, agricultural waste, urban effluents, and household waste. In 1996, DOE (Fiji) in collaboration with MAFF embarked on pilot biogas project in Fiji. In late 1996 to early 1997 period, DOE (Fiji) successfully installed a 15.8 m3 biogas plant at Hari Ram Lakhan ’s dairy farm in Waidalice, Tailevu. The plant processes cow dung in a biodigestor (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999).

Two similar pilot scale projects were also completed in 1996, in Waila (Nausori) and Natabua (Lautoka) operating on piggery wastes. Further such projects were scheduled for completion in 1999. However, details are not available.

DOE (Fiji) is currently monitoring gas production (volumes) at biogas sites in Waila and Waidalice, and have also been involved in the preparation of a biogas plant construction manual (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999).

Fiji’s Coconut Oil Project: Coconut palms are very important to the people of the South Pacific. They provide a vital source of food, shelter, energy and income for many communities. Coconut palm is a long-lived and sustainable resource in this marine atoll environment (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999).

Recently there has been an enormous interest in alternative uses of coconut oil in Fiji. There is a potential for its use as a substitute for diesel fuel in electricity generation.

In 1997, DOE (Fiji) in collaboration with the Pacific Community embarked on a coconut oil for energy project based on the Island of Taveuni. CIRAD (Centre de Cooperation Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Developpement, France), SPC (South Pacific Commission), Fiji Coconut Board and DOE (Fiji) undertook a feasibility study in April 1999. This project, jointly funded by the SPC 7 and the Japanese government, started in September 1999 (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999).

Other South Pacific Countries: Burning of firewood for cooking and heating is common in rural areas of other South Pacific countries. However, detailed statistics are not available for these countries.

2.3 Solar

The use of grid connected PV systems is rapidly growing in Australia, as some home owners install their own systems and electricity distributors offer customers “green electricity” generated by renewable energy sources. EnergyAustralia is at forefront of these developments with their 200kW PV plant operating near Singleton in NSW. A 665 kW solar PV system has been installed in the Olympic village at Sydney (for further details see Table E1 in Appendix E). Another 20 kW grid connected PV system currently operates at Kalbarri in Western Australia (UNSW, 2000). Details of other solar systems in Australia and New Zealand are given in Table A3 and Table A4, respectively, in Appendix A.

Some 250,000 domestic solar water heaters are in use in Australia, contributing some 2.3 PJ to Australia's primary energy demand. About 40,000 units are produced each year, of which 40% are exported (WEC, 2000).

The use of passive solar design principles in housing is also increasing as low-cost passive designs are developed. Passive solar can readily meet 50% and even as much as 90% of normal household space heating needs, although opportunities to cost-effectively improve the energy efficiency of existing residential buildings are more limited.

Solar power is already being used extensively in small-scale applications in rural areas not connected to the electricity grid. With electricity supply costs anywhere from three to twenty times those in metropolitan areas, remote areas are a potentially attractive market for the introduction of solar systems. There are more 8

than 10000 households and 300 communities throughout Australia that generate their own electricity, mostly using diesel generators (WEC, 2000).

The installed capacity of photovoltaics in Australia is about 13 MW (1998) and has been growing by about 2 MW per annum. Almost two-thirds of this capacity is dedicated to remote applications including telecommunications and navigational aids. About 25% are in domestic off-grid applications, and about 10% in water pumping.

In New Zealand, the rate installation rate of domestic solar water heaters in 1995 was estimated around 700 -1000 heaters per year with an average growth rate over five years of about 14%. Nelson Public Library in New Zealand is a passive solar design, which uses 40% less energy than the normal for other comparable buildings (EECA/CAE, 1996).

The total installed PV capacity in New Zealand is around 200 kW with approximately 75 kW installed in the last three years alone. A growth rate of over 15% for the next few years is anticipated (EECA/CAE, 1996).

The details of solar hot water systems and PV installations in the Government buildings, houses, streets or public places in Fiji are given in Tables A5a and A5b in Appendix A (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999. No capacity data is available for these systems. The Rural Electrification Unit (REU) as part of their electrification program funded the PV projects shown in Table A5c in Appendix A, with the consumers paying only 10% of the capital cost.

In Kiribati around 93 kW of power is generated from PV systems installed mainly in rural areas. BP Solar, Hoxan, Arco, Siemens, Showa, Shell and Kyocera have manufactured these systems. There is no central PV power generation plant, and the systems are installed mainly on houses, social and health amenities (Kaiea, 2000).

In the other South Pacific countries the usage of solar energy systems has not been reported. 9

2.4 Wind

Details of wind energy based power plants in Australia and New Zealand (AGSO, 2000) are given in Appendix A in Table A3 and Table A4, respectively. Australia has some high quality wind resources in coastal regions of western and southern Australia, particularly in Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia. Current installed capacity is about 4.5 MW (WEC, 2000).

The Ten Mile Lagoon wind farm at Esperance, Western Australia, has nineVesta 225 kW wind turbines with a total output of 2.025 MW. Electricity generation costs over the life of the wind farm are estimated at A$ 0.08/kWh. The Salmon Beach wind farm, the precursor to Ten Mile Lagoon, consists of six 60 kW Westwind turbines, and is now in its tenth year of operation. In addition, a number of small turbines associated with various domestic remote area power supply systems (WEC, 2000) include: • a 150 kW wind turbine at Coober Pedy in South Australia • a 150 kW unit at Malabar in Sydney, New South Wales, and a 600 kW unit at Kooragang Island near Newcastle • two 225 kW turbines on Thursday Island in Queensland • a 30 kW unit in Perth, Western Australia • two 50 kW turbines on Flinders Island and three 225 kW units on King Island, off the coast of Tasmania

A 5MW wind farm was commissioned near Crookwell in NSW Southern Highlands in August 1998. Consisting of eight wind turbines, the wind farm is the largest in Australia. This wind farm is a joint initiative by Pacific Power and Great Southern Energy. The wind farm is expected to produce approximately 10,000 megawatt- hours of electricity per annum (SEDA, 2000).

Victoria has planned a 20 MW wind farm at Cape Bridgewater, consisting of thirty 600 kW turbines, that will be operational post 2000. 10

The largest single grid-connected wind turbine in NSW at present is the 600kW unit installed on Kooragang Island near Newcastle. The Wind Turbine Generator (WTG) consists of a 50m tower, on top of which a nacelle holds the generator with its three 22m blades. This wind turbine, owned by EnergyAustralia, was installed in November 1997. A smaller 150kW wind turbine is situated on the coast near Malabar in Sydney (SEDA, 2000).

Pacific Power is also involved in another wind farm with Advance Energy, proposed for construction at Blayney in the Central West of NSW (SEDA, 2000).

In New Zealand several units <10kW have been installed by individuals, mainly in remote areas, and a single 225 kW unit, installed by ENCZ in Wellington, has been operating successfully for the past three years (EECA/CAE, 1996). The 3.5 MW wind farm development by Wairarapa Electricity, consisting of seven 500 kW Enercon turbines manufactured in Germany, has been generating power since early June 1996.

In addition, a joint venture between Central Power and Merrill International has obtained planning consents for a 60 MW site on the Tararua ranges, where TrustPower is currently operating a 31.7 MW wind farm. TrustPower have plans to expand their capacity to 60 MW.

Thus development of wind farms in New Zealand over the last decade has progressed from small turbines in the early 1990s to 32 MW farms at present, with the prospect for at least 60 MW farms in the near future. It is not possible to accurately predict the rate of growth of wind power in New Zealand. Wind power meets only 0.3% of the electricity demand in New Zealand at present. However, they have a target of generating 10% of total power demand from wind by 2020 (EECA/CAE, 1996).

Apart from Australia and New Zealand there is no wind energy based electricity generation reported for the other South Pacific countries. 11

2.5 Geothermal

Australia: Australia has a very limited potential for geothermal energy, and currently there are no plants for electricity generation or direct use. Australia ’s best resources of conventional geothermal energy are located in the Great Artesian Basin region of central Australia where there are many bores which discharge water at high enough temperatures (above 80°C) to operate a heat engine. Although these resources are not appropriate for large-scale electricity generation, they can be used to generate electricity for remote homesteads and communities in this area. Examples include a district heating system at Portland (Victoria), a geothermal well providing hot water for paper manufacture in Traralgon (Victoria), power production (20 kWe binary cycle) from hot water aquifers at Mulka station (South Australia), and a binary plant (150 kWe) at Birdsville (Queensland).

Geothermal energy is also available from ‘hot dry rocks’ (HDR) buried several kilometres below the earth ’s surface. Recent studies of the prospects for HDR in Australia have established that a very significant resource exists, particularly in eastern Australia. Moreover, the economics of energy extraction based on HDR in Australia appear to be favorable, owing to a very advantageous combination of geological factors: high rate of heat generation in the crust, low-conductivity sedimentary rocks which retain the heat, and horizontally oriented HDR reservoirs which provide the cheapest drilling access. Given the scale of the engineering required, the technology is likely to be most appropriate for grid-connected applications.

New Zealand: New Zealand, on the other hand, has the largest number of geothermal based power generation plants in the South Pacific (WEC, 2000). There is no reported use of geothermal energy usage in the rest of the South Pacific countries.

New Zealand possesses seven major high-enthalpy fields, as well as a large number of other geothermal features (WEC, 2000). The first geothermal power plant came into operation at Wairakei, north of Lake Taupo in the North Island, in November 1958, with an initial capacity of 69 MWe. The second stage of the development, 12 which added a further 123 MWe of generation capacity, began operation in October 1963. Wairakei was the second geothermal power station to be built in the world and the first to tap a hot pressurized water resource. Owing to an initial very rapid run­ down in field pressure, the maximum output achieved from the station was 173 MWe. In 1983 all high-pressure turbine/generator units (35 MWe) were decommissioned, due to the decline in high-pressure steam output from the field. The current installed capacity of Wairakei is 157 MWe. The annual load factor of the station is consistently between 90% to 95%. By the end of 1994, other geothermal power plants had been built at Ohaaki (114 MWe) and Kawerau (16 MWe). All three fields are in Taupo volcanic zone.

A summary of geothermal energy in Australia and New Zealand is given in Table 4 (WEC, 2000) and the details of New Zealand ’s geothermal energy plants are given in Table A4 in Appendix A (MCo, 2000).

Table 4 - Geothermal Energy: Electricity Generation and Direct Use at End- 1996

Country Electricity general tion Direct use Installed Annual Annual Installed Annual Annual capacity output load capacity output load (MWe) (GWh) factor (MWe) (GWh) factor Australia 0.17 Not 0.57 11 29 0.30 available New Zealand 258 2091 0.92 264 1837 0.79

2.6 Tidal, Wave, Ocean Thermal

There is no reported use of tidal energy in any South Pacific countries. However, potential for tidal energy resources have been identified in Australia and New Zealand (WEC, 2000).

In Australia, a tidal energy project under active consideration involves the establishment of a 48 MW tidal power plant near Derby in Western Australia (WEC, 2000). In New Zealand it is unlikely that tidal and wave powered electricity generation will become commercial before 2005 (EECA/CAE, 1996). 13

The Fiji group of islands has been the subject of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) studies in the UK and in Japan (WEC, 2000). In 1982 the UK Department of Industry and relevant companies began work on the development of a floating 10 MW closed-cycle demonstration plant to be installed in the Caribbean or Pacific (WEC, 2000). The preferred site was Vanua Levu in Fiji. In Japan an OTEC industrial grouping carried out conceptual design work on an integrated Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion/Deep Ocean Water Applications (OTEC/DOWA) of land-based plant have been considered for the Fiji island of Viti Levu and also in Kiribati (WEC, 2000). Neither study has progressed to the construction stage. In the Marshall Islands, an evaluation of a 5-10 MW OTEC plant was carried out with US government funds, but no project has resulted (WEC, 2000). In 1981, the Tokyo Electric Power Company built a 100 kW shore-based, closed-cycle pilot plant on the island of Nauru. The plant achieved a net output of 31.5 kWe during continuous operating tests (WEC, 2000). 14

3. RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICY AND PROMOTION PROGRAM

Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and Fiji have detailed policies and programs regarding renewable energy as given below:

Australia: On 20 November 1997, the Prime Minister announced a package of measures designed to address climate change, including measures aimed at reducing the impact of the energy sector on the environment in a document called “Safeguarding Our Future: Australia's Response to Climate Change ”. On 26 November 1998, the National Greenhouse Strategy was launched to provide the framework for Australia's domestic response to greenhouse commitments (ABS, 2000). On the supply side, these include standards to improve the efficiency of fossil fuel conversion, and actions to encourage the development of renewable energy. On the demand side, initiatives include an industry program on energy efficiency and best practice, along with energy performance codes for housing and commercial buildings.

Perhaps the most important initiative is the 2% renewable energy target. The renewable energy initiative involves a mandatory target for electricity retailers and large electricity purchasers to source an additional 2% of their electricity from renewable energy sources by 2010. This is equivalent to an extra 9,500 GWh per annum of electricity generated from renewable energy. In 1996-97 it was estimated that the share of renewable energy in national electricity production was about 10%, ranging from less than 1% in the Northern Territory to over 99% in Tasmania. A large proportion of Australia ’s current renewable energy generation is derived from large- scale hydroelectric power. However, little, if any scope exists for increased generation from this source (ABS, 2000).

For consumers, Green power schemes represent the first convenient means by which they can exercise choice over the source of their electricity and support the development of renewable energy. Green power schemes offer electricity customers the opportunity to support grid-connected renewable energy systems. Renewable power sources include solar, wind and hydropower, as well as energy from landfill gas. Table 5 presents information on the extent to which Australian households are 15 connected to Green power schemes. A total of 228,000 households reported being connected to a Green power scheme in March 1999. This represented just over 3% of Australian households. Some 72% of Green power connected households were from Tasmania, where almost all electricity is generated from hydropower. All other States had connection rates of 1.5% or lower. This relatively low uptake is likely to be significantly affected by the low level of consumer awareness. Almost 80% of households not connected to Green power reported that they were not aware of the scheme.

Despite low consumer awareness, Australian Green power schemes are proliferating and Australia is increasingly cited as an international leader in this field (ABS, 2000). Since the NSW Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA) established its Green power accreditation in April 1997, at least ten electricity retailers have launched Green power products. Existing grid-connected sources available to Green power retailers in 1996 totaled 91 MW, of which 79 MW was hydro. New sources developed between 1997 and 1998 amounted to 25MW, of which none were new hydro installations. The scheme has led to significant development of non-hydro renewable energy installations (for example, a 50kW solar photovoltaic system at the Western Plains Zoo in Dubbo).

The Australian Greenhouse Office is the lead Commonwealth agency on greenhouse matters, and has responsibility for the delivery of renewable energy industry programs: In his 1997 statement, the Prime Minister announced a $180 million package of measures designed to improve the performance of Australia ’s highly competitive energy-dependent sectors while also stimulating new sectors such as renewable energy (AGO, 1997). Electricity retailers are required to source an additional 2% of the electricity supplied to the market from renewable resources by 2010.

More than $60 million has been provided over five years for renewable energy industry development activities, including the Renewable Energy Showcase, the Renewable Energy Commercialization Program, and the Renewable Energy Equity Fund. 16

In May 1999 the Prime Minister announced a package of new major environmental initiatives, Measures for a Better Environment, in association with the Government5 s goods and services taxation reforms. A key element of this package is the Greenhouse Gas Abatement Program (GGAP). This program will provide $400 million over four years to assist Australia further in meeting its commitments under the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. A call for proposals through the Australian Greenhouse office is expected to be made by the end June 2000.

There are several schemes offered by various states, which offer substantial discounts on installation of solar and heat pump water heaters, grid connected rooftop PV systems and smart showerheads. These schemes (SEDA, 2000) are implemented through the programs such as:

• The Energy Smart Homes Program for Councils that helps councils to implement an energy efficient housing policy in their local area to encourage residents and ratepayers to adopt energy-efficient technologies in their homes. • The Community Housing Energy Program that assists public and community housing managers to install energy and water savings devices in the homes they manage. • The Energy Smart Government Program that helps government agencies to undertake energy saving measures and reduce their energy consumption by 25% by 2005. • Energy Star program that rates office and electrical equipment to save thousands of tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions and reduce operating costs. • Government Agencies purchasing Green Power, just like any other home or business.

In NSW the Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA) promotes the development of wind energy by working with independent power producers to develop wind farms, assessing the wind potential of various sites in NSW, and facilitating the exchange of information about wind energy resources and technology 17

Table 5 - Household Connection to Green Power Schemes - March 1999

NSW I Vic. QLD SA I WA Tas. I NT* I ACT Aust.

Thousands

Connected 24.9 6.9 19 1.8 10.4 164.1 0.2 0.8 228.1

Not 2116.0 1591.8 1191.8 563.4 664.6 12.8 46.9 111.1 6299.2 connected Don’t know 243.6 141.9 121.1 40.3 40.2 9.6 5.1 6.1 607.8 Total 2385.4 1740.6 1331.9 605.5 715.2 186.4 52.2 118 7135.2

Percent

Connected 1 0.4 1.4 0.3 1.5 88.0 0.4 0.7 3.2

Not 88.7 91.4 89.5 93.1 92.9 6.8 89.9 94.2 88.3 connected Don’t know 10.2 8.2 8.2 6.7 56.6 5.1 9.7 5.1 8.5 * Refers to mainly urban areas only

New Zealand: The New Zealand Government’s policy on renewable energy is outlined in the Renewable Energy: Framework Policy Statement, June 1993, which builds on the broader Energy Policy Framework, 30 June 1992 (EECA/CAE, 1996).

The government’s renewable energy policy objective is to facilitate the development of cost-effective renewable energy consistent with the government’s Energy Policy Framework

The government’s overall policy for the supply of energy is directed at ensuring the continuing availability of energy services at the lowest cost to the economy as a whole, consistent with sustainable development.

These policy objectives are aimed at ensuring that new developments provide:

• low-cost energy, • energy security, • energy services accessible to all members of New Zealand society • sustainable energy supply • minimal adverse environmental effects. 18

Over recent years, reforms in a variety of areas have served to improve the environment for the development of new renewable energy supplies. The following actions were important in this respect:

• The introduction of a competitive environment for energy supply through the Energy Companies Act 1992, the Gas Act 1992 and other electricity reform measures. These reforms continue to improve access to transmission facilities, improve pricing signals and introduce competitive incentives in the energy sector. In addition, the market dominance of the Electricity Corporation of New Zealand Limited (ECNZ) has recently been addressed by splitting it into two state-owned enterprises and imposing constraints such as restricting ECNZ to developing up to 50% of new generation in New Zealand. Renewable energy is exempt from this cap.

• The enactment of the Resources Management Act 1991, which promotes the sustainable management of natural and physical resources and is expected to lead to a greater uptake of renewable energy.

• The establishment of the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority (EECA) in 1992. This organization promotes the uptake of energy efficiency, conservation and renewable energy through the dissemination of information on potential sources and their application. The focus on renewable energy includes distribution of information on the economic, social and environmental impacts and the identification of further research priorities for renewable energy.

• The implementation of a carbon dioxide reduction program, which incorporates specific measures to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide within New Zealand ’s obligation under the Framework Convention on Climate Change to stabilize its carbon dioxide emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000. In addition, there is an ongoing examination of policy instruments available to assist New Zealand reduce carbon dioxide emissions.

Outcomes of these initiatives have included:

Removal of import duty on wind turbines 19

• Dissemination of information on potential renewable energy sources and their applications, including information on their economic, social and environmental impacts

• Identification of strategic priorities for research activities relating to renewable energy

• Provision of a series of guidelines published by EECA for developers and local authorities to ease the planing consent process for new renewable energy developments.

In addition, the energy market reforms have created opportunities for new forms of energy supply by enabling energy users to generate their own electricity, and by providing suppliers with the option of generating power for their customers who are connected the national grid. This opportunity has been followed up by power companies such as Wairarapa Electricity, EnergyDirect and Central Power which are either already supplying electricity from their wind farms or have sought resource consent to do so.

Papua New Guinea: The Department of Petroleum and Energy in Papua New Guinea is responsible for developing and implementing energy policies and programs. The Department (DPE, 2000): • Seeks to develop the petroleum and energy industries by actively encouraging socially, environmentally and technically responsible private sector exploration and development of petroleum and energy resources. • Negotiates petroleum and energy agreements and carry out related research and policy analysis. • Promotes exploration and development of indigenous and non-fossil and renewable energy resources for the benefit of both urban and rural population of Papua New Guinea, as well as those of the agricultural and manufacturing sectors. • Promotes better management of the country’s non-fossil and renewable energy resources through appropriate energy planning activities. • Provides services to standing or ad hoc organizations and committees relating to the functions of the Department. 20

Fiji: The vision of the Fijian Department of Energy (DOE) is to facilitate the development of a resource efficient, cost effective and environmentally sustainable energy sector in Fiji (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999). The adoption of this vision stems from the need to control growth in energy demand and make available reliable and affordable energy supplies and simultaneously minimize the impact of energy extraction, conversion and utilization on the environment.

In 1996 the Cabinet accorded priority status for the energy sector in Fiji’s overall development. Development of renewable energy resources is a major part of the department’s remit. Solar energy is now increasingly being used for small lighting systems in remote areas (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999).

The purchase of petroleum products from overseas continues to be a major drain on Fiji’s foreign reserves. The use of petroleum products, particularly in the transportation sector, is also seen as posing health and environmental hazards (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999).

The Fijian DOE energy conservation program strives to develop private sector capabilities to identify, implement and manage energy systems. Education and provision of information for the rational use of energy is another major objective of the energy conservation program. The corporate plan and key result areas for the Fijian DOE are provided in Table B1 in Appendix B (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999).

The Fijian DOE approved Fiji $4,459,800 for the year 1998 for the energy related activities. For the Rural Electrification Unit (REU) Fiji $2,931,200 was provided under grants and transfers for the implementation of Rural Electrification projects (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999).

The functions of the Fijian DOE’s power sector program are to facilitate greater penetration of electrification into the rural areas, to promote private sector involvement in power projects, and to commercialize renewable energy technologies for supply of electricity (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999). 21

Kiribati: Kiribati has an Energy Planning Unit which operates under the Ministry of Works and Energy. At present the development of renewable energy policies and programs is the main activity of the Energy Planning Unit (Kaiea, 2000).

Nauru: The phosphate reserves are still the country’s most valuable resource but after 80 years of exploitation, it is estimated that supplies of phosphate are almost depleted (UNDP, 2000). The heavy exploitation of phosphate has gradually resulted in much of the landscape of the central plateau resembling a lunar surface. Nauru will have to undertake rehabilitation of about 80% of its land surface that has been destroyed by mining (UNDP, 2000). The main task in Nauru is therefore to rebuild its land, flora and fauna before any renewable policy or program is developed (Ausaid, 2000). There is no reported information about renewable energy policy or program in Nauru.

As is evident from Sections 2 (Uptake of Renewable Energy) and 7 (Renewable Energy Potential) other South Pacific countries also have plans to use renewable energy. However, the detailed information on their policies and programs is not available. The following general information about renewable energy program in such countries is presented below to give some indication of their awareness and need for the renewable energy (UNESCO, 1996):

The modern economic sector of the small island developing States depends almost entirely on imported petroleum products for energy, accounting for well over 90 per cent of the commercial energy used. The lack of indigenous fossil fuels in virtually all of these countries and the total reliance on a single imported energy source have caused severe balance-of- payment problems in their economies

During the 1980s, expectations were high for the development of indigenous renewable energy resources. It was then widely believed that renewable energy technologies were becoming technically and economically viable and that the energy environment of islands was ideal for these technologies, given their remote locations, high cost of petroleum imports and abundant supplies of indigenous solar, biomass, hydropower, wind and ocean resources. In spite of concerted efforts to develop the 22 indigenous renewable energy resources through a wide range of demonstration and investment projects using a variety of technologies, renewable energy sources have not yet made a significant contribution to the energy balance of the small island developing economies. However, the development of hydropower in a number of island countries has been relatively successful, as has been that of solar photovoltaics to a limited extent. Nonetheless, during that time, petroleum-product demand in small island developing States has increased steadily and the outlook is that the growth rate will increase well into this century.

The experiences of the 1980s indicate that the energy strategies of small island developing economies may need to refocus on improving the management and regulation of conventional power plants, at least until the time when the energy supply mix in small island developing States becomes more diversified with significant contributions from renewable energy technologies. In the meantime, small island developing States will continue to require assistance in the management and supply of conventional power sources and petroleum products.

The development of indigenous new and renewable sources of energy should be focused on the few options that have proved to hold promise for technical, economic and financial viability in the setting of small island developing economies. The renewable energy technologies and resources that appear to be more promising in the near term are solar photovoltaic-based utilities, particularly for remote islands; large-scale and mini-hydropower plants, where adequate sites and institutional support are available; wind turbine generators (depending on favourable wind regimes), and the enhanced use of biomass fuel where good sustainable biomass cover exists. In the long term, ocean thermal and seawave may prove to be substantial energy sources, although attempts at their commercial development have not yet met with success. 23

4. MANUFACTURING CAPABILITIES FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

Based on the existing level of involvement in renewable energy programs, the level of industrialization in each country and their commitments for future development of renewable energy based power generation, a qualitative assessment has been made of the renewable energy manufacturing capabilities in each country. This is summarized in Table 6.

Table 6 - Qualitative Assessment of Level of Renewable Energy Manufacturing Technology Country Level of manufacture Comments (H = High, M = Medium, L = Low, ?= not reported) Capacity Potential Australia H H Well developed industries, policies and plans New Zealand H H Well developed industries, policy and plans Papua New Guinea ? M Underdeveloped industries, but have policies and plans Republic of Fiji M H Small industries and developed polices and plans Solomon Islands M M Small industries and unknown policies and plans Western Samoa ? ? Industries and policies unknown Republic of Vanuatu ? ? Industries and policies unknown States of Micronesia M M Small industries and definite plans but details unknown Kingdom of Tonga ? ? Industries and policies unknown Republic of Kiribati M M Small industries and definite plans but details unknown Republic of the ? ? Industries and policies unknown Marshall Islands Republic of Nauru ? ? Island rehabilitation is the first priority

Australia: Australia has very high capacity and potential to provide technological leadership to undertake and develop future renewable energy projects in any of the South Pacific countries. 24

Australian National University has designed and constructed a 400 kW paraboloidal solar thermal concentrating dish, the largest of this technology built to date (Tyner et al., 1999). A 100 kW dish is being commercialized by an Australian company Solar Systems Pty Ltd for solar thermal and concentrated PV applications (Solar Systems, 2000). Australia is also a world leader in the development of solar PV technology through the efforts of Pacific Solar and other companies/organizations.

A number of industries in Australia are engaged in the developmentof technologies for generating electricity from biomass. For example Biomass Energy Services and Technologies (BEST) has developed technologies for converting mimosa (a weed in Australia) and greenwaste into electricity via the briquetting and gasification route (Biomass Task Force, 2000). Energy Development Ltd. is engaged in the development of the biomass gasifiers/pyrolysers for power generation.

At present, while there are a number of wind turbine suppliers in Australia, the lack of a large market means that big wind turbines are not presently manufactured here. However, this could change in the near future with the development of Australasia ’s excellent wind resource (SEDA, 2000).

A number of the leading renewable energy companies from America and Europe have offices or representatives in Australia (Momentum Technologies, 2000a and 2000b).

New Zealand: A company known as Power Options NZ is an authorized supplier of renewable energy systems and parts (Power Options NZ, 2000). They are also involved in the evaluation of resources and energy demands around potential renewable energy site. As in Australia, a number of the leading renewable energy companies from America and Europe have offices or representatives in New Zealand (Momentum Technologies, 2000b).

Kiribati: The Kiribati Solar Energy (KSE) company has begun exporting solar electricity controllers to Bhutan, the first time a Kiribati assembled electronics component has been exported to an Asian country (University of Hawaii, 1999). 25

Nauru: They have no manufacturing capability for renewable energy systems. Moreover, island rehabilitation is their first priority before any other industrial or manufacturing activity can begin (Ausaid, 2000; UNESCO, 1996). 26

5. GRID CONNECTED RENEWABLE ENERGY SUPPLY

Details on the population and percentage renewable energy uptake within each country are given in Table A2 in Appendix A. Details of grid connected renewable energy supply areas are also presented here.

Australia: Figure C1 (in Appendix C) shows present electricity grid connections, as well as proposed links in the establishment of a national electricity market. Figure C3 (in Appendix C) shows the distribution of population in Australia in relation to the grids shown in Figure C1. The Queensland to New South Wales interconnection is under construction and expected to be operational in 2000-2001 (ABS, 2000). New South Wales has had its first grid connected wind farm installed, based on eight 600 kW turbines, operational at Crookwell since mid-1998 (WEC, 2000; SEDA, 2000).

Other proposals are for a new link between South Australia and New South Wales, and a Tasmanian link to the mainland. Western Australia and the Northern Territory are not expected to participate in the national electricity market because transmission distances to other States are too long (ABS, 2000).

Grid-connected photovoltaics comprise a very small segment of the total capacity at about 0.4% (WEC, 2000). Solar systems for the home market are a significant potential growth area for Australian exports. Such systems can provide adequate power for lighting and radio/television reception (WEC, 2000).

Table 5 (Section 3) presented information on the extent to which Australian households are connected to Green power schemes (ABS, 2000). A total of 228,000 households reported being connected to a Green power scheme in March 1999. This represented just over 3% of Australian households. Some 72% of Green power connected households were from Tasmania, where almost 90% of electricity is sourced from hydropower. All other States had connection rates of 1.5% or lower (ABS, 2000).

Expected significant decreases in the cost of photovoltaics over the next five years could open the way for the large-scale use of grid-connected “domestic power 27

stations ”, and current trials with such systems will provide the basis for the rapid exploitation of this market once they become economically viable (WEC, 2000).

The following electricity retailers (AGO, 2000a) offer a variety of schemes for domestic grid-interactive solar connections: Australian Capital Territory Electricity and Water Corporation Ltd (ACTEW), Advance Energy, Australian Inland Energy, EnergyAustralia, Great Southern Energy, Integral Energy, North Power. Power and Water Authority, Energex, Ergon, Electricity Trust of South Australia (ETSA), Australian Gas Limited (AGL), CitiPower, Eastern Energy, Powercor, United Energy and Western Power.

New Zealand: As shown in Table A2 in Appendix A, over 81% of electricity in New Zealand comes from renewable energy sources (75.6% hydro and 5.6% geothermal and others). The electricity generated from these renewable resources is fed into the National Grid operated by Transpower (Transpower, 2000). Figure C2 (in Appendix C) shows the location of the National Grid and Table C1 (in Appendix C) shows the population in various parts of New Zealand.

Fiji: As shown in Table A2 in Appendix A, 60% of the electricity in Fiji is generated by diesel generators, with the rest largely from hydro, biomass (sugar mills and saw mills) and solar PV. Apart from the sugar mills and a large sawmill, electricity is generated and supplied via the grid operated by the Fiji Electricity Authority, either through the Monasavu hydroelectricity generating system (for most of Viti Levu) or through its thermal power stations fuelled by diesel fuel (FEA, 1998). The Public Works Department is charged with the responsibility of generating electricity through small and medium scale diesel generating plants in remote and rural communities.

Overall figures show that more than 67 per cent of the population has direct access to power, with some 80,000 households and 20,000 industrial and commercial users (FEA, 1998). The government provides up to 90% subsidy through the Rural Electrification Unit of DOE (Fiji). DOE (Fiji) received around 900 applications in 1998 for electrification via solar, hydro, diesel generators or connection to the grid (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999). 28

In April 1999, the village of Naroi on Moala Island in the Lau Group, Fiji, was equipped with efficient, individually metered photovoltaic generators. Funded by France, the solar equipment was supplied by Total Energie, a leading European assembler of PV systems. The French consulting firm Transenergie has been working with the DOE Energy Rural Electrification Unit on the Naroi project since 1996 (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999). All 170 village households are equipped with a 100 W (peak) solar generator. Each generator consists of two Photowatt PWX 500 50 watt solar modules mounted on standard treated pine poles with utility grade galvanized, aluminium and stainless steel fittings (Abbass, 1999). Naroi is a large village by Fiji standards.

Suncash is the solar version of the well known Cash power prepayment meters. FEA Cash power prepayment meters are installed in 100 grid connected homes in the Rewa Delta. FEA has since installed hundreds of Cashpower meters. Prepayment meters improve management and fee collection for remote grid and stand alone systems (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999; Abbass, 1999).

Solar generators installed in Naroi have a projected life cycle of over twenty years. Battery replacement will normally be required after approximately eight years. Fees collected will be used to cover maintenance costs, battery replacement and installation of new systems as the village grows(Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999).

Other South Pacific Countries: As shown in Table A2 in Appendix A, except for 29%, 32% and 11.5% hydro in Papua New Guinea, Western Samoa and Micronesia, respectively, the main source of electricity in rest of the South Pacific countries is diesel generation.

Solar generators are used extensively in the South Pacific region for small capacity remote applications (Abbass, 1999). Kiribati has installed extensive solar systems. Vanuatu has adopted an ambitious solar electrification policy. Virtually every other Pacific Island country or traditional power producer/distributor has installed some solar generating capacity. Solar is also used throughout the region to power 29 domestic and agricultural water pumping systems, marine and aviation navigation aids, television and telecommunications equipment.

The French renewable energy specialists Transenegie were asked to carry out a feasibility study. Transenergie has planned similar projects throughout Asia, Africa and South America using solar, wind and hydro generated electricity. In the Pacific region they have coordinated solar electrification of remote villages, schools and dispensaries in Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, Cook Islands and Vanuatu (Abbass, 1999).

5.1 Non-Grid Connected Areas

Australia: In Australia, most electricity is supplied by utilities from large central power stations, via extensive power supply grids. Around 90% of the power supplied to these main grids (Table A1a) is generated from fossil fuels (coal and gas), with significant amounts (8%) from large hydro schemes. Remote towns like Port Hedland, Mt Isa and Coober Pedy are not serviced by the main grid and have gas or diesel-fired power stations with distribution via a mini grid. Remote Area Power Supply (RAPS) systems are small scale (<50kW) self-contained units, providing electricity independent of the main or mini grid networks.

Many regions within Australia are remote from supply grids although these tend to be areas of low population density. This non-grid-connected region extends from the north-west of Western Australia, across most of the Northern Territory and down to the arid north of South Australia. It also includes the south west of Western Australia and parts of northern Queensland, as well as the Torres Strait Islands.

In Western Australia, of the 39 mining installations that operate their own power stations independent of the main power generator Western Power, all have installed generating capacity above 2 MW.

Telecommunications represents the single largest application of PV systems throughout Australia. Telstra has used them extensively for remote repeater stations and telephone systems. 30

Around 1350 indigenous communities have been identified in remote areas of Australia, based on studies such as the 1992 Health and Infrastructure Needs Survey (HINS) and the 1997 Western Australia Environmental Health Needs Survey (WA-EHNS). These studies identified population data and the source of energy supply for all known indigenous communities in Australia. All sites identified as remote were in the Northern Territory, South Australia, Western Australia and Queensland. Apart from two communities within New South Wales, communities in other areas of Australia are generally located sufficiently close to a non-indigenous service centres to preclude them from being classified as remote.

There are approximately 1500 homesteads on pastoral leases that could be considered remote in areas of the Northern Territory, South Australia, Western Australia and Queensland. Diesel generator systems have been the most popular choice for power generation for such homesteads over the past few decades. In most cases, the property owners are directly responsible for their own power systems, including choice of system, maintenance and repairs, running and replacement costs. There is, in this market sector, a variety of opportunities and obstacles which exist for the renewable industry in terms of water pumping options, and different load profiles dependent on type of primary industry. More information on energy issues relating to pastoralists can be found in Wyder et al. (1995)

Tourist destinations, roadside inns and parks sites represent another potential application for small RAPS systems. Information on these sites is much more difficult to assess, although there is a definite market potential for the renewable energy power generation systems. Such applications could possibly be one of the most influential markets in terms of shifting public opinion. Often such sites have a high level of interface with the travelling public, with visitors being able to see for themselves what can be achieved with renewable energy systems.

There have been a number of studies that have investigated the market for remote power systems including: 31

• “Opportunities for Distributors to Supply RAPS” by Dr Muriel Watt and Mr lain McGill (UNSW, July 1994). This study was a survey-based assessment of recipients of the RAP AS grant in New South Wales. • “Study into Power Provision Policies for Remote Areas in Western Australia ” by Joseph Wyder, Robert Fraser and Trevor Pryor (MUERI, May 1995), which represents a broader market assessment for Western Australia.

New Zealand: As is apparent from Figure C2 (Appendix C), most of population in the New Zealand is connected to its national grid, except for parts of the west coast of South Island. A total of 1,417,773 residential consumers are connected to the electricity supply grid operated by Trans Power (Little, 2000).

Fiji: As stated previously, 67% of the total population is connected to the main electricity supply grid, which is operated by Fiji Electricity Authority. There are plans to increase this to 70% of the total population by 2005. Areas such as Labasa, Savusavu, Rakiraki, Tayua, Lautoka, Vuda, Nadi, Korovuta, Sigatoca, Korotogo, Korelevu, Deuba, Navua, Suva, Kinoya and Levuka are connected to the grid. However areas such as Udu Point, Kubulau Point, Rabi, Buca Bay, Taveuni, and the Yasawa group (Yasawa, Nacula, Naviti, Waya), as well as some parts of Viti Levu, Kadavu, Ovalau, Gau and Koro are not connected to the electricity supply grid (Khan, 2000).

Solomon Islands: The total number of customers of the Solomon Islands Electricity Authority (SIEA) was 8635 in 1999 (Nation, 2000). The bulk of the population of 426,855 is not grid connected.

Vanuatu: Vanuata has a total population of 193,219, with 151,720 living in rural areas and 41,499 living in urban areas. There are no grid-connected systems in the rural areas, where power is generated via stand-alone diesel or solar systems. It is estimated that around 17,409 of the rural population have access to some form of power supply. 32

The urban area of Port Vila has a total population of 30,139, with about 25,850 having access to the electricity grid. In the urban area of Luganville 6,970 out of a total population of 11,360 have access to an electricity grid.

Overall, about 74% of the population of Vanuatu do not have access to any form of power supply.

Marshall Islands: Information is available from the Marshall Islands Electricity Corporation (MIEC) in relation to Majuro and Jaluit. No information is available on other Islands where power is supplied by other companies.

Majuro is the capital with diesel generation supplying the whole of the atoll ’s 3,000 customers with a peak capacity of 10 MW. Jaluit atoll has diesel generation for 80 customers and a high school on the island of Jabor with a peak capacity of 150 kW. Neither grid has renewable energy systems attached to them (Robert, 2000).

Western Samoa: Only 10% of Western Samoa ’s population of 209,360 are not connected to the grid (Walters, 2000).

Tonga: Less than 5% of the total population are not connected to the grid (Helu,

2000).

Nauru: Nauru is 100% electrified via the electricity supply grid operated by the Nauru Phosphate Corporation (NPC). The main electricity sources are diesel generators operated by NPC (NPC, 2000).

Other South Pacific Countries: At the time of writing it has not been possible to obtain information on Papua New Guinea, the Federated States of Micronesia or Kiribati in relation to non-grid connected areas. 33

6 WEATHER DATA

Sunshine, wind speed and rainfall data, which directly affect the performance of solar, wind and hydro energy systems, are presented in this section.

6.1 Sunshine

Average monthly insolation data (kWh/m2/day) for Australia, New Zealand and the other South Pacific countries given in Table 7 (NASA,2000).

These satellite-derived insolation values are generally within 10 percent of operational ground site values for most regions of the world. They do, however, tend to be erratic for sites near coastlines. Cloud data cannot be reliably obtained from satellites over regions with sharp discontinuities in either surface albedo or temperature. 34

Table 7 - Average monthly insolation (kWh/m 2/day) Country Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Australia Northern Territory North 6.52 6.34 6.58 6.16 5.88 5.49 5.55 6.43 7.12 7.52 7.25 7.03 Central 7.26 7.39 6.84 5.98 5.36 4.80 5.09 6.00 6.84 7.23 7.44 7.73 South 7.83 7.51 6.96 5.74 4.40 3.93 4.38 5.30 6.74 7.25 7.91 7.89 Queensland North-West 7.50 6.84 6.50 5.99 5.26 4.73 4.92 5.92 6.92 7.24 7.56 7.51 North-East 6.86 6.33 6.39 6.07 5.40 5.09 5.29 6.13 7.12 7.64 7.52 7.25 Central 8.06 7.05 6.62 5.62 4.83 4.23 4.53 5.58 6.74 6.97 7.45 7.68 South-West 8.44 7.60 6.45 5.05 3.86 3.35 3.57 4.38 5.90 6.77 7.61 8.11 South-East 7.54 6.88 6.37 4.91 4.01 3.68 3.85 4.57 5.96 6.32 7.02 7.66 New South Wales West 8.34 7.57 6.16 4.67 3.51 2.99 3.13 3.90 5.42 6.34 7.44 7.93 East 7.16 6.36 5.61 4.15 3.24 3.00 3.07 3.66 5.01 5.92 6.61 7.13 Victoria West 7.64 7.08 5.32 3.82 2.49 2.13 2.22 2.97 4.29 5.40 6.77 6.91 East 6.97 6.08 5.13 3.91 2.94 2.48 2.70 3.46 4.53 5.72 6.02 6.88 Tasmania 35

North-West 6.26 5.79 4.26 2.98 1.87 1.50 1.68 2.48 3.62 4.66 6.31 6.50 North-East 6.76 6.35 4.55 3.27 2.21 1.88 2.00 2.90 4.19 5.26 6.39 6.56 South 5.76 5.39 3.95 2.86 1.83 1.46 1.68 2.46 3.63 4.72 6.01 6.52 South Australia North-West 7.70 7.07 6.10 5.33 3.96 3.53 3.86 4.72 6.00 6.59 7.21 7.26 North-East 8.13 7.26 6.83 5.62 4.09 3.66 4.04 5.05 6.48 7.26 7.94 8.02 South-West 7.74 6.23 5.66 4.38 3.32 2.85 3.01 3.93 5.34 6.59 7.27 7.36 South-East 7.84 7.02 5.70 4.13 2.87 2.42 2.62 3.28 4.78 6.09 7.09 7.20 Western Australia North-West 8.05 7.16 6.24 5.09 4.57 4.00 4.42 5.33 6.53 7.70 8.18 8.74 North-East 6.87 7.13 6.66 6.03 5.24 4.67 5.15 6.09 7.25 7.87 7.97 7.65 Central 7.75 7.18 6.14 4.88 4.01 3.58 4.01 5.13 6.37 7.46 8.13 8.43 South-West 8.02 7.25 5.48 4.43 3.36 2.76 3.03 3.87 5.09 6.64 7.53 8.14 South-East 7.52 6.60 5.68 4.71 3.52 3.07 3.35 4.26 5.46 6.68 7.60 7.80 New Zealand South Island South-West 5.47 4.33 3.42 2.27 1.49 1.12 1.13 2.10 3.04 4.44 5.47 5.95 South-East 6.05 4.63 3.53 2.50 1.57 1.20 1.36 2.13 3.35 4.55 5.63 6.28 Central 6.27 5.03 3.86 2.86 1.85 1.31 1.49 2.19 3.38 4.48 5.72 6.09 North-East 6.67 5.57 4.34 3.25 2.21 1.68 1.91 2.61 3.68 4.68 5.92 6.37 North-West 7.03 5.69 4.16 3.19 2.10 1.84 1.85 2.54 3.86 5.01 6.25 6.95 36

North Island South 7.03 5.69 4.16 3.19 2.10 1.84 1.85 2.54 3.86 5.01 6.25 6.95 Central-East 6.79 5.52 4.30 3.19 2.18 1.77 1.94 2.63 3.58 4.76 6.00 6.59 Central-West 7.43 6.06 4.63 3.51 2.40 2.02 2.12 2.95 4.34 5.68 6.64 7.49 Central-North 7.32 6.48 5.15 3.70 2.77 2.33 2.48 3.16 4.30 5.72 6.77 7.47 Central-North-West 7.34 6.49 5.16 3.70 2.74 2.33 2.48 3.27 4.24 5.79 6.75 7.84 North 7.15 6.99 5.53 3.88 3.04 2.66 2.75 3.51 4.45 6.02 6.69 7.87 Papua New Guinea North-West 5.17 5.05 5.37 5.33 4.93 4.24 4.49 4.80 4.96 5.61 5.98 5.69 South-East 5.43 5.05 5.22 5.36 5.14 4.59 4.96 5.20 5.56 6.20 6.32 5.92 Fiji 6.88 6.28 5.67 5.00 4.84 4.50 4.62 5.35 5.98 6.86 6.76 6.17 Solomon Islands 5.88 4.92 5.59 5.17 4.93 5.01 4.78 5.16 5.40 6.02 6.07 5.63 Western Samoa 5.57 5.27 5.93 5.28 4.67 4.80 4.59 5.41 5.96 6.10 6.24 5.80 Vanuatu 6.91 5.46 5.66 5.01 4.50 4.05 4.21 4.86 5.59 6.58 6.56 6.79 Micronesia 5.71 6.13 6.63 6.53 6.26 5.83 5.83 5.87 5.89 5.88 5.78 5.29 Tonga 7.55 6.62 5.55 5.07 4.17 3.79 3.88 4.75 5.54 6.80 7.31 6.68 Kiribati North-West 5.81 6.09 6.54 6.36 6.44 6.17 6.20 6.73 6.77 6.80 6.57 6.96 South-East 5.41 5.35 5.78 5.54 5.40 5.39 5.37 5.62 6.64 6.62 6.57 5.69 Marshall Islands 5.54 6.05 6.18 6.40 6.11 5.65 5.82 5.85 5.49 5.35 5.34 5.16 Nauru 5.53 5.43 6.21 6.01 6.15 5.74 5.90 6.22 6.60 6.66 6.06 5.31 37

6.2 Wind

Australia: As shown in Figure 1, wind roses summarize the occurrence of winds at a particular location, showing their strength, direction, and frequency (BOM, 2000a). The percentage of calms is represented by the size of the centre circle. Each branch represents wind coming from that direction, with north to the top of the diagram. The branches are divided into segments of different thickness, which represent wind speed ranges from that direction. For example, the thinnest segment may represent winds between 1 and 10 km/h. The length of each branch segment is proportional to the percentage of winds in that speed range, blowing from that particular direction.

Figure 1 - Wind Rose

The maps in Figures D1 to D8 (in Appendix D) present data from selected sites around Australia. For convenience they have been grouped according to the season of the year characteristic of temperate Australia. In the northern parts of Australia it is often more appropriate to refer to the "wet season" from October to April and the "dry season" for the rest of the year (BOM, 2000a).

New Zealand: Most of the New Zealand ’s land area is exposed to more than adequate average wind speeds for good wind power generation. Wind data and a map of New Zealand ’s wind resources are given in Table 8 and Figure D9 (Appendix D), respectively (EECA/CAE, 1996).

Other South Pacific Countries: Wind mapping of these countries for installing windmills has not been done. However, wind data available with the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory is presented in Table 9 (PMEL, 2000). 38

Table 8 - Potential Wind Farm Sites and Annual Power Outputs in New Zealand

Potential Wind Farm Sites Wind Speed Energy produced per (m/s) site (GWh/year) Far North 7.4 1,074 West Coast Auckland 7.2 393 Coromandel/Kaimai Ranges 8.8 1,507 Cape Egmont/Taranaki coast 8.4 866 Manawatu Gorge 10.5 1,945 Wellington hills and coast 10 223 Wairarapa hills and coast 8.7 1 ,152 Marlborough Sounds hills 7.8 1 ,064 Banks Peninsula 8 461 Canterbury River Gorges 6.4 518 Inland Otago 6.4 1,284 Foveaux Strait and SE hills 8 2,171 Total energy in GWh/year 12,656 39

Table 9 - Average Monthly Wind Data for the South Pacific Countries (m/s)

Country Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Papua New Guinea

North-East 5.00 7,19 5.58 4.07 6.47 5.14 5.92 6.73 6.10 5.69 4.46 3.77

South-East 5.03 3.80 4.95 7.37 8.95 8.16 7.78 7.83 7.83 6.94 5.61 4.70

Central 7.07 3.60 2.13 5.65 4.35 7.66 4.40 8.67 5.88 4.27 3.30 2.60

South-West 5.20 4.76 4.53 8.64 7.95 9.71 7.82 6.50 8.41 6.72 8.40 9.25

Fiji 7.73 3.35 9.80 5.15 5.65 4.87 7.72 6.10 5.91 10.55 6.45 2.60

Solomon Island 4.84 7.70 3.86 - 5.83 3.60 7.20 9.25 6.33 - 2.30 3.05

Western Samoa 4.60 3.35 5.70 - 7.45 7.23 8.20 3.05 - 7.73 7.95 3.60

Vanuatu - 4.65 4.52 - - - 9.77 12.85 10.97 9.25 4.60 5.40

Micronesia 12.24 9.85 5.00 6.82 4.85 8.44 7.85 7.90 2.75 10.72 5.24 5.52

Tonga 10.80 4.60 5.76 6.70 9.25 8.37 - 6.80 7.37 7.07 6.45 6.03

Kiribati North-West 6.70 6.70 2.60 9.30 1.55 8.20 5.70

South-East 3.60 9.80 5.40 - 2.60 1.50 - 3.90 0.00 5.65 - -

Marshall Islands - 10.30 12.30 9.80 ------10.05 -

Nauru - 4.10 2.90 ------5.10 3.30 - 40

6.3 Rainfall

Data on total rainfall in different parts of Australia is shown in Table 10 and Figure D10 in Appendix D (BOM, 2000b). Detailed regional rainfall data for New Zealand and other South Pacific countries are not available. Average annual rainfall data for New Zealand and rest of the South Pacific countries is summarized in Table 10. 41

Table 10 - Average Rainfall (mm) (World Climate, 2000)

Country Jan. Feb Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total / Year

Australia Cairns 415.5 421.4 453.4 247.5 106.2 62.7 34.0 35.0 38.3 46.1 94.0 195.0 2151.3 Brisbane 161.0 156.5 140.2 89.2 72.6 68.6 56.9 46.9 46.5 77.0 97.4 134.3 1150.6 Sydney 103.4 111.0 131.3 129.7 123.0 129.2 102.8 80.3 69.3 82.6 81.4 78.2 1222.7 Melbourne 47.6 47.3 52.2 57.4 58.1 49.3 48.5 50.3 58.7 67.3 60.0 58.7 656.0 Adelaide 16.7 16.6 23.7 43.8 72.0 65.0 73.5 59.7 51.6 38.2 30.1 26.4 517.0 Perth 23.8 24.1 22.4 19.1 15.9 13.8 12.9 13.3 14.7 16.4 19.5 21.9 18.2 Darwin 395.6 330.9 282.1 96.6 17.5 2.5 1.1 3.8 15.1 60.4 129.7 239.1 1573.5 Forrest 5.4 16.4 16.2 15.9 15.0 16.8 13.7 15.0 13.7 16.8 14.7 14.6 184.7 Port Hedland 56.8 95.7 45.1 22.5 29.5 18.3 9.6 4.5 0.8 1.0 3.5 19.2 305.6 Thursday Island 406.3 365.0 372.0 212.0 49.3 21.1 9.9 8.3 4.0 16.6 48.8 221.9 1737.4 Alice Spring 40.5 41.5 34.7 16.6 17.0 16.7 12.1 10.0 9.0 20.0 25.3 37.2 281.2 Giles 29.5 43.7 37.2 15.6 17.1 15.8 9.5 10.6 10.0 12.3 21.0 31.9 255.0 Birdsville 26.6 27.5 18.7 9.5 11.6 10.5 11.2 6.5 6.0 11.6 12.5 16.1 169.1 New Zealand Auckland 43.9 116.9 87.1 130.5 130.2 118.6 136.9 141.5 92.9 110.8 84.9 95.3 1289.5 Whenuapai 68.6 120.0 87.4 119.8 151.4 155.5 142.9 151.9 103.1 107.7 99.1 101.1 1408.7 Christchurch 52.5 45.0 52.4 50.4 68.0 64.8 66.3 53.7 44.8 45.1 48.4 55.1 647.2 Dunedin 81.2 69.5 78.1 74.5 78.1 77.6 69.7 61.0 60.5 70.4 78.5 81.3 880.8

Papua New Guinea 178.7 195.9 190.1 119.6 65.2 39.3 26.5 25.5 32.8 34.8 55.5 121.3 1083.8 (Port Moresby) Fiji (Nausory) 318.7 271.0 412.5 400.7 254.6 141.4 112.6 139.7 163.5 210.8 254.2 264.0 2947.1

Solomon Islands 281.5 293.0 316.6 201.6 130.9 82.6 97.7 97.6 98.3 129.7 155.8 220.4 2093.5 (Honiara) Western Samoa 436.8 359.6 355.9 236.3 173.6 135.2 100.1 111.2 144.1 205.6 259.2 373.9 2901.2 (Apia) 42

Country Jan. Feb Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total /

Year

Vanuatu (Vila) 300.7 271.1 356.0 230.4 156.6 154.8 133.5 129.9 105.4 130.8 159.3 203.0 2335.5 Micronesia Chuuk 224.6 154.5 211.5 302.7 361.6 300.0 349.5 340.3 312.2 348.6 297.0 320.8 3524.8 Palikir 303.2 262.3 354.2 453.3 500.5 434.3 446.5 418.5 401.8 418.0 414.2 431.5 4837.4 Tonga (Nukualofa) 194.0 218.1 225.3 158.3 114.7 92.4 100.5 117.0 121.8 132.5 121.7 140.4 1738.4 Kiribati 277.3 198.8 189.9 173.5 157.3 136.9 160.1 117.4 87.3 87.0 134.9 194.3 1914.4 Marshall Islands 207.8 168.5 215.6 276.5 293.6 299.4 332.0 291.5 321.5 366.0 341.3 292.5 3408.3 (Majuro) Nauru (Nauru) 271.5 239.2 191.7 165.3 121.1 123.2 162.6 149.6 121.7 115.0 147.3 242.5 2051.3 43

7 RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL

A summary of renewable energy potential and plans to develop these resources in Australia, New Zealand and other South Pacific countries is presented below.

7.1 Wind

Australia: It is estimated there is about 1500 MW of wind resource potential in NSW at wind speeds of 6.5 metres per second or greater. If this resource were fully exploited wind energy could supply 3,300 GWh of electricity per annum, or 6% of current NSW electricity consumption. This would reduce NSW carbon dioxide emissions by more than 3.2 million tonnes per annum (SEDA, 2000).

As wind energy costs are directly related to available wind speeds, it is impossible to accurately predict generation costs without wind assessments. However, a typical figure in NSW would be in the range of 8 to 12 cents/kWh generated. Costs of installing equipment are approximately $2,000 per kilowatt of output presently, but these costs are likely to fall with increased wind energy development.

Under certain circumstances, wind based electricity is already competitive, and planning of additional generation capacity is currently in progress (WEC, 2000).

New Zealand: Table 11 lists several possible wind farm regions, and their estimated annual energy production. Although the potential for electricity generation is high, it is assumed that, using present-day technology, grid penetration will not be allowed to exceed 15% to 20% of the total grid capacity to ensure reliable operation of the electricity network (EECA/CAE, 1996).

Fiji: The prime objective of DOE (Fiji) wind energy assessment program is to determine the potential of Fiji’s wind energy resource (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999). The program allows an assessment to be made of the viability and the role, if any, for wind resources to supply future potential power demands. 44

Table 11 - Potential Wind Farm Sites and Annual Power Outputs in New Zealand Potential Wind Farm Sites Wind Speed (m/s) Energy produced per site (GWh/y) Far North 7.4 1,074 West Coast Auckland 7.2 393 Coromandel/Kaimai 8.8 1,507 Ranges Cape Ehmont/Taranaki 8.4 866 coast Manawatu Gorge 10.5 1,945 Wellington hills and coast 10 223 Wairarapa hills and coast 8.7 1,152 Marlborough Sounds hills 7.8 1,064 Banks Peninsula 8 461 Canterbury River Gorges 6.4 518 Inland Otago 6.4 1,284 Foveaux Strait and SE hills 8 2,171 Total energy in GWh/y 12,656

In 1998, DOE (Fiji) continued to monitor hourly wind speed and direction at the following wind monitoring sites in Fiji (tower heights as shown in brackets).

• Korotogo, Sigatoka (10m) • Vunatovau, Sigatoka (10m and 21m) • Waibogi, Sigatoka (10m) • Coustaeau Resort, Savusavu (10m and 30m)

An Important feature of this program has been the dissemination of wind data and discussion with interested wind farm developers. The dissemination of data has led to the presentation of proposals to the government by independent power producers (IPP) with a view to the utilization of this renewable energy resource. 45

DOE (Fiji) has identified further sites in Tabuka (Ra) and a site in Vunisea (Kadavu) for wind monitoring. The wind station at Cousteau Resort and the 10 metre anemometer from the Vunatovau station were dismantled in December, 1998. This equipment has been installed at the above mentioned sites in early 1999.

Meanwhile, with the purchase of two digital anemometers, DOE (Fiji) will continue to select potential wind sites throughout Fiji in order to install wind monitoring stations and gather wind resource data.

Other South Pacific Countries: Average wind velocity of the other South Pacific Countries is given in Table 9 (Section 6.2). A consistent minimum wind speed of about 6 m/s is required for economic production of electricity using a wind turbine. As indicated in the Table 9 (Section 6.2), most of the South Pacific countries have a reasonably good potential for wind power generation. However, a detailed wind mapping exercise is required in these countries to accurately estimate the wind energy potential.

7.2 Hydro

Australia and New Zealand: There are currently no plans for further development of large-scale hydropower in Australia and New Zealand as most of the potential resources have already been developed. Future activities in this area are likely to focus on refurbishment and upgrading (WEC, 2000). However, there are plans for the developmentof small, mini and micro hydro power plant (usually defined as plants less than 10 MW, 2MW and 100 kW, respectively) in Australia and New Zealand. Details of the proposed mini and micro hydro schemes for Australia and New Zealand are given in Tables E1 and E2, respectively, in Appendix E.

Fiji: DOE (Fiji) is currently monitoring six potential micro hydro sites at Raviravi (Ra), Naikorokoro (Kadavu), Navala (Ba), Abaca (Lautoka), Bureta (Ovalau) and Viro (Ovalau). At these monitoring stations, parameters such as rainfall, water level and flow rates are continually monitored (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999). 46

Detailed studies such as the survey of the intake sites and penstock routes have also been undertaken on sites that are currently being monitored. One of the major factors that affect the micro hydro assessment program is the availability of equipment. DOE(Fiji) has six sets of hydrological monitoring equipment which are in use and with this number of sets, at most six sites can be completely assessed by the year 2000.

In 1999 construction of a 30 kW hydropower project began in Muana (Tunuloa) in Cakaudrove. The project is a Korea-Fiji friendship project that is being co-funded by the Republic of Korea and the Government of Fiji. The funding for this project comes from the Korean government, through the Korea International Corporation Agency (KOICA), is US$ 200,000.

The Muana hydropower project will provide basic electricity services to the villages of Muana, Wailevu and Naqaravutu. It is envisaged that the project will stimulate economic activity and simultaneously improve the quality of life for inhabitants of these three villages. The designing of Muana hydropower project was carried out by consultants Sinclair Knight.

Extra hydro generation is also being planned as Monasavu hydro plant in Fiji is almost reaching its full capacity (FEA, 1998). Over the past years, a number of measures have been taken to augment the storage capacity at Monasavu and to increase the generation of power.

Papua New Guinea: PNG’s hydropower potential is substantial, with the economically exploitable capacity assessed as 36.8 TWh/year. However, the hydro generating capacity so far installed falls far short of this potential. With total capacity of 155 MW, PNG’s hydro plants produced about 600GWh in 1996, a very small fraction of the potential quoted above (WEC, 2000).

Other South Pacific Countries: Small, mini and micro hydro are the only indigenous competitive energy resources for several island nations, such as Vanuatu (UNESCO, 1996). Pilot projects are also under development in the Solomon Islands 47 with foreign assistance (Wadell, 1996). Western Samoa and Micronesia have hydro power plants as detailed in Tables. 1 and .2. Other South Pacific countries have no hydropower generation and no information is available about their hydropower potential or their future plans.

7.3 Solar

Australia: Average monthly insolation data in Table 7 (Section 6.1) indicates that, except for the period from April to August, the average monthly insolation varies from 4.5 to as high as 8.74 kWh/m2/day. This indicates a great potential for direct utilization or storage of solar energy for electricity generation. The details of proposed solar projects in Australia are given in Table E1 in Appendix E.

New Zealand: Average monthly insolation data in Table 7 (Section 6.1) indicates that except for the period from the month of April to September, the average monthly insolation varies from 3.5 to as high as 7.87 kWh/m2/day. New Zealand has slightly less insolation than Australia. The details of proposed solar projects in New Zealand are given in Table E2 in Appendix E.

Other South Pacific Countries: Average monthly insolation data for these countries are shown in Table 7 (Section 6.1). These countries, being closer to the equator, receive considerable solar radiation. As described in Section 2.3, some of these countries already have solar PV and hot water systems installed in houses, government buildings, libraries, telecommunication facilities and hospitals (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999). Currently, the main source of energy or electricity generation is imported diesel. The installation of distributed solar systems for heating and power generation would have the beneficial effect of reducing energy import bills in these countries (UNESCO, 1996).

7.4 Biomass

Table 12 presents data on forests and fuel wood production in Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Solomon Islands, Western Samoa and Vanuatu (WEC, 2000). Nauru has little vegetation remaining and is totally reliant on imported fuels (Air Nauru, 2000; Seneviratne, 2000). Data for the other countries is not available. 48

Table 12 - Biomass - Forests and Fuelwood Production in 1996

Productive Total Forest Fuelwood Forest Area Country Area (Million Production (Million hectares) (Million tonnes) hectares) Australia 156.9 14.6 6.9 New Zealand 7.9 1.5 0.5 Papua New Guinea 42.1 36.9 4.0 Republic of Fiji 0.9 0.8 N Solomon Island 2.5 2.4 0.1 Western Samoa 0.2 0.1 0.1 Republic of Vanuatu 0.9 0.9 N

States of Micronesia - - -

Kingdom of Tonga - - -

Republic of Kiribati - - -

Republic of the Marshall - - - Islands

Republic of Nauru - - -

Australia and New Zealand: Both countries have significant potential for biomass based power generation. Bagasse is already extensively used for electricity and heat generation in sugar mills within Queensland and New South Wales in Australia (Table A3 in Appendix A). Plans for utilizing biomass are detailed Tables E1 (AGSO, 2000) and E2 (MCo, 2000) in Appendix E. Tables 13 and 14 present data on the woody biomass resource and biogas potential in New Zealand.

Fiji: The biomass available in Fiji includes coconut husks and shells, sawdust and waste timber, logging residues, cane tops, rice and maize straws, rice hulls, animal waste from pigs, cows, chicken and other animals, and municipal waste available at garbage dumps. Current biogas projects have been described in Section 2.2, and further projects are planned (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999), although specific details are not available. 49

Table 13 - Woody Biomass Resource Supply and Delivered Fuel Cost in New Zealand

Resource Supply 1991- Supply Fuel cost Confidence 1995 2006-2010 (PJ/y) (Pj/y) ($/GJ) Forest raisings 13.3 22.7 3.0-8.7 Medium Wood residues 13.5 16.0 0-6.4 Medium Energy plantations 0.1 1.4 2.5-5.0 Low Firewood 7.2 18.2 2.6-25.5 Low Total 34.1 58.3

Table 14 - Biogas Energy Potential from New Zealand Waste

Waste Annual Methane Gross Electrical Diesel* Resource volume Potential energy Energy substitution (tonnes) (m3 x 106/y) potential Potential potential (TJ/y) (GWh/y) (1 x 106/y) Refuse 2,000,000 220 8140 678 178 Cereal Straw1 400,000 100 3700 308 81 Newspaper 300,000 41 1520 126 33 Vegetable/meat 650,000 260 9620 800 210 Processing 2 Piggery manure 27,000 8 300 25 6 Poultry manure 100,000 76 2820 235 61 Notes: 1. Maize stover @ 9 x 106 tonnes dry matter (tdm/y) not included 2. Biodegradability assumed to be 80% 3. Gross diesel yield equivalent excluding energy inputs for gas scrubbing and compression

Nauru: Although Nauru lacks vegetation, waste streams resulting from the consumption of imported goods could be a potential source of biomass for power production, while providing a solution to a serious disposal problem. Without a thorough audit the exact quantities available are unknown. However, an estimate puts the amount at 500 kg per person per year. Food scraps, packaging, plastic, glass and metal containers, garden waste, disposable nappies, paints, machinery, chemicals, mining waste, sewage, car parts and oil form part of Nauru ’s daily waste stream. Table 15 shows the estimates of waste in Nauru (Air Nauru, 2000; Seneviratne, 2000).

Other South Pacific Countries: Fuel wood burning for cooking and heating is common in all of the South Pacific countries (UNESCO, 1996). The installation of biomass power generation systems in these countries would improve the living standard of the people as well as also cut the fuel import bills. 50

Table 15 - Estimates of Waste Streams in Nauru (based on a future population of 15000 over the 50 year rehabilitation period.)

Organic (potential use for power generation) Waste Total Per capita (tonnes/year) (kg/person/year) Food waste 525 35 Paper 600 40 Cardboard 750 50 Plastics 750 50 Textiles 375 25 Rubber 150 10 Leather 0 0 Green waste 3000 200 Inorganic (potentially recyclab e) Glass 375 25 Steel can 150 10 Aluminum 75 5 Other metals 375 25 Dirt, ash, other 150 10 Totals 7,500 500

7.5 Wave

Potential global wave energy sites are shown in Figure E1 in Appendix E. Wave energy is generated mainly by wind moving over the sea. It is normally dissipated through water turbulence, counter winds or contact with reefs and shorelines (WEC,

2000).

Australia: As shown in Figure E1 in Appendix E, there are three potential sites for wave energy based power generation. Energetech Australia Pty Ltd has developed a new and commercially efficient system for extracting energy from ocean waves and converting it to electricity. The technology has been proven technically feasible and 51 construction of the first wave power plant using the Energetech technology was commenced at Port Kembla, NSW, at the end of 1999. This wave power plant, which will produce 300-500 kW depending on the weather and wave intensity, can be scaled up to 1 MW capacity, and is expected to be ready by the end of 2001 (Denniss, 2000).

New Zealand; The only accurate long term monitoring study undertaken in New Zealand has been at the Mauri platform off the west Taranaki coast. Wave recorders have been used there since 1977. There has also been some short-term data collection at several other sites around New Zealand. Most of the data on the wave climate around New Zealand is based on visual observations of average significant wave height and zero crossing periods. This data has been converted into wave energy estimates using theoretical models giving first-order estimates of the amount and distribution of deep water wave power levels around New Zealand (Figure 2). Shaded areas in Figure E2 (in Appendix E) show potential wave sites in New Zealand (EECA/CAE, 1996). 52

Kilometres

8 a Site locality 39 kW/m of wavefront (estimated) at site a 152 Estimated kW/m

Figure 2 - Deep water wave estimate around New Zealand

Fiji: Collection of wave power data began in Fiji in 1990 (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999). In 1998, following DOE (Fiji) submission, Fiji secured funding for a 5 kW wave energy project from the Trust Fund on New and Renewable Sources of Energy of the United Nations. In 1999, South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) along with the Norwegian Agency for International Development (NORAD) undertook a study of the cost/benefit of generating electricity from sea waves as compared to the traditional option of generating electricity using diesel fuel. The results of this study were used to develop a proposal for constructing a wave power plant. Ocean Power Technologies, USA, was contracted to implement this project. This UN funded project was scheduled to start in July 2000, but it has been postponed due to the present political situation (Prasad, 2000). 53

Other South Pacific countries: Little consideration has been given to wave energy potential in the other South Pacific countries.

7.6 Tidal

Sites with potential for tidal power development throughout the world are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 - Global sites for tidal power development

Australia: Australia ’s best tidal energy resources are located in the northwest, where tidal ranges of up to 10 metres are experienced. The very best of these sites potentially could meet more than 5% of Australia ’s electricity requirements. However, these sites are remote from major markets (WEC, 2000).

There have been several investigations into prospective tidal power sites in the Kimberley district in the far north of Western Australia, notably at Secure Bay and Walcott Inlet. A tidal energy project currently under active consideration involves the establishment of a 48 MW tidal power plant near Derby in Western Australia(WEC

2000). 54

New Zealand: Studies have identified sites for large-scale facilities in New Zealand. For example, an Otahuhu tunnel connection between the Hauraki Gulf and Waitemata Harbour has the potential to generate 100 MW, but with mean sea level ranges of 2.37 metres this will not be economically viable in the foreseeable future (EECA/CAe, 1996).

Other South Pacific Countries: The tidal energy potential in these countries has not been evaluated.

7.7 Geothermal

Australia: Australia ’s best resources of geothermal energy are located in the Great Artesian Basin region of central Australia where there are many bores which discharge water at high enough temperatures (above 80°C) to operate a heat engine. Although these resources are not appropriate for large-scale electricity generation, they can be used to generate electricity for remote homesteads and communities. Examples include a district heating system at Portland (Victoria), a geothermal well providing hot water for paper manufacture at Traralgon (Victoria), power production (20 kWe binary cycle) from hot water aquifers at Mulka station (South Australia), and a binary plant (150 kWe) at Birdsville (Queensland) (WEC,

2000).

Geothermal energy is also available from hot dry rocks’ (HDR) buried several kilometres below the earth ’s surface (WEC, 2000). Recent studies of the prospects for HDR in Australia have established that a very significant resource exists, particularly in eastern Australia. Moreover, the economics of energy extraction based on HDR in Australia appear to be favorable, owing to a very advantageous combination of geological factors (high rate of heat generation in the crust, low- conductivity sedimentary rocks that retain the heat, and horizontally oriented HDR reservoirs that provide the cheapest drilling access). Given the scale of the engineering required, the technology is likely to be most appropriate for grid- connected applications. 55

New Zealand: In February 1998 total installed geothermal generation capacity was 354 MWe. Capacity under construction and due to come on line by the year 2000 amounted to a further 65 MWe (Mokai 55 MWe and Ngawh 10 MWe). Planned geothermal generation capacity for which resource consents are currently being sought totals 70 MWe (Wairakei Binary 15 MWe and Tauhara 55 MWe). Potential generation capacity from the geothermal resources of the Taupo Volcanic Zone, in the centre of the North Island, is conservatively estimated at 2000 MWe (WEC, 2000).

Fiji: Geothermal resource studies undertaken in 1996, showed that Savusavu and Labasa sites are the best prospects for geothermal power development in Fiji (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999). Upon completion of all possible geophysical studies on those sites, it was concluded that the Savusavu system has the potential for power generation, while the Labasa prospect site has process heat potential only.

Deep drilling is required to confirm the conclusions of the geophysical studies and to obtain a firm indication of the energy potential at these sites. Submissions have been made to international donor agencies for the necessary funds so that development can proceed to a further stage.

Other South Pacific Countries: Information about the geothermal potential in the other South Pacific countries is not available.

7.8 Ocean Thermal

There is no ocean thermal energy resource data available for Australia and New Zealand.

Fiji: This group of islands has been the subject of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) studies in the UK and Japan. In 1982 the UK Department of Industry and relevant companies began work on the development of a floating 10 MW closed-cycle demonstration plant to be installed in the Caribbean or Pacific. The preferred site identified was Vanua Levu in Fiji (WEC, 2000). 56

In Japan an OTEC industrial grouping carried out conceptual design work on an integrated Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion and Deep Ocean Water Applications (OTEC/DOWA) land-based plant on the Fijian Island of Viti Levu (WEC, 2000).

Kiribati: An OTEC industrial grouping in Japan has completed a conceptual design for an integrated (OTEC/DOWA) land-based plant in Kiribati, but no further development has yet taken place (WEC, 2000).

Nauru: In 1981, the Tokyo Electric Power Company built a 100 kW shore-based, closed-cycle pilot plant on the island of Nauru. The plant achieved a net output of 31.5 kWe during continuous operating tests (WEC, 2000). Further details on the project are not available.

Other South Pacific Countries: The ocean thermal energy potential of the rest of the South Pacific countries has not been evaluated.

7.9 Hybrid Power System

Australia: The abundance of coal and natural gas stocks, the huge land area and availability of sunshine offers a huge potential for hybrid systems. Currently CSIRO Energy Technology is constructing a demonstration power generation plant (Edwards et al., 2000) based on solar reforming of natural gas (Table E1 in Appendix E). The details of other hybrid systems in Australia are also shown in Table E1.

Fiji: The Nabouwalu hybrid power project was first initiated by DOE (Fiji) in 1995 (Department of Energy and Rural Electrification, 1999). In January 1996 DOE (Fiji) through its Renewable Energy Development Program, installed a wind and solar monitoring station at this site to collect the relevant environmental data to determine the feasibility of utilising wind and solar energy for the production of electricity. The system design includes eight wind turbines and a 40kW solar system, with two 100kVA diesel generators as a back-up electricity supply system. 57

This hybrid system is designed to provide power to the whole Nabouwalu government station and Nabouwalu village. The government station includes a government hospital, post office, provincial council building, agriculture and fisheries department, public works department and its staff quarters, police station and its staff quarters, three shops and other government departments, altogether totaling approximately 100 consumers.

Aid of F$800,000 was provided by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) Japan through the Pacific International Centre for High Technology Research (PICHTR), a Hawaii-based research institution. This aid provided for the purchase of the hardware, including wind turbines and towers, solar arrays, inverters, batteries, controllers and accessories. The local costs totaling approximately F$1 80,000 for civil and road works, construction of power house, purchase of transformers, electrical cables and accessories were met by DOE and the two diesel generators were provided by the Public Works Department.

The construction and civil works on the project began in July 1997 while equipment installation began in September 1997. The public works department completed the civil and road works. The system was commissioned in January 1998.

Information about hybrid systems in the other South Pacific countries is not available. 58

8 POLICY ON FOREIGN INVESTMENT

A summary of relevant information related to the policy on foreign investment in Australia, New Zealand and the other South Pacific countries is presented here. Details of policies and acts on foreign investment in these countries can be obtained (SPF, 1999; SPF, 2000) after investments plans on renewable energy are finalised by NEDO.

8.1 Australia

Australia ’s Foreign Investment Policy as at December 1999 can be summarised as follows:

• The Government’s approach to foreign investment policy is to encourage foreign investment consistent with community interests. • The Government recognises community concerns about foreign ownership of Australian assets and one of the objectives of the policy is to balance these concerns against the strong economic benefits to Australia. • The Government determines what is ‘contrary to the national interest’ by having regard to the widely held community concerns of Australians. Reflecting community concerns, specific restrictions on foreign investment are in force in more sensitive sectors such as the media and developed residential real estate.

Prior approval: The types of proposals by foreign interests to invest in Australia, which require prior approval and therefore should be referred to the Government, are as follows:

• acquisitions of substantial interests in existing Australian businesses with total assets over $50 million or where the proposal values the business at over $50 million; • proposals to establish new businesses which involve a total investment of $10 million or more; • portfolio investments in the media which are 5 per cent or more and all non-portfolio investments irrespective of size; • takeovers of offshore companies whose Australian subsidiaries or assets are valued at $50 million or more, or account for more than 50 per cent of the target company ’s global assets; • direct investments made by foreign governments or their agencies irrespective of size; 59

• proposals where any doubt exists as to whether they are notifiable. Funding arrangements that include debt instruments having quasi-equity characteristics will be treated as direct foreign investment.

A foreign interest is defined as: • a natural person not ordinarily resident in Australia; • a corporation in which a natural person not ordinarily resident in Australia or a foreign corporation holds a controlling interest; • a corporation in which 2 or more persons, each of whom is either a natural person not ordinarily resident in Australia or a foreign corporation, hold an aggregate controlling interest; • the trustee of a trust estate in which a natural person not ordinarily resident in Australia or a foreign corporation holds a substantial interest; or • the trustee of a trust estate in which 2 or more persons, each of whom is either a natural person not ordinarily resident in Australia or a foreign corporation, hold an aggregate substantial interest.

A substantial foreign interest occurs when a single foreigner (and any associates) has 15 per cent or more of the ownership or several foreigners (and any associates) have 40 per cent or more in aggregate of the ownership of any corporation, business or trust.

Examination by sector: Below is an outline of the Government’s foreign investment policy and the examination guidelines for the following industry sectors:

Rural Businesses and Rural Land, Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, Resource Processing, Oil & Gas, Mining, Manufacturing, Non-Bank Financial Institutions, Insurance, Sharebroking, Tourism, Most Other Services.

The majority of proposals will fall within these guidelines. However, some may not. The latter proposals will be examined on a case-by-case basis.

The Foreign Acquisitions and Takeovers Act 1975 applies to most examinable proposals and provides penalties for non-compliance.

In relation to investments by foreign interests in these sectors, all proposals above certain thresholds need prior approval and therefore need to be notified. Notification thresholds are over $50 million for acquisitions of substantial interests in all existing 60 businesses, $10 million or more for the establishment of new businesses and $50 million or more for offshore takeovers.

The Government registers, but normally raises no objections to, proposals above the notification thresholds where the relevant total assets/total investment falls below $100 million. However, proposals in sensitive sectors or those which raise specific national interest issues may be subject to more detailed examination.

The Government fully examines proposals to acquire existing businesses (with total assets of $100 million or more) or establish new businesses (with a total investment of $100 million or more) and raises no objections to those proposals unless they are contrary to the national interest.

Approvals of proposals may be made subject to the parties meeting certain conditions. In practice, such conditions relate almost entirely to the time period for real estate development or to environmental requirements.

8.2 New Zealand

New Zealand generally welcomes and encourages overseas investment. However, it does not offer subsidies or tax incentives to encourage investment. The aim is to keep the fundamentals of the economy right in the belief that these will give serious investors more confidence than incentives, subsidies or grants.

The New Zealand economy is dependent on export growth. Government policy actively encourages New Zealand industry to become more involved in export activities and seeks to attract foreign investment capital and know-how for productive export oriented industries. A major thrust is to improve quality to meet or exceed the most stringent international standards.

New Zealand is a net importer of foreign investment with inward investment flows typically running four to five times higher than outward flows. Perceived benefits of foreign investment have included: 61

• An inflow of capital which encourages growth. This capital is typically less liquid than debt or portfolio investment indicating a commitment to medium to long term goals. It has been generally recognized that New Zealand ’s desired growth rates cannot be generated by the amount of capital available in the domestic market. • Efficiency and competition which can be enhanced as local enterprises are encouraged by offshore influences to become internationally competitive. • Knowledge, skills and technology that lead to more advanced production systems, management and the opening of new markets. • The expansion of offshore networks and relationships with multinational enterprises which broadens employment opportunities and access to international best practices.

In recent years, the development of a mutually beneficial relationship with Asia has been the first priority in international relations, but it is not the only one. New Zealand ’s relationships with Europe and the United States are mature and substantial. New Zealand plays a part in international bodies such as the World Trade Organisation and regional bodies such as APEC. New Zealand aims to maintain a balance that correctly reflects its historical ties as well as positioning itself in the Asia Pacific region for the future. In line with its wish to ensure good quality foreign investment, the Government requires certain investments to be approved in accordance with the Overseas Investment Act 1973 and regulations made under the Act.

Government consents required: The Government’s overseas investment policies are administered by the Overseas Investment Commission (OIC). The Commission comprises four members - two from the private sector and two ex-officio, one each from the Reserve Bank of New Zealand and Ministry of Commerce. The Reserve Bank also provides the secretariat for the OIC. The regulations provide a means for monitoring the nature and extent of significant overseas investment into New Zealand.

Overseas investment means any investment in New Zealand by an overseas person. An overseas person must obtain consent under the regulations before acquiring or taking control of 25% or more of "significant" assets in New Zealand. The significant assets relate to: 62

• business or property worth more than NZ$10 million; • land over 5 hectares or worth more than NZ$10 million; • sensitive land including islands, land containing or next to reserves, historic or heritage areas, foreshores or lakes.

The 25% shareholding and $10 million in value are not to be regarded as preferred or desirable levels of overseas ownership. They are merely the thresholds at which the QIC consent procedure is triggered.

The OIC has delegated authority to determine applications to acquire non-land assets provided that these are not "strategic" or owned by local bodies or consumer trusts. The OIC has also delegated authority to determine applications for consent to acquire land which is less than 10 hectares in area, where the cost of the unimproved land is worth less than $1 million, and which does not include "sensitive" land, farmland or strategic assets. The OIC normally makes a determination within 10 working days.

Other applications, i.e. those outside the thresholds of delegated authority of the OIC, are determined by the Treasurer or by the Treasurer jointly with the Minister of Lands. These applications take 20 - 30 working days to determine.

Normally 100% overseas ownership can be approved in all industry sectors under the regulations.

Criteria for consent: Applications for overseas investment will only be approved if:

• the overseas person has business experience and acumen relevant to that overseas investment; • the overseas person has demonstrated financial commitment to the investment; and • every person having a 25% beneficial interest in the overseas investment is of good character.

Applications for the purchase of land, in addition to meeting the criteria above, will only be approved if the investment is considered to be in the national interest. Whether the investment is in the national interest will depend on: 63

• the creation of new job opportunities in New Zealand or the retention of existing jobs in New Zealand that would or might otherwise be lost; • the introduction into New Zealand of new technology or business skills; • the development of new export markets or increased export market access for New Zealand exporters; • added market competition, greater efficiency or productivity, or enhanced domestic services, in New Zealand; • the introduction into New Zealand of additional investment for development purposes; • increased processing in New Zealand of New Zealand ’s primary products.

Where land is currently being used for agricultural purposes, the national interest criteria include:

• whether experimental or research work will be carried out on the land; • the proposed use of the land by the applicant; • if the overseas person is an individual, whether he or she intends to farm the land for his or her own use and benefit and is capable of doing so; • whether the overseas person intends to reside permanently in New Zealand; • such other matters as thought fit, having regard to the circumstances of the particular investment.

The QIC is required to undertake a post-consent monitoring function. An applicant must notify the Commission within one year from the date of consent, advising on whether:

• the investment proceeded; • if it did proceed, providing final details of settlement; and • confirmation that the applicant has complied with any conditions of consent.

Banking and finance: There are no exchange controls affecting remittances to or from New Zealand. There are no restrictions on repatriation of capital or dividends.

No statutory consents are required to borrowing in New Zealand or offshore by an overseas person but, if the borrowing will involve issuing securities to the public, it will be necessary to comply with the prospectus and other requirements of the Securities Act 1978. 64

Common types of business structure: The usual forms of business association in New Zealand are similar to those in many western countries. Most foreign investors adopt incorporation of a New Zealand company or registration of a branch office of a foreign company as the preferred mode of undertaking business in New Zealand.

The form of the business association will be dictated by many factors. These include the size of the proposed operation, taxation, the cost of complying with statutory requirements (including accounting and audit rules), the desirability of obtaining limited liability, the security required by financiers, and the need or otherwise to list on the stock exchange and raise public funds.

Foreign companies registering branches in New Zealand, foreign-owned New Zealand subsidiaries and companies controlled as to 25% or more by foreign residents must file each year with the Registrar of Companies a copy of their audited annual financial statements. In the case of a New Zealand branch of a foreign company, the financial statements must also include accounts relating to the operations of the New Zealand branch. The financial statements must be certified by a person qualified to be an auditor in New Zealand, and must comply with financial reporting standards.

8.3 Other South Pacific Countries A grouping called the South Pacific Forum (SPF) was formed to develop a collective response to a wide range of regional issues including trade and investment. The Forum, chaired on a rotating basis by the Head of the host government, is not governed by a set of rules. Instead, Forum sessions are conducted by consensus and informality in a similar fashion to Asia-pacific Economic Corporation (APEC).

The SPF is a political grouping of independent self-governing states in the South Pacific. Its sphere of political influence covers over 30 million square kilometres, stretching from the Republic of Marshall Islands north of the Equator to New Zealand in the south. Established in 1971, membership of the Forum now includes: Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Western Samoa. 65

Among the various initiatives on trade and investment that the Forum has undertaken since its inception are the establishment of a Trade and Investment Division within the South Pacific Forum Secretariat and the South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement (SPARTECA). SPARTECA is a unilateral preferential trading agreement, which gives Forum Island Countries non­ reciprocal market access into Australia and New Zealand.

In recent years the Forum and the individual governments of the Forum Island Countries (FICs) have recognised the important role that can be played by foreign direct investment (FDI). Due to their limited financial base and attractiveness as a host in areas such as labour-intensive manufacturing, marine resources and tourism, the FICs are keen to facilitate further investment into their region. In 1995 at the Forum Leaders meeting in Madang, the Leaders endorsed the APEC Non-Binding investment principles. This endorsement was subsequently followed by a Finance Ministers’ declaration to implement the transparency principle of the APEC Non- Binding Investment Principles.

A key element of the FIC policy formulation plan is to reduce the administrative impediments to foreign investors. Hence, in addition to their unilateral initiatives they are pleased to make this contribution to the APEC process, which complements the Forum Secretariat ’s similar publication entitled Foreign Investment Climate in South Pacific Forum Island Countries.

Three Forum members already have independent submissions in this document, namely Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. This leaves fourteen FICs that will be included in this overview. Therefore, what follows is not an exhaustive cataloguing of the foreign investment policies of the Forum’s members. Instead, a short overview is given for each country focussing on the main policy elements of its investment regime.

FIC governments’ policies are generally supportive of overseas investment. Some of the FICs, namely Fiji, PNG, Western Samoa and Solomon Islands, are more actively pursuing overseas investment than the others. 66

Among the FICs only Nauru does not have a policy on foreign investment because of two main reasons: (a) Nauruans already have very high income from phosphate export and returns from their own overseas investments, and (b) opportunities for investment in other activities are limited by the small size of the island and its low population.

A summary of economic features of these countries is given in Table F1 in Appendix F and the summary of the other aspects of the foreign investment policy follows:

Investment incentives: The majority of the FICs offer incentives to new investors. The nature, scope and duration of incentive varies markedly between the FICs. In some cases, clearly written guidelines are available and other countries do not provide documentation but assess the level and type of incentive or concession depending on the investment proposal. These countries are intending to develop more liberal and transparent policies to encourage foreign investment. A summary of incentives provided by various South Pacific countries is given in Table F2 in Appendix F.

Special requirements: Many South Pacific countries seek to maximize the benefits of foreign investment by prescribing preferred types of proposals and features of the proposals. There is a strong preference throughout the region for any investment which will:

• create employment for the islanders; • increase exports and reduce imports; • provide new skills to the local people; • contribute positively to the local economy; and • conserve environment and cultural heritage

Restricted areas for foreign investment: There are some restricted areas for the foreign investment in most of the South Pacific countries. For example, in Papua New Guinea there are the following activities where foreign investments are not allowed.

land transportation 67

• manufacture, wholesale and retail sale of handicraft and artifacts • coffee and copra production and export • small scale alluvial gold mining • coastal fishing within a distance of five kilometer from the shore.

Limitations imposed on foreign investors: The two common types of limitations imposed on foreign investors are related to the overseas workers and access to the land in the South Pacific countries. A brief summary of these limitations is described in Table F3 in Appendix F.

Legislation for the entry and activities of foreign investors: Most South Pacific Countries do not have any such specific legislation, however these countries do exercise control over foreign exchange transactions through legislation and/or regulation generally administered by a central bank. A summary of such legislation in various South Pacific countries is presented in Table F4 in Appendix F.

Approval mechanisms for the foreign investment proposals: In most of the South Pacific countries the proposals on foreign investments are examined and projects are followed up to ensure that the investors are complying with the terms and conditions imposed on their projects. A summary is given in Table F5 in Appendix F.

Competition policy: In general the South Pacific countries have not yet introduced any specific legislation relating to competition policy. However, there are government controls on prices of certain commodities in a number of South Pacific Countries and some exercise control over takeovers and mergers. A summary of competition policies in various South Pacific countries is given in Table F6 in Appendix F.

Control on exports and imports: Most of the South Pacific countries impose import duties on a range of products. In some countries duty concessions are available for capital equipment and materials associated with new investment projects. Countries which provide such concessions include: Samoa, Fiji, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Kiribati and Vanuatu. 68

Some countries impose export duties on licences. For example, the Solomon Islands apply duties to certain raw and semi-processed materials and foodstuffs of domestic origin including shell, gold and timber. Papua New Guinea imposes minimum export prices for timber (logs), wood chips and tuna.

Business structures: Most of the South Pacific countries have some form of the legislation and regulations governing the formation of companies and other business entries. It is generally open to the investor to determine what form of business structure is most appropriate under the circumstances of each project.

Labor and labor relations: Salaries and wages in the South Pacific countries are low as compared with those in the advanced industrial countries. They are however higher than in most of the developing Asian countries like China, Vietnam and Indonesia.

The South Pacific countries generally have a shortage of semi-skilled and skilled workers and experienced business managers. Many investors will need to provide training for local workers and this aspect of the foreign investment is strongly favored by most of the South Pacific countries. Some of the South Pacific countries have established measures to ensure minimum wages, working conditions and retirement benefits for the employees. All such available details are summarized in Table F7 in Appendix F.

Taxation: Tax laws vary widely within the South Pacific region, and a summary is given in Table F8 in Appendix F.

Preferential trade access: Under the SPARTECA agreement, all goods of South Pacific country origin may be exported to Australia and New Zealand free of duty and licence.

In addition, the Generalized System of Preference (GSP) enables a range of South Pacific country products to be exported to the USA, Canada, Japan and non-EEC Western European countries at reduced duties. 69

The Lome Conventions allows preferential access to the European Economic Community markets for Fiji, Kiribati, PNG, Solomons Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu Samoa and Tuvalu.

A trade treaty governing Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, known as the Melanesian Spearhead Group (MSG) Preferential Trade Agreement, also exists. This agreement presently covers beef, tea and canned tuna, but further negotiations between the leaders of three respective nations is likely to result in many more products being accorded duty free and preferential treatment within the Agreement guidelines.

Transport and infrastructure: Transport links between South Pacific countries and to the major world market are underdeveloped and constitute a barrier to industrial development. Nevertheless, some examples, including the growth in Fiji’s apparel exports to Australia, New Zealand and the USA, and Tonga export of fresh squash to Japan suggest that transport problems can be overcome where market need exists.

Other areas of infrastructure necessary for business also remain generally underdeveloped, although the situation varies from country to country. Examples include telecommunications, power generation and water supply. In most of the South Pacific countries, electricity is generated from imported petroleum products and therefore the costs of electricity are high. 70

9 POSSIBILITY OF RENEWABLE ENERGY INTRODUCTION

As described in Section 3 and 4, there is already significant use of renewable energy resources in Australia and New Zealand. However, substantial further development of renewable energy technologies is required in these countries if they are to respond adequately to the challenges posed by the Greenhouse problem.

In Australia, renewable energy policies and promotion programs at both Federal and State levels actively encourage further uptake of renewable energy technologies where cost-effectiveness and reliability can be demonstrated. This uptake will be facilitated by renewable energy receiving a premium over conventional fossil fuel- derived electricity and by the target of 2% additional renewables by year 2010. It is expected that this target will be largely met by the currently most prospective forms of renewable energy, namely biomass and wind, followed by a greater contribution from other renewable energy sources such as solar in the longer term.

There are a number of wind turbine suppliers in Australia, but big wind turbines are not manufactured locally. However, this could change in near future with further assessment and the developmentof Australia ’s very substantial wind resources.

Similarly, although there is very little, if any, scope for new installations of large hydro plants in Australia and New Zealand, there is considerable potential for small, mini and micro hydro schemes for both countries.

New Zealand ’s renewable energy policies and promotions programs are also quite favorable to the uptake of all forms of renewable energy, or initiation of any new renewable energy technology.

In Australia and New Zealand there is a relatively high level of social awareness about renewable energy and greenhouse issues. Combined with the economic conditions, level of industrialisation and a highly skilled workforce these provide a favorable platform for any development of renewable energy technologies in these countries. However, the selection of preferred renewable energy technologies will take place in a competitive market environment. 71

The conditions in the other South Pacific countries vary considerably, depending on their policies, economic conditions and level industrial development. However, factors that they do have in common include:

• Large import bills for the diesel used in electricity generation • Lack of good transport and communication systems • Low levels of industry development and low per capita income

As described in Section 8, these countries generally have policies and programs that seek to encourage foreign investment that can address any of the above issues. Hydro and solar PV systems are already operating in Fiji, Kiribati and Micronesia. However, with the exception of Kiribati and the Marshall Islands who have exported some components for PV systems, none of these countries have manufacturing facilities for renewable energy technologies. Introduction of programs that involve in- house manufacturing, assembling, installation, operating and/or monitoring of renewable energy systems would be highly encouraged in South Pacific countries. Introduction of such programs would improve the energy balance, reduce diesel import bills, have environmental benefits and provide local employment.

In contrast to Australia and New Zealand, other South Pacific countries are essentially groups of small islands. Due to the geography and the size of these islands any distributed form of renewable energy systems would appear to be the most appropriate. Given the likely low power requirement of some of these communities, power generation using renewable energy with suitable storage systems may be an attractive and viable option particularly in isolated communities where supplies of diesel may be costly and unreliable. In Papua New Guinea, the availability of natural gas will have a major impact on the viability of renewable energy systems. 72

10 RECOMMENDATIONS

On the basis of the information and data available for Australia, New Zealand and the other South Pacific countries, the following recommendations are made:

• With their relatively large populations and stable governments Australia and New Zealand represent the two most important markets for renewable energy technologies in the South Pacific region. Both currently utilise substantial quantities of renewable energy and have well-developed programs in place to encourage its further uptake. In order to achieve their respective carbon dioxide reduction targets under the Kyoto agreement, further investment in the development of new and existing renewable energy technologies should be required. However, while both Australia and New Zealand have a well-developed manufacturing industry, they often lack the technological or capital resources to invest in the high risk, high cost development programs required. There should therefore be significant opportunities for Japanese organisations with their technological and manufacturing base to collaborate with appropriate local organisations in renewable energy projects to the benefit of both Japan and Australia or New Zealand.

• Apart from Papua New Guinea, other South Pacific countries have a much smaller population than Australia and New Zealand and therefore represent a much smaller market for renewable energy systems. As recent events in Fiji and the Solomon Islands have shown, their governmental systems can quickly become unstable making investment in these markets a higher risk undertaking. The nature of the communities in these countries with their less well-developed electricity grids means that much of the market will be for smaller scale, distributed energy power generation systems. There is obviously an opportunity for Japanese companies to sell renewable technologies directly into these markets. Collaboration with local organisations is recommended as a way of facilitating entry into such markets. However, the very small or poorly developed manufacturing base in these countries compared to Australia and New Zealand means that it may be difficult to find local companies who can play a major role in any developmental programs in these countries. Interactions may well have to be with government organisations, possibly through one of the funding bodies such 73

as the World Bank, Asian Development Bank or various UNDP programs. Again these markets represents a possible avenue for collaboration between Japanese and Australian/New Zealand organisations, particularly in countries which are also members of the British Commonwealth of Nations.

• Apart from Australia and New Zealand, there is a lack of detailed information on the renewable energy resources in South Pacific countries. Data and information provided in this report, are based on the latest available in the public domain. It is clear from this study that the energy problems and opportunities are specific to each country, and each has to be considered in its own right. While the overall market size in these countries may not be large, there may be significant niche opportunities. A detailed survey of renewable energy resources and the market for renewable technologies is required before undertaking any major programs in these countries. Such databases need to regularly updated.

• Papua New Guinea is the only other country apart from Australia and New Zealand that has significant resources of natural gas. Given that it also has good insolation levels there may well be significant opportunities for the development of some form of solar-fossil energy hybrid system that would suit its electricity generation and other energy needs

• Fiji has good potential for hydro, wind, solar and biomass derived energy and the Fiji DOE has been actively involved in evaluating this potential. Having the fourth largest population among the South Pacific countries it would represent a significant market for renewable technologies once the current political instabilities have been resolved. 74

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12 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of the following persons and organizations that provided useful information, data and reports about energy usage in their respective countries:

Ms Fiona Weightman, Renewable Energy Programmes Executive, Energy Efficiency & Conservation Authority, Wellington, New Zealand Ms Emma Griffin, Centre for Advanced Engineering, University of Canterbury, New Zealand Mr Shiv Sharan Sharma, Minister of Works and Energy, Fiji Mr D Kumaran, Director of Energy, Department of Energy, Ministry of Works and Energy, Fiji Mr Intiyaz Khan, Secretary, Department of Energy, Ministry of Works and Energy, Fiji Ms Ashmita Gosai, Climate Applications Officer, Fiji Meteorological Service, Nadi, FIJI, Mr Dilip Mohanty, Secretary, South Pacific Trade Commission Forum, Sydney 2000. Ms Christine Sadler, Economic Statistician, Statistics New Zealand. Mr Fethy Mill, Dept. Sci. Econ. & REI, Documentaliste/Librarian Uni vers ite de Montreal, Canada. Mr Geoff Baker, Plant Engineer for Pohnpei Utilities Corporation, Pohnpei, Micronesia Ms Hazel Lulei, Counsellor, Solomon Island High Commission, Canberra. Mr Dennis T. Bebego, Director, Resource, Environment and Sustainable Development Branch, Economic and Development Cooperation Division, Department of Foreign Affairs, Papua New Guinea. Mr Kireua B. Kaiea, Secretary, Energy Planing Unit, Ministry of Works and Energy, Kiribati. Mr Mutaaga Enosa, Secretary, Department of Trade, Commerce and Industry, Western Samoa.

The authors also wish to thank Dr Tony Vassallo, Dr Neville Lockhart and Dr Chris Mitchell from CSIRO Energy Technology for providing valuable information for the report. Finally, the efforts of Mr Cihannur Documuku for data entry and Ms Lorraine Lloyd in preparation of the final report are also acknowledged. APPENDIX A 80

Table A1a - Energy Balance of Australia

Country : Australia; Year : 1998 Energy Production (Quads) = 8.2859; Energy Consumption (Quads) = 4.3041 Oil (Thousand Barrels per Day) Production Refinery Recycled Imports Exports Stock Build Consumption Unaccounted for Supply Crude oil 543.97 725.11 412.41 230.87 -0.97 0 -1.37 NGL's 62 -1.07 0 0 0 63.07 0 Other Oils 0 8.94 0 39.88 30.67 0.26 0 0 Refinery Gain 13.4 43.77 30.37 Gasoline 313.95 0.58 23.65 -0.4 308.43 17.15 Jet Fuel 91.47 2.17 10.36 0.72 83.01 0.46 Kerosene 4.11 0.17 0.7 -0.61 2.06 -2.14 Distillate 224.7 15.98 20.05 0.69 217.79 -2.15 Residual 31.13 13.48 7.02 -1.7 33.54 -5.75 LPG's 26.38 8.49 45.54 0.89 16.11 27.68 Unspecified 85.01 15.38 13.89 -1.37 107.28 19.41 Total 619.37 776.75 508.55 382.77 -2.49 831.30 83.66 Natural gas (Billion Cubic Feet and Quadrillion Btu) Gross Production (Billion Cubic Feet) 1098.01 Dry Imports (Billion Cubic Feet) 0 Vented and Flared (Billion Cubic Feet) 0 Dry Exports (Billion Cubic Feet) 345.06 Re-injected (Billion Cubic Feet) 0 Marketed Production (Billion Cubic Feet) 1098.01 Dry Production (Billion Cubic Feet) 1098.01 Dry Production (Quadrillion Btu) 1.1727 Dry Consumption (Billion Cubic Feet) 752.95 Dry Consumption (Quadrillion Btu) 0.8042 Coal (Thousand Short Tons and Quadrillion Btu) Production Imports Exports Stock Build (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) Hard Coal 0 0 183707 4.0511 0 0 -Anthracite 0 0 -Bituminous 241362 5.1392 Lignite 72312 0.5727 0 0 0 0 0 0 Coke 0 0 195 0.0043 0 0 Total Coal 313674 5.7118 0 0 183902 4.0554 0 0 Consumption : (1000 Tons) = 129772; (Quads) = 1.6564

Electricity (Million KiloWatts, Billion KiloWatt Hours, and Quadrillion Btu)

Technology Capacity Generation (Billion kWh) (Quads) (Million kW) (Billion kWh) (Quads) Hydroelectric 7.001 15.569 0.1619 Total Imports 0 0 Nuclear 0 0 0 Total Exports 0 0 Geothermal 0.015 3.352 0.0349 Losses 13.047 Thermal 31.514 167.467 Totals 38.530 186.387 Consumption 173.340 81

Table A1b - Energy Balance of New Zealand

Country : New Zealand; Year : 1998 Energy Production (Quads) = 0.6490; Energy Consumption (Quads) = 0.7857 Oil (Thousand Barrels per Day) Production Refinery Recycled Imports Exports Stock Build Consumption Unaccounted for Supply Crude oil 46.92 99.79 90.61 33.84 2.85 0 -1.05 NGL’s 6.58 0.06 0 0 0 4.97 -1.55 Other Oils 1.00 9.27 0 7.58 0.28 -0.97 0 0 Refinery Gain 1.20 0.53 -0.67 Gasoline 37.11 13.70 0.60 -0.42 50.85 0.3 Jet Fuel 17.55 1.85 0.04 -0.61 17.4 -2.56 Kerosene 0.09 0 0 0 0.25 0.17 Distillate 36.13 1.21 1 -1.12 36.18 -1.29 Residual 9.12 0 0.53 0.15 7.86 -0.58 LRG's 0.00 0 2.35 0 3.59 5.94 Unspecified 9.64 1.44 0.02 0.52 11.44 0.9 Total 55.70 109.65 116.38 38.75 0.38 132.55 -0.4 Natural gas (Billion Cubic Feet and Quadrillion Btu) Gross Production (Billion Cubic Feet) 174.7 Dry Imports (Billion Cubic Feet) 0 Vented and Flared (Billion Cubic Feet) 0 Dry Exports (Billion Cubic Feet) 0 Re-injected (Billion Cubic Feet) 0 Marketed Production (Billion Cubic Feet) 174.7 Dry Production (Billion Cubic Feet) 174.7 Dry Production (Quadrillion Btu) 0.1829 Dry Consumption (Billion Cubic Feet) 174.67 Dry Consumption (Quadrillion Btu) 0.1829 Coal (Thousand Short Tons and Quadrillion Btu) Production Imports Exports Stock Build (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) Hard Coal 0 0 1441 0.0372 -424 0.0107 -Anthracite 138 0.0035 -Bituminous 3125 0.0735 Lignite 331 0.0036 0 0 0 0 -68 -0.0007 Coke 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total Coal 3594 0.0705 0 0 1441 0.0372 493 -0.0114 Consumption: (1000 Tons) = 2646; (Quads) = 0.0447

Electricity (Million KiloWatts, Billion KiloWatt Hours, and Quadrillion Btu)

Technology Capacity Generation (Billion kWh) (Quads) (Million kW) (Billion kWh) (Quads) Hydroelectric 5.158 23.556 0.2450 Total Imports 0 0 Nuclear 0 0 0 Total Exports 0 0 Geothermal 0.332 2.509 0.0476 Losses 2.505 Thermal 2.304 9.724 Totals 7.794 35.789 Consumption 33.284 82

Table A1c - Energy Balance of Papua New Guinea

Country : Papua New Guinea; Year : 1997 Energy Production (Quads) = 0.1732; Energy Consumption (Quads) = 0.0421 Oil (Thousand Barrels per Day) Production Refinery Recycled Imports Exports Stock Build Consumption Unaccounted for Supply Crude oil 80.00 1.0 0 79 0 0 0 NGL's 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other Oils 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Refinery Gain 0 0.09 0.09 Gasoline 0 1.87 0 0 1.87 0 Jet Fuel 0.43 0.98 0 0 1.41 0 Kerosene 0 0.42 0 0 0.42 0 Distillate 0.61 6.05 0.31 0 6.34 0 Residual 0.01 4.84 0 0 4.85 0 LPG's 0 0.1 0 0 0.1 0 Unspecified 0.03 0.17 0 0 0.2 0 Total 80.00 1.09 14.4 79.31 0 15.18 0.09 Natural gas (Billion Cubic Feet and Quadrillion Btu) Gross Production (Billion Cubic Feet) 4.24 Dry Imports (Billion Cubic Feet) 0 Vented and Flared (Billion Cubic Feet) 0 Dry Exports (Billion Cubic Feet) 0 Re-injected (Billion Cubic Feet) 0.35 Marketed Production (Billion Cubic Feet) 3.88 Dry Production (Billion Cubic Feet) 3.88 Dry Production (Quadrillion Btu) 0.0041 Dry Consumption (Billion Cubic Feet) 3.88 Dry Consumption (Quadrillion Btu) 0.0041 Coal (Thousand Short Tons and Quadrillion Btu) Production Imports Exports Stock Build (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) Hard Coal 1 0 0 0 0 0 -Anthracite 0 0 -Bituminous 0 0 Lignite 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Coke 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total Coal 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Consumption: (1000 Tons) = 1; (Quads) = 0.0000

Electricity (Million KiloWatts, Billion KiloWatt Hours, and Quadrillion Btu)

Technology Capacity Generation (Billion kWh) (Quads) (Million kW) (Billion kWh) (Quads) Hydroelectric 0.155 0.525 0.0055 Total Imports 0 0 Nuclear 0 0 0 Total Exports 0 0 Geothermal 0 0 0 Losses 0.121 Thermal 0.335 1.2 Totals 0.49 1.725 Consumption 1.604 83

Table Aid - Energy Balance of Republic of Fiji

Country : Republic of Fiji; Year : 1997 Energy Production (Quads) = 0.0045; Energy Consumption (Quads) = 0.0170 Oil (Thousand Barrels per Day) Production Refinery Recycled Imports Exports Stock Build Consumption Unaccounted for Supply Crude oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NGL’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other Oils 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Refinery Gain 0 0 0 Gasoline 0 1.54 0.47 0 1.08 0 Jet Fuel 0 1.19 0.54 0 0.65 0 Kerosene 0 1.16 0.74 0 0.42 0 Distillate 0 3.68 0.72 0 2.96 0 Residual 0 0.33 0 0 0.33 0 LPG's 0 0.25 0 0 0.25 0 Unspecified 0 0.12 0.02 0 0.10 0 Total 0 0 8.28 2.49 0 5.79 0 Natural gas (Billion Cubic Feet and Quadrillion Btu) Gross Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Imports (Billion Cubic Feet) Vented and Flared (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Exports (Billion Cubic Feet) Re-injected (Billion Cubic Feet) Marketed Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Quadrillion Btu) Dry Consumption (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Consumption (Quadrillion Btu) Coal (Thousand Short Tons and Quadrillion Btu) Production Imports Exports Stock Build (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) Hard Coal 24 0.0006 0 0 0 0 -Anthracite 0 0 -Bituminous 0 0 Lignite 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Coke 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total Coal 0 0 24 0.006 0 0 0 0 Consumption: (1000 Tons) = 24; (Quads) = 0.0006

Electricity (Million KiloWatts, Billion KiloWatt Hours, and Quadrillion Btu)

Technology Capacity Generation (Billion kWh) (Quads) (Million kW) (Billion kWh) (Quads) Hydroelectric 0.080 0.43 0.0045 Total Imports 0 0 Nuclear 0 0 0 Total Exports 0 0 Geothermal 0 0 0 Losses 0.038 Thermal 0.120 0.11 Totals 0.2 0.54 Consumption 0.502 84

Table A1e - Energy Balance of Solomon Islands

Country :Solomon Island; Year : 1997 Energy Production (Quads) = 0.0000; Energy Consumption (Quads) = 0.0024 Oil (Thousand Barrels per Day) Production Refinery Recycled Imports Exports Stock Build Consumption Unaccounted for Supply Crude oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NGL’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other Oils 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Refinery Gain 0 0 0 Gasoline 0 0.19 0 0 0.19 0 Jet Fuel 0 0.04 0 0 0.04 0 Kerosene 0 0.04 0 0 0.04 0 Distillate 0 0.82 0 0 0.82 0 Residual 0 0 0 0 0 0 LPG’s 0 0.03 0 0 0.03 0 Unspecified 0 0.04 0 0 0.04 0 Total 0 0 1.17 0 0 1.17 0 Natural gas (Billion Cubic Feet and Quadrillion Btu) Gross Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Imports (Billion Cubic Feet) Vented and Flared (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Exports (Billion Cubic Feet) Re-injected (Billion Cubic Feet) Marketed Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Quadrillion Btu) Dry Consumption (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Consumption (Quadrillion Btu) Coal (Thousand Short Tons and Quadrillion Btu) Production Imports Exports Stock Build (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) Hard Coal -Anthracite -Bituminous Lignite Coke Total Coal Consumption: (1000 Tons) = 0; (Quads) = 0

Electricity (Million KiloWatts, Billion KiloWatt Hours, and Quadrillion Btu)

Technology Capacity Generation (Billion kWh) (Quads) (Million kW) (Billion kWh) (Quads) Hydroelectric 0 0 0 Total Imports 0 0 Nuclear 0 0 0 Total Exports 0 0 Geothermal 0 0 0 Losses 0.002 Thermal 0.012 0.03 Totals 0.012 0.03 Consumption 0.028 85

Table A1f - Energy Balance of Western Samoa

Country : Western Samoa; Year : 1997 Energy Production (Quads) = 0.0003; Energy Consumption (Quads) = 0.0022 Oil (Thousand Barrels per Day) Production Refinery Recycled Imports Exports Stock Build Consumption Unaccounted for Supply Crude oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NGL’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other Oils 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Refinery Gain 0 0 0 Gasoline 0 0.37 0 0 0.37 0 Jet Fuel 0 0 0 0 0 0 Kerosene 0 0.15 0 0 0.15 0 Distillate 0 0.41 0 0 0.41 0 Residual 0 0 0 0 0 0 LPG's 0 0 0 0 0 0 Unspecified 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 0 0 0.93 0 0 0.93 0 Natural gas (Billion Cubic Feet and Quadrillion Btu) Gross Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Imports (Billion Cubic Feet) Vented and Flared (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Exports (Billion Cubic Feet) Re-injected (Billion Cubic Feet) Marketed Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Quadrillion Btu) Dry Consumption (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Consumption (Quadrillion Btu) Coal (Thousand Short Tons and Quadrillion Btu) Production Imports Exports Stock Build (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) Hard Coal -Anthracite -Bituminous Lignite Coke Total Coal Consumption: (1000 Tons) = 0; (Quads) = 0

Electricity (Million KiloWatts, Billion KiloWatt Hours, and Quadrillion Btu)

Technology Capacity Generation (Billion kWh) (Quads) (Million kW) (Billion kWh) (Quads) Hydroelectric 0.006 0.025 0.0006 Total Imports 0 0 Nuclear 0 0 0 Total Exports 0 0 Geothermal 0 0 0 0.005 Thermal 0.013 0.04 Totals 0.019 0.065 Consumption 0.06 86

Table A1g - Energy Balance of Republic of Vanuatu

Country : Republic of Vanuatu; Year : 1997 Energy Production (Quads) = 0.0000; Energy Consumption (Quads) = 0.0009 Oil (Thousand Barrels per Day) Production Refinery Recycled Imports Exports Stock Build Consumption Unaccounted for Supply Crude oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NGL’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other Oils 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Refinery Gain 0 0 0 Gasoline 0 0.09 0 0 0.09 0 Jet Fuel 0 0 0 0 0 0 Kerosene 0 0.02 0 0 0.02 0 Distillate 0 0.31 0 0 0.31 0 Residual 0 0 0 0 0 0 LPG’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 Unspecified 0 0.02 0 0 0.02 0 Total 0 0 0.44 0 0 0.44 0 Natural gas (Billion Cubic Feet and Quadrillion Btu) Gross Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Imports (Billion Cubic Feet) Vented and Flared (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Exports (Billion Cubic Feet) Re-injected (Billion Cubic Feet) Marketed Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Quadrillion Btu) Dry Consumption (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Consumption (Quadrillion Btu) Coal (Thousand Short Tons and Quadrillion Btu) Production Imports Exports Stock Build (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) Hard Coal -Anthracite -Bituminous Lignite Coke Total Coal Consumption: (1 OCX) Tons) = 0; (Quads) = 0

Electricity (Million Kilowatts, Billion KiloWatt Hours, and Quadrillion Btu)

Technology Capacity Generation (Billion kWh) (Quads) (Million kW) (Billion kWh) (Quads) Hydroelectric 0 0 0 Total Imports 0 0 Nuclear 0 0 0 Total Exports 0 0 Geothermal 0 0 0 Losses 0.002 Thermal 0.011 0.032 Totals 0.011 0.032 Consumption 0.03 87

Table A1h - Energy Balance of Kingdom of Tonga

Country : Kingdom of Tonga; Year : 1997 Energy Production (Quads) = 0.0000; Energy Consumption (Quads) = 0.0019 Oil (Thousand Barrels per Day) Production Refinery Recycled Imports Exports Stock Build Consumption Unaccounted for Supply Crude oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NGL’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other Oils 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Refinery Gain 0 0 0 Gasoline 0 0.33 0 0 0.33 0 Jet Fuel 0 0.07 0 0 0.07 0 Kerosene 0 0.08 0 0 0.08 0 Distillate 0 0.37 0 0 0.37 0 Residual 0 0 0 0 0 0 LPG's 0 0.03 0 0 0.03 0 Unspecified 0 0.05 0 0 0.05 0 Total 0 0 0.93 0 0 0.93 0 Natural gas (Billion Cubic Feet and Quadrillion Btu) Gross Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Imports (Billion Cubic Feet) Vented and Flared (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Exports (Billion Cubic Feet) Re-injected (Billion Cubic Feet) Marketed Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Quadrillion Btu) Dry Consumption (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Consumption (Quadrillion Btu) Coal (Thousand Short Tons and Quadrillion Btu) Production Imports Exports Stock Build (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) Hard Coal -Anthracite -Bituminous Lignite Coke Total Coal Consumption: (1000 Tons) = 0; (Quads) = 0

Electricity (Million KiloWatts, Billion KiloWatt Hours, and Quadrillion Btu)

Technology Capacity Generation (Billion kWh) (Quads) (Million kW) (Billion kWh) (Quads) Hydroelectric 0 0 0 Total Imports 0 0 Nuclear 0 0 0 Total Exports 0 0 Geothermal 0 0 0 Losses 0.002 Thermal 0.007 0.034 Totals 0.007 0.034 Consumption 0.032 88

Table A1i - Energy Balance of Republic of Kiribati

Country :Republic of Kiribati; Year : 1997 Energy Production (Quads) = 0.0000; Energy Consumption (Quads) = 0.0003 Oil (Thousand Barrels per Day) Production Refinery Recycled Imports Exports Stock Build Consumption Unaccounted for Supply Crude oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NGL's 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other Oils 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Refinery Gain 0 0 0 Gasoline 0 0.02 0 0 0.02 0 Jet Fuel 0 0.02 0 0 0.02 0 Kerosene 0 0 0 0 0 0 Distillate 0 0.1 0 0 0.1 0 Residual 0 0 0 0 0 0 LPG's 0 0 0 0 0 0 Unspecified 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 0 0 0.15 0 0 0.15 0 Natural gas (Billion Cubic Feet and Quadrillion Btu) Gross Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Imports (Billion Cubic Feet) Vented and Flared (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Exports (Billion Cubic Feet) Re-injected (Billion Cubic Feet) Marketed Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Quadrillion Btu) Dry Consumption (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Consumption (Quadrillion Btu) Coal (Thousand Short Tons and Quadrillion Btu) Production Imports Exports Stock Build (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) Hard Coal -Anthracite -Bituminous Lignite Coke Total Coal Consumption: (1000 Tons) = 0; (Quads) = 0

Electricity (Million KiloWatts, Billion KiloWatt Hours, and Quadrillion Btu)

Technology Capacity Generation (Billion kWh) (Quads) (Million kW) (Billion kWh) (Quads) Hydroelectric 0 0 0 Total Imports 0 0 Nuclear 0 0 0 Total Exports 0 0 Geothermal 0 0 0 Losses 0.000 Thermal 0.002 0.007 Totals 0.002 0.007 Consumption 0.007 89

Table A1j - Energy balance of Republic of Nauru

Country : Republic of Nauru; Year : 1997 Energy Production (Quads) = 0.0000; Energy Consumption (Quads) = 0.0021 Oil (Thousand Barrels per Day) Production Refinery Recycled Imports Exports Stock Build Consumption Unaccounted for Supply Crude oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NGL’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other Oils 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Refinery Gain 0 0 0 Gasoline 0 0.14 0 0 0.14 0 Jet Fuel 0 0.11 0 0 0.11 0 Kerosene 0 0 0 0 0 0 Distillate 0 0.06 0 0 0.06 0 Residual 0 0.66 0 0 0.66 0 IPG’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 Unspecified 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 0 0 0.97 0 0 0.97 0 Natural gas (Billion Cubic Feet and Quadrillion Btu) Gross Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Imports (Billion Cubic Feet) Vented and Flared (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Exports (Billion Cubic Feet) Re-injected (Billion Cubic Feet) Marketed Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Production (Quadrillion Btu) Dry Consumption (Billion Cubic Feet) Dry Consumption (Quadrillion Btu) Coal (Thousand Short Tons and Quadrillion Btu) Production Imports Exports Stock Build (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) (1000 Tons) (Quads) Hard Coal -Anthracite -Bituminous Lignite Coke Total Coal Consumption: (1000 Tons) = 0; (Quads) = 0

Electricity (Million KiloWatts, Billion KiloWatt Hours, and Quadrillion Btu)

Technology Capacity Generation (Billion kWh) (Quads) (Million kW) (Billion kWh) (Quads) Hydroelectric 0 0 0 Total Imports 0 0 Nuclear 0 0 0 Total Exports 0 0 Geothermal 0 0 0 Losses 0.002 Thermal 0.01 0.032 Totals 0.01 0.032 Consumption 0.03 90

Table A2 Uptake of Renewable Energy and Fossil Energy

Country Capacity Annual production Population Grid Connected Sources Note

(MW) (GWh)

Australia 38530(1998) 186387(1998) 18783551(1999) 81.79% fossil, 18.17% hydro,

0.039% wind and solar PV

New Zealand 7794(1998) 35789(1998) 3662269(1999) 18.72% fossil, 75.67% hydro,

5.61% geothermal & other (1996)

Papua New Guinea 490(1997) 1725(1997) 4496221 (1997) 70.59% fossil rest mainly hydro

Republic of Fiji 200(1998) 503(1998) 772665 (1996) 60% diesel and rest mainly hydro An experimental solar PV connected to grid

and solar in 1997

Solomon Island 12(1997) 30(1997) 426855 (1997) Mainly diesel

Western Samoa 19(1997) 65 (1997) 209360(1995) 68% diesel, 32% hydro

Republic of Vanuatu 11 (1997) 32 (1997) 193219(1999) Mainly diesel

States of Micronesia 38.5(1995) 127616(1997) 88.5% diesel rest hydro 75 W PV/house installed in 130 houses, is

nonfunctional due to faulty batteries

Kingdom of Tonga 7(1997) 34 (1997) 107335(1997) Mainly diesel

Republic of Kiribati 4.4 (1999) 11.7(1999) 82449(1997) Mainly diesel Some houses have PV system which has

total capacity of 93.366 kW

Republic of the 16(1994) 57(1994) 60650(1997) Mainly diesel

Marshall Islands

Republic of Nauru 13.2(1995) 48 (1995) 10390(1997) Mainly diesel Waste disposal is a problem and it can be a

source of energy. 91

Table A3 Comprehensive Database of All Renewable Energy Generators in Australia

Energy Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes Source capacity installation (MW) Solar thermal 2.3PJ

45 kW Aust National University Canberra ACT 1995? Solar thermal Dish exp only

Solar PV -17MW 66% dedicated remote Installation rate is 2 MW per

(total) telecommunication and navigation year

25% domestic off grid applications,

10% water pumping, on 4% grid

connected

4.5 kW Ecodesing Building, Rozelle NSW 1996

6.5 kW Nimbin Sunpower Project NSW 1996

42 kW Aust Inland Energy/Solar Systems/SEDA White Cliffs, NSW 1998 14 dishes output of 42 kW

50 kW Western Plains Zoo Dubbo, NSW 1998 Provide power to the center

of the zoo and the kiosk

400 kW Energy Australia Singleton, NSW 1998 Upper Hunter Valley

5 kW Advance Energy Bathurst, NSW Unknown Flat plate PV cells

10 kW Private Salamander Bay, NSW Unknown BP modules 10.3 KW Manly Hydraulics Laboratory Manly Vale (Sydney), NSW 1998 Cannon Supplied 10.3 kW

of their unique Batten and

Seam solar modules

5 kW Integral Energy Coniston, NSW 1995 BP modules

50 kW Great Southern Energy Queanbeyan, NSW 1999 Yass Rd Depot solar plant

3.6 kW Birds Australia Broome, WA 1997 Tracking PV array

20 kW Yagga Yagga, WA 1998

75kW BMP Mt Newman rail line, WA Unknown Solarex modules that power

signalling at +70 sites

10 kW Public Kalbarri, WA Unknown

6.3 kW Public Jilkminggan, NT Unknown 100 km SE Katherine

4.2 kW Hamilton Downs, NT N/A 75 km from Alice Springs

4 kW Boomerang Bore, NT N/A 120 km from Alice Springs 92

Energy Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes Source capacity installation (MW) 12.8 kW AP Lands Watarru, SA N/A

3500 kW South Australian Water Corporation Bolivar, SA 1993 Electricity for internal use

Geothermal 0

Wind

8 kW National Parks North Keppel Island, Queensland 1996 Central Queensland, 1 unit

10 kW Public Coconut Island, Queensland 1996 orres Strait

450 kW Public Far North Queensland Thursday Island, Queensland 1998 Thursday Island

80 kW Private Lagerwey Epenarra, Northern Territory Unknown Lagerwey wind turbine

5.6 kW Unknown Boomerang Bore, Northern Territory Unknown 120 km from Alice Spring, 2

units

5 kW Public Pitjinjarra settlement, South A Unknown Between Alice Spring &

ustralia Coober Peddy

5 kW Private Flowtrack Parkside, Soutrh Australia 1996 22 m tower

150 kW Public Coober Peddy, South Australia Unknown

600 kW Energy Australia Kooragang Island, NSW 1997 Newcastle

4.8 MW Great Southern Energy Crookwell, NSW 1998 Windform with 8 units

150 kW Pacific Power Malabar, NSW Unknown Sydney

3.5 kW Public Westwind Gabo Island Lighthouse, Victoria Unknown Westwind turbines

3.5 kW Public Westwind Point Hicks Lighthouse, Victoria Unknown Westwind turbine

10 kW Private Westwind Tortoise Head Resort, Victoria Late 80 s Westwind 10kVA

60 kW Private Westwind Breamlea, Victoria 1987 Near Barwon Heads

8 kW Citipower Melbourne, Victoria Unknown

10 kW Citipower Bergey Brunswick, Victoria Unknown Green Power Scheme

10 kW Public Westwind Wilson’s Promontry Lighthouse, 1997 For lighthouse beacon & 93

Energy Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes Source capacity installation (MW) Victoria. cabins

750 kW Public King Island, Tasmania 1998 Bass Strait stage 1

55 kW Private Flinders Island, Tasmania Unknown Hayes Hill, east Whitemark

2.385 MW Public Esperance, Western Australia Unknown

230 kW Public Denham, Western Australia 1998 Shark Bay, North Perth

5 kW Public Westwind Murdoch University, Western Australia Unknown Murdoch Uni. Res. Inst.

Biomass

Sewage CH4 2400 kW Sydney Water Malabar, NSW 1999 Malabar sewage treat plant

Wood waste 1500 kW Macquarie Generation Liddell, NSW 1999 Cofiring sawmill waste; up to

5% biomass blend with coal

Landfill CH4 4000 kW EDL Belrose Landfill, NSW 1995 Sydney suburb

Landfill CH4 Waste Disposal Authority Merrylands Landfill, NSW 1986 Not operational 0.12 MW

Landfill CH4 4000 kW EDL Lucas Heights Landfill 1, NSW 1994 Southern Suburb

Landfill CH4 9000 kW EDL Lucas Heights Landfill 2, NSW 1998 Southern Suburb

Bagasse 8000 kW Private Broadwater, NSW 1996 Sugar Milling Co-op

Bagasse 3000 kW Private Condong, NSW 1981 Sugar Milling Co-op

Bagasse 4500 kW Private Harwood, NSW 1964 & 82 Sugar Milling 1.5 & 3 MW

Bagasse 11000 kW Independent Sugar North Ltd Mossman, NSW 1954,1964 2, 3 & 6 MW

& 1995

Digester gas 3500 kW South Australian Water Corporation Bolivar, SA 1993 Electricity for internal use

Landfill CH4 3000 kW EDL Pedler Creek Landfill, SA 1996 Adelaide suburb

Landfill CH4 2000 kW EDL Highbury Landfill, SA 1995 Adelaide suburb

Landfill CH4 3000 kW EDL Tea Tree Gully Landfill, SA 1995 Adelaide suburb

Landfill CH4 5000 kW EDL Wingfield 1 Landfill, SA 1994 Adelaide suburb

Landfill CH4 2000 kW EDL Wingfield 2 Landfill, SA 1994 Adelaide suburb

Landfill CH4 1000 kW EDL Browns Plains, QLD 1996 Brisbane suburb

Sewage CH4 3200 kW Brisbane City Council Brisbane, QLD 1979 Brisbane Luggage Point 94

Energy Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes Source capacity installation (MW) Treatment Works

Bagasse 7000 kW Bundaberg Sugar Ltd Arriga, OLD 1998 SW of Mareeba on the

Atherton Tablelands 3 MW

Bagasse Private Hambledon, QLD Unknown

Bagasse 6000 kW Bundaberg Sugar Ltd Babinda, QLD Unknown Oil supplementary; exports

0.5-2MW to grid

Bagasse 4250 kW Bundaberg Sugar Ltd Mourilyan, QLD Unknown Oil supplementary; Plants of

1.75,1.5,1 MW

Bagasse 5000 kW Bundaberg Sugar Ltd Bingera, QLD Unknown Wood chip supplementary;

Plants of 1.5, 3.5 MW

Bagasse 20000 kW Independent Sugar North Ltd Tully, QLD 1956,1965 1.5, 4.5, 5.3, 8.7 MW

1975,1997 Near Townsville

Bagasse 49000 kW CSR Sugar Mills Burdekin, QLD 1999 Up to 1 MW exported; oil

Bagasse 7200 kW CSR Sugar Mills Pioneer, QLD 1958,1963 supplementary 2.5,1.2,10

1976 MW

Bagasse 12000 kW CSR Sugar Mills Inkerman, QLD 1963,1976 Up to 2MW exported; Oil

supplementary; 2,10 MW

Bagasse 10000 kW Independet Sugar North Ltd Proserpine Sugar Milling Association 1974,1978 Oil, coal, wood chip

Power Station, QLD supplementary 6, 4 MW

Bagasse 1500 kW Mackay Sugar Mills Farleigh, QLD 1956 Coal supplementary

Bagasse 18000 kW Mackay Sugar Mills Marian, QLD 67, 76, 78 3,10, 5 MW

Bagasse 10500 kW Mackay Sugar Mills Racecourse, QLD 1968,1982 3 MW exported to grid, coal

supplementary

Bagasse 20000 kW CSR Sugar Mills Plane Creek, QLD 1970,1997 Oil supplementary

Bagasse 7750 kW Bundaberg Sugar Ltd Fairmead, QLD Unknown Oil/wood chip

supplementary

Bagasse 5000 kW Bundaberg Sugar Ltd Bingera, QLD Unknown Wood chip supplementary,

1.5 & 3.5 MW

Bagasse 10700 kW Independent Sugar North Ltd Isis, QLD 1965;1975 Wood chip Supplementary, 95

Energy Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes Source capacity installation (MW) 1.5; 2.7 & 6.5 MW

Bagasse 4750 kW Independent Sugar North Ltd Maryborough, QLD Unknown Wood chip supplementary

0.75, 2 & 2 MW

Bagasse (kW) Private Moreton, QLD Unknown

Bagasse 4600 kW Independent Sugar North Ltd Rocky Point, QLD Unknown Wood chip supplementary,

3&1.6 MW

Bagasse 3000 kW CSR Sugar Mills Macknade, QLD 1965 Up to 3MW exported to grid

Bagasse 10500 kW Independent Sugar North Ltd Mulgrave, QLD unknown Coal Supplementary, 5, 3,1

& 1.5 MW

Bagasse 11500 kW Independent Sugar North Ltd South Johnstone, QLD unknown Coal supplementary, 2 & 9.5

MW

Bagasse 3000 kW CSR Sugar Mills Macknade, QLD 1965 Up to 3 MW exported to grid

Bagasse 9000 kW CSR Sugar Mills Kakamia, QLD 1976 Sells 2 MW to grid

Bagasse 10100 kW Mackay Sugar Mills Pleystowe, QLD 1966,1975 2 MW export to grid, 3.1,

7MW

Bagasse 11800 kW CSR Sugar Mills Victoria, QLD 1965,1976 Produces own power, .3.2,

3.6, 38.5 MW

Bagasse 10500 kW Mackay Sugar Mills Racecourse, QLD 1968,1982 3 MW exported to grid, coal

supplementary, 3.5 & 7.0

MW

Bagasse 50000 kW CSR Sugar Mills Invicta, QLD 1976,1995 35-40 MW sold to grid, 9,

& 1996 2.5 & 38.5 MW

Bagasse 5000 kW Bundaberg Sugar Ltd Bing era, QLD Unknown Wood chip supplementary,

1.5 & 3.5 MW

Bagasse Private Millaquin, QLD Unknown

Bagasse 4750 kW Independent Sugar North Ltd Maryborough, QLD Unknown Wood chip supplementary,

0.75, 2 & 2 MW

Landfill CH4 4000 kW EDL Berwick Landfill, VIC 1992 Melbourne

Landfill CH4 7000 kW EDL Spring vale Landfill, VIC 1995 Melbourne

Landfill CH4 10000 kW EDL Clayton Landfill, VIC 1995 Melbourne 96

Energy Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes Source capacity installation (MW) Landfill CH4 7000 kW EDL Broadmeadows, VIC 1993 Melbourne

Landfill CH4 7500 ABB Sunshine Landfill, VIC 1993 Sunshine Council

Landfill CH4 1000 kW EDL Corio Landfill, VIC 1992 Melbourne

33% power; heating; use

Sewage CH4 7500 kW Melbourne Water Carrum Downs, VIC 1975 sludge gas and natural gas

Melbourne Water ’s Western

Sewage CH4 1300 kW Public Melbourne, VIC 1005 Treat Plans-Sewage Gas

Werribee

Trial, floating plastic cover

Sewage CH4 650 kW Public Werribee Sewage Treatment Plant, 1997 collects methane released

VIC from sewage decomposition

in the lagoon system

100% power and heat used

Digester gas 130 kW Charles IFE P/L Ballarat, VIC Unknown in process; Uses waste gas

100% power and heat used

Digester gas 60 kW Charles IFE P/L Ballarat, VIC 1990 in process; Uses waste gas

Waste water management

Digester gas 1200 kW WA Water Corp Woodman Point, WA 1998 project, Two large anaerobic

digesters

Landfill CH4 1120 kW Landfill Gas and Power P/L Kalumunda, WA 1996

Landfill CH4 4000 kW Landfill Gas and Power P/L Canningvale, WA 1995

Landfill CH4 5000 kW Private Landfills Perth, WA Unknown Landfill at Redhill and Mt

Claremont

Bagasse 6000 kW CSR Sugar Mills Ord Sugar Mill, WA 90s CSR Sugar Processing plant

in Ord River

Hydro 60 MW Public Stanwell Corp (33% NRG) Barron Gorge, QLD Unknown Near Cairns

72 MW Public Stanwell Corp (33% NRG) Kareeya, QLD 1957/1959 Cairns region, 4 units

4 MW Public Somerset Dam, QLD Unknown Brisbane River

500 MW Public Tarong Energy Wivenhoe Dam, QLD 1984 Brisbane River, 2 units Energy Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes Source capacity installation (MW) 10 MW NorthPower Mullumbimby, NSW Unknown Near Mullumbimby

4.4 MW NorthPower Nymboida, NSW 1928 Near Grafton

5 MW Hydroco Pindari, NSW Unknown

19 MW Hydroco Copeton, NSW 1996 Gwydir River (Inverell)

4.7 MW NorthPower Oakey, NSW Unknown Near Armidale

7 MW Pacific power Keepit, NSW 1938/60 Near Gunnedah

5 MW Hydro Power Glenbawn Dam, NSW Unknown Near Scone

19 MW Hydroco Burrendong, NSW 1996 Near Wellington

18 MW Hydro Power Wyangla Dam, NSW Unknown 20km east Cowra

50 MW Pacific power Warragamba, NSW 1959 65km west of Sydney

7 MW Public Williams Dam, NSW Unknown On Williams River

10.8 MW Pacific power Burrinjuck, NSW 1938 Increase 15MW in 2001

80 MW Pacific power Shoalhaven A, NSW 1977 Near Nowra, 2 units

160 MW Pacific power Shoalhaven B, NSW Unknown Near Nowra, 2 units

0.61 MW ACTEW Benddora, ACT 1999 Mini hydro, Canberra, 1 unit

80 MW Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Blowering, NSW 1971 Blowering, Snowy M. 1unit

1500 MW Corporation Tumut 3, NSW 1972 Talbingo, Snowy M., 6units

0.3 MW Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Mannus Lake, NSW Nov-1986 10km from Tumbarumba

286 MW Corporation Tumut 2, NSW 1961 Cabramurra, Snowy M., 4 u.

330 MW Private Tumut 1, NSW 1959 Cabramurra, Snowy M., 4u.

950 MW Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Murray 1, NSW 1966 Khancoban, Snowy M., 10u.

60 MW Corporation Guthega, NSW 1955 Guthega, Snowy M., 2u.

63.8 MW Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Jindabyne, NSW 1968 Jindabyne, Snowy M., 2 u.

7 MW Corporation Brown Mountains, NSW Unknown Bega-Cooma Road

25 MW Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Hume, NSW 1957 Albury, NSW share 50%, 1u

9 MW Corporation Yarrawonga, NSW Unknown Near Corowa, 2 units

96 MW Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric McKay Creek, Victoria 1960 Kiewa, 6 units.

150 MW Corporation Dartmouth, Victoria 1980 Dartmouth, 1 unit

26 MW Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Clover, Victoria 1944/45 Kieva, 2 units

1.5 MW Corporation William Hovell, Victoria 1994 25km from Whitfield, NE Vic. 98

Energy Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes Source capacity installation (MW) 2.4 MW Pacific power Eppalock, Victoria Unknown Decommissioned

61.6 MW Pacific power West Kiewa, Victoria 1955/1956 Kiewa. 4 units

2 MW Power facilities P/L Cairn Curran, Victoria 1960 Cairn Curran, 1 unit

2.7 MW Infratil (was Southern Hydro Limited) Lower Rubicon, Victoria 1928 Rubicon, 1 unit

4.5 MW Infratil Eildon Pondage, Vicoria 1994 On Goulboum River

9.2 MW Infratil Rubicon, Victoria 1928 Rubicon, 2 units

7.3 MW Pacific Hydro Thomson, Victoria Unknown

3.8 MW Pacific Hydro Glenmaggie, Victoria 1994 On Macalister River

2.2 MW Infratil Blue Rock, Victoria Unknown Near Moe

3.6 MW Southern Hydro Limited Cardinia Creek, Victoria Unknown Near Emerald

2.8 MW Southern Hydro Limited Paloona, Tasmania 1972 Forth River, 1 unit

60 MW Pacific hydro Devils gate, Tasmania 1969 Forth River, 1 unit

85 MW Southern Hydro Limited Cethana, Tasmania 1971 Forth River, 1 unit

30.6 MW Melbourne water Wilmot, Tasmania 1971 For the River, 1 unit

51 MW Pacific Hydro Lemonthyme, Tasmania 1969 For the River, 1 unit

10.4 MW Kvaernr Bovg Rowallan, Tasmania 1968 Mersey River, 1 unit

43.2 MW Kvaernr Bovg Fisher, Tasmania 1973 Fisher River, 1 unit 79.9 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Mckintosh, Tasmania 1982 Murchison River, 1 unit

79.9 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Bastyan, Tasmania 1983 Pieman River, 1 unit

82.8MW Hydro Electric Corporation Tribute/Newton, Tasmania 1994 Anthony River, 1 unit

8.4 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Lake Margaret, Tasmania 1995 Lake Margaret, 7 units

144 MW Hydro Electric Corporation John Butters (King River), Tasmania 1992 King River, 1 unit

300 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Poatina, Tasmania 1964 Central Plateau Area, 6 units

1.2 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Todd’s Comer, Tasmania Unknown Central Plateau Area

Hydro Electric Corporation Waddamana, Tasmania Unknown Central Plateau Area

32.4 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Lake Echo, Tasmania 1956 Central Plateau Area, 1 unit

83.7 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Liapootah, Tasmania 1960 Central Plateau Area, 3 units

90 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Tarraleah, Tasmania 1938 Central Plateau Area, 6 units

125 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Tungatinah, Tasmania 1953 Central Plateau Area, 5 units

12.2 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Butler ’s Gorge, Tasmania 1951 Central Plateau Area, 1 unit 99

Energy Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes Source capacity installation (MW) 48 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Catagunya, Tasmania 1962 Central Plateau Area, 2 units

38.25 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Wayatinah, Tasmania 1957 Central Plateau Area, 3 units

28 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Repulse, Tasmania 1968 Lower Derwent, 1 unit

17 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Cluny, Tasmania 1968 Lower Derwent, 1 unit

432 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Gordon, Tasmania 1978 Gordon River, 3 units

40 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Meadowbank, Tasmania 1967 Lower Derwent, 1 unit

231.2 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Reece (Pieman River), Tasmania 1986 Pieman River, 2 units

80 MW Hydro Electric Corporation Trevallyn (Launceston), Tasmania 1955 Launceston, 4 units

2 MW Western Power Wellington Dam, Western Australia 1992 200km SE of Perth, 2units

30 MW Pacific Hydro Lake Argyle Hydro Scheme, WA 1996 100 ALF 250GWh 100

Table A4 Comprehensive Database of All Renewable Energy Generators in New Zealand (capacity in MW unless stated)

Energy source Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes capacity installation (MW) Solar thermal 0

Solar PV 0

Wind 7 Genesis power Naunui

31.7 TrustPower Tararua

Geothermal

104 Contact Energy Ohaaki

153 Contact Energy Wairakei

8 Independent Nagawha

70 Independent Rotokawa

6.4 Todd Energy/Pacific Hydro JV T01 & TG2

25 Todd Energy/Pacific Hydro JV Aniwhenua

55 Mercury Energy/McLachlan JV McLachlan

Hydro 135 Genesis Power Wakaremoana

240 Genesis Power Tokaanu 120 Genesis Power Rangipo

42 TrustPower Kaimai

72 TrustPower Matanina

26 TrustPower Wheao

30.7 TrustPower Patea

98 Mighty River Power Karapiro

172 Mighty River Power Arapuni

59 Mighty River Power Waipapa

180 Mighty River Power Maraetai A

180 Mighty River Power Maraitai B

100 Mighty River Power Whakamaru

84 Mighty River Power Ataiamuri

112 Mighty River Power Ohakuri Energy source Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes capacity installation (MW) 84 Mighty River Power Aratiatia

6.2 Independent Waiere & Mokauiti

7.2 Independent Kuratau & Piriatau

25 Todd Energy/King Country Energy JV Mangahao

432 Contact Energy Clyde

320 Contact Energy Roxgurgh

25 Meridian Energy TekapoA

160 Meridian Energy Tekapo B

264 Meridian Energy Ohau A

212 Meridian Energy Ohau B

212 Meridian Energy Ohau C

540 Meridian Energy Benmore

220 Meridian Energy Aviemore

105 Meridian Energy Waitaki

585 Meridian Energy Manapouri

32 TransAlta Cobb

13 TrustPower Branch River & Waihopai

25 TrustPower Coleridge

25 TrustPower Highbank

19.5 TrustPower West Coast (multi)

12.25 TrustPower Paerau

84 TrustPower Waipori

6.8 TrustPower Monowai

7 Independent Opuha

19 Independent Central Otago

Tidal 0

Wave 0

Ocean thermal 0

Co-generation 52 Genesis Power Te Awamutu

40 Genesis Power Kinleith 102

Energy source Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes capacity installation (MW) 120 TransAlta Southdown

70 Independent BHP-NZ Steel

10 Todd Energy/Pacific Hydro JV Baymilk

25 NGC/Todd Energy/Pacific Hydro JV Kapuni

65 Kiwi Co-op/Todd Energy JV Kiwi Co-op

Landfill gas 8.2 Mighty River Power Greenmount/Rosedale

Gas 85 Contact Electricity OtahuhuA

390 Contact Electricity Otahuhu B

580 Contact Electricity New Plymouth

198 Contact Elctricity Stratford

354 TransAlta TCC

Coal/gas 1000 Genesis Power Hunty

Diesel 162 Contact Electricity Whirinaki 103

Table A5a - Solar Hot Water Pilot Systems in Fiji Solar hot water system Suva Nadi Solarhart Lekutu Road Sabeto Tank Road Nasoso Beasly Bulei Road Bau Cresent Laucala-Beach Estate Waqadra 104

Table A5b - Government Sponsored PV Installations in Fiji

Location Project No of Supplier Installation Systems date Dreketi, Qamea Government 10 SPS Sept. 1983 station Ketei village, Totoya Private homes 20 SPS Nov. 1983 Island Boarding school 2 SPS Vatulele village, Private homes 21 SPS Nov. 1983 Koro Island Church 2 SPS Nasau village, Koro Health centre 2 SPS Feb. 1984 Island Boarding school 2 Newline May 1984 Namara village, Private homes 19 SPS Feb. 1984 Kadavu Island Private homes 26 Newline May 1985 Udu village, Kabara 1 SPS

Lekutu, Bua Health centre 2 SPS 1984 Boarding school 2 Naroi, Moala Island Health centre 2 SPS April 1984 Boarding school 2 SPS Kavala Bay, Kadavu School 2 SPS April 1984 Island Nasuvuki, Moturiki Nursing station 1 SPS June 1984 Boarding school 2 SPS Yaroi, Matuku Health centre 2 SPS Mar. 1985 Boarding school 2 SPS Ministry of Primary 4 SPS Industries Madhuvani, Ra Private homes 24 Newline Private homes 50 Antex/Ky Oct. 1986 Tukavesi Health centre 4 Newline Sept. 1987 Nanukuloa, Ra Office 2 Newline Sept. 1987 Dobuilevu, Ra Private homes 41 Newline Homes & Masque 64 AWA Nov. 1987 105

Location Project No of Supplier Installation Systems date Naikoro School 3 Newline Sept. 1986 Vaidoko village, Ra Private homes 21 AWA Dec. 1988 Province Vunidawa Hospital 1 AWA Feb. 1988 MRD, Caravan 12 AWA Mar. 1988 106

Table A5c Rural Electrification Units (REU) Installed in Fiji

Village Province Month installed Cost (Fiji $) Mouta Macuata Sept. 1984 13,000 Kiuva Tailevu Oct. 1984 12,000 Lawaki Kadavu Jan. 1995 13,000 Komo Lau Aug. 1995 15,000 Nacereyaga Macuata Oct. 1995 15,000 Vunianiu Serua Nov. 1995 15,000 Vutuna Nairai Nov. 1995 13,000 Nasegai Kadavu Dec. 1995 15,000 Mabula Lau Sept. 1995 15,000 Naqara Kadavu Dec. 1995 15,000 Malake Rakiraki Sept. 1996 13,000 Tiliva Kadavu Dec. 1997 14,000 107

Table A5d DOE (Fiji) Pilot Projects in Fiji

Village Province Project Month Cost (Fiji $) installed Ovea Tailevu PV lighting Oct. 1990 12,000 Naqrawai Namosi PV Apr. 1991 8,000 lighting/video Namara Tailevu PV lighting Nov. 1991 15,000 Ovea Tailevu PV lighting/TV Dec. 1993 13,000 Namara Kadavu PV lighting Apr. 1994 164,000 (EEC fund for 70 houses) APPENDIX B 109

Table B1 - Fijian DOE’s corporate plan on energy

Area Strategy and plan Comments Energy • Increase public awareness on energy The industry, conservation efficiency and rational energy use. community • Identify measures and incentives to and students encourage efficient energy use. are made • Encourage and promote private sector aware. capabilities to identify, implement and manage energy saving projects. • Investigate the viability of introducing appliance labeling for common electrical goods. Petroleum • Ensure national fuel standards are met. and transport • Promote environmentally friendly fuels. • Promote fuel efficient vehicles. Power sector • Ensure that Fiji Electricity Authority (FEA) An Institutional operates in a cost effective manner through Strengthening sound technical and managerial decisions. Project funded • Identify the scope and routes for by ADB was corporatisation of FEA. completed in • Improve power supply situation in remote November densely populated areas. 1997. Energy • Establish an energy demand database for database and major economic activities. information • Provide information on energy demand and supply to public. Renewable • Increase community awareness on energy sustainable use of fuel wood. development • Assess the viability of using geothermal program energy as an electricity and thermal energy source in Savusavu and Labasa 110

Area Strategy and plan Comments • Promote the adoption of solar lighting systems in remote areas. • Determine existence of suitable wind regime for power generation and promote development of proven resource. • Identify viable sites for the development of micro-hydro power plants to supply electricity to rural communities. Rural • Maximize the value for money for rural electrification electrification program. • Develop load centres for viable expansion of 24 hour continuous electricity supply APPENDIX C 112

Table C1 - Regional Population in New Zealand (Kiwi Web, 2000)

North Island Population %0f South Island Population %of Total Total Northland 137,052 3.79 Tasman 37,973 1.05 Auckland 1,068,645 29.53 Nelson 40,279 1.11 Wailato 350,125 9.68 Marlborough 38,397 1.06 Bay of Plenty 224,365 6.20 West Coast 32,512 0.90 Gisborne 45,787 1.27 Canterbury 468,040 12.94 Hawke ’s Bay 142.789 3.95 Otago 185,083 5.12 Region Totals 1.968.763 54.41 Southland 97,100 2.68 Taranaki 106,589 2.95 Total, South Island 899.384 24.86 Manawutu- 228,770 6.32 Others* 748 0.02 Wanganui Wellington 414,048 11.44 Total New Zealand 3,618,302 100 Population Region Totals 749,407 20.71 Total, North 2,718,170 75.12 Island * Includes Oil Rigs and Cambell, Kermadec and Chatham Islands APPENDIX D 125

Auckland

NORTH ISLAND

-Wellington

Christchurch

SOUTH ISLAND

Dunedin

Figure D9 - Isovent map of annual average wind speed (m/s) at 10 m above ground level in New Zealand APPENDIX E 128

Table E1 - Proposed Renewable Energy Plants in Australia

Energy Source Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes capacity installation Solar thermal 2300 kW Pacific Power/ANUTECH/Transfield P/L Eraring, NSW Unknown $2 M Showcase grant, 18 big

dishes

5000 kW Austa Energy Corp Stanwell Power Station, QLD Late 2000 $2 M Showcase Grand

Solar PV 665 kW SOCOG Olympic Village, NSW 2000 Solar powered Olympic Village

70 kW Private Sydney Superdome, NSW 1999

200 kW Energy Australia Singleton Stage 2, NSW Unknown 3 km from Singleton

40 kW Advance Energy Bathurst, NSW Unknown Stage 2 parabolic dish or trough

concentrators

Unknown Boondall Wetlands Visiters Center Boondall, QLD 1997

20 kW Westren Power Coporation Perth, WA Unknown Combination PV and mirrors

Wind 10000 kW Pacific Power/Advance Energy Blayney, NSW Mid 1999 250 km west of Sydney

20000 kW Stanwell Corporation Atherton Tableland, QLD Unknown At Windy Hill

9000 kW Pacific Hydro Codrington, VIC 2000 $30 million for 14 wind turbines

to electrify 15000 homes near

Port Fairy

18000 kW Energy Equity Corp Cape Bridgewater and Cape Unknown Windfarms, 30 turbines

Nelson, VIC

100000 Beacon Energy Woakwine, SA Unknown West of Mount Gambier Lake

Bonney

76000 kW Hydro-Electric Corporation Woolnorth, TAS 2004 6 MW 2000, 35 MW 2002, 35

MW 2004

20000 Western Power Albany, WA Unknown Proposed 20 MW farm

20 kW Public Murdoch University, WA Late 98 Prototype 20 kW, 5 m blade

500 kW Western Power Corp/ Powercorp P/L Denham (Shark Bay), WA End 1999 $1M showcase grant for an

additional 2 turbine and energy

storage

Biomass 129

Energy Source Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes capacity installation MSW Unknown Energy Developments Ltd (EDL) Wollongong MSW facility, NSW 1999 Waste recycling facility

Bagasse 6000 kW NSW Sugar Mill Corp NSW Broadwater, NSW 1998

Sewage CH4 2400 kW Sydney Water Malabar, NSW 1999 Malabar sewage treatment plant

Landfill CH4 7000 kW EDL Eastern Creek (Sydney), NSW Unknown

Landfill CH4 5000 kW Newcastle City Council Newcastle, NSW 2000 Proposed landfill gas project

MSW Unknown Lohning Brothers Nambour, OLD Unknown Nambour Sunshine Coast

Bagasse 30000 kW Rocky Point Green Energy Corp Pty Ltd Rocky Point Sugar Mill, OLD Jun 2000 30 MWe cogeneration plant

Bagasse 6000 kW CSR Sugar Mills Kalamia, QLD Unknown Negotiations for another plant

Bagasse 49000 kW CSR Burdekin River, QLD 1998

MSW 7800 kW Independent Sugar South Johnston, QLD 1997

Landfill CH4 Unknown Lohning Brothers Nambour, QLD Unknown Nambour Sunshine Coast

Wood waste 3000 kW EDL Belconnen & Mugga Lane Tips 1998 Landfill Gas ACT

Wood waste 300 kW BEST/Reneco Canberra, ACT Unknown Two briquetting plants

Wood waste 10000 kW Private Orbost, Victoria Unknown Viability needs biomass at $10/t

Wood waste Unknown Syn Fuels Australia Ltd Esperance, WA Unknown Gasification using plantation trees

Wood waste 1000 kW Westren Power/Oil Mallee Co/Enecon P/L Narrogin, WA Unknown Integrated wood processing demonstration plant

Biomass and Oil 1500 kW WA Water Corp Subiaco, WA 1998 Subiaco wastewater treatment plant

Geothermal 20000 kW Pacific Power Muswellbrook-Denman, NSW 2004 Hot Dry Rock demonstration project

Hydro 710 kW Public Nepean Dam, NSW Unknown Water falls 82 m, Single Turbine

300 kW NSW Government Cordeaux, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

380 kW NSW Government Cataract, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

4900 kW Public Pipeline (Warragamba- Unknown Pipeline from Warragamba Dam

Prospect), NSW to Prospect Reservoir

410 kW NSW Government Mangrove Creek, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

7400 kW Public Eraring Power Station, NSW Unknown 10 m fall of cooling water 130

Energy Source Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes capacity installation 1500 kW Macquarie generation Plashett Dam, NSW Unknown Inlets to Plashett Dam & Lake

Liddell

580 kW NSW Government Glennies Creek, NSW Unknown Mini hydro near Singleton

2600 kW NSW Government Lostock, NSW Unknown Mini hydro near Dungog

1800 kW NSW Government Redbank Weir, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

1300 kW NSW Government Split Rock, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

Unknown NSW Government Copeton, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

2000 kW NSW Government Pindari, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

370 kW NSW Government Toonumbar, NSW Unknown Mini hydro near Kyogle

650 kW NSW Government Clarrie Hall, NSW Unknown Mini hydro on Doon Doon Creek

near Uki

5600 kW NSW Government Tallowa, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

300 kW NSW Government Windamere, NSW Unknown Mini hydro near Mudgee

330 kW NSW Government Chifley, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

15000 kW Pacific Power Burrinjuck, NSW 2001 Extension with new 15MW

turbine

3100 kW NSW Government Gogeldrie Weir, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

1400 kW NSW Government Yanco Weir, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

2600 kW NSW Government Hay Weir, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

2200 kW NSW Government Maude Weir, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

3400 kW NSW Government Euston Weir, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

600 kW NSW Government Stevens Weir, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

2780 kW NSW Government Torrumbarry, NSW Unknown Mini hydro

250 kW NSW Government Brogo, NSW Unknown Mini hydro near Bega

2150 kW NSW Government Cochrane (Brown Mountain) Unknown Mini hydro

NSW

1620 kW NSW Government Berambed Weir, NSW Unknown Mini hydro near Matong

1480 kW ACT Government Scrivener Dam, ACT Unknown Mini hydro

700 kW ACTEW Mount Stromlo Mini Hydro, ACT 1999 Pipeline from Bendora Dam and

Mt Stromlo Balancing Tank

300 kW Caloundra-Maroochy Water Supply Board Lake Baroom Dam, OLD 1998 Mini hydro for Sunshine Coast 131

Energy Source Installed Generator Manufacturers Location Year of Notes capacity installation 7000 kW Stanwell Corp/Destec Energy Koombooloomba Dam (FNQ), Unknown Koombooloomba Dam costing

OLD $10 M

10000 kW Pacific Power Hume Dam, VIC Late 98 Hume hydro upgrade

Ocean Tidal 48000 kW Derby Hydro P/L Derby, WA Unknown Tidal power station

Ocean thermal 0

Ocean wave 300 kW Energetech Australia Port Kembla, NSW Unknown Converting wave energy into

electricity

20 kW Ocean Power Technologies (Aust) P/L and Victorian coast, VIC Unknown Wane energy demonstration

Powercor Aust unit

Wind and Solar Unknown CSIRO Newcastle, NSW 2002 - 2004 CSIRO Renewable Energy

Research Center

Solar/Fossil 20 kW CSIRO Sydney (outskirts), NSW 2001 Hybrid solar/fossil fuel

demonstration power station 132

Table E2 - Potential Small Hydro Schemes (1 to 10 MW) in New Zealand

North Island Scheme, Site, Generation Approx. Estimated Estimated Capital Cost/kW Principal Comments River Flow Net Head Installed Energy Cost ($/kW) Features (m3/sec) (m) Capacity (GWh/y) ($ million) (MW) NORTHLAND Taheke Falls, 10.8 28 2.5 11 14.94 5971 Headpond Depletion of waterfall Punakitere River Lake Omapere, 2.2 120 2.2 26 12.65 5757 Lake storage, Downstream flow Utakura River long conduits regulation increase in lake level fluctuation, depletion of waterfalls Maunganui, 8.09 134 9.0 39.4 58.95 6553 Dam, reservoir, Water supply, flood Kaihu River conduit control and recreation affects tourism, kauri park, inundates agricultural land Whatoro, 7.89 64 4.2 18.3 28.81 6877 Dam, reservoir, Water supply, flood Kaihu River Conduit control and recreation affects tourism Kauri Park, inundates agricultural land Purua Rapids, 26.7 13 2.9 12.6 18.51 6406 Barrage Some regulation for Wairua River Waima Falls

WAIKATO VALLEY AUTHORITY AREA Waihohonu Stm, 13.3 90 10.0 43.8 26.49 2652 Add diversion Desert Road Ohinepongo stream Waihohonu Stm, 11.3 90 8.5 37.2 23.06 2713 Diversion weir; Desert Road 3 km canal Waihohonu Stm, 11.3 53 5.0 21.9 17.64 3521 Diversion weir; Desert Road 1.5 km canal Waihohonu Stm, 11.3 51 4.8 21 16.90 3521 Diversion weir; above Desert Road 1.2 km canal Waipapa R at 5.3 109 4.8 21 18.25 3809 Diversion weir; Ranginui Rd 0.6 km canal; 1.7 km pipeline Nbr"galoetoeni 3.05 90 2.4 10.5 9.73 4073 Diversion weir; Stm at Aggregate 1.2 km canal; Plant 1.6 km pipeline Kuratau R at 2 145 2.4 10.5 13.22 5493 0.75 km pipeline Moerangi Kuratau 4.45 100 3.7 16.2 18.03 4844 diversion weir; R at Moerangi 4.6 km canal Waitahanui R plus 5.4 75 3.4 14.9 14.34 4232 Diversion weir; TeArero Stream 2.8 km canal; plus diversion weir; TeAreroStm 3.55 81 2.4 10.5 10.59 4428 3.9 km canal Diversion weir; 4.1 km canal

Tauranga Taupo R 9.2 65 5.0 21,9 20.12 4042 Diversion weir; Headwaters 350 m tunnel Tauranga Taupo R 10.7 65 5.8 25.4 23.64 4073 Diversion weir; Headwaters 350 m tunnel Waipapa R 23.6 127 3.0 13.1 12.74 4262 Diversion weir; Ranginui Rd 2.8 km canal; 1.3 km pipeline Waipa R at 10.6 102 9.0 39.4 47.81 5328 Diversion weir; Okahura Stm 1.5 km tunnel Waipa R at 11.75 102 10.0 43.8 50.07 5010 Diversion weir; Okahura Stm plus 1.5 km tunnel; T unawaea Stm plus diversion weir; 1.1 km pipeline Tunawaea Stm 1.3 243 2.7 11.8 13.28 4844 Diversion weir; 2.1 km canal; 2 km pipeline Waipa R 7.4 39 2.4 10.5 12.59 5267 Earth dam and =enstock T awarau R 6.3 76 4.0 17.5 15.76 3944 Diversion weir; 1.6 km canal; 1 Com pipeline Mohaka R below 25.65 43 9.2 40.3 52.32 5683 Diversion weir Wairere Falls aelow Existing aenstock; 4.5 km aipeline Mapiu Stm at 2.4 105 2.1 9.2 8.37 3975 Diversion weir; Omaru Falls 200m canal Mangawhio Stm. 2.7 136 3.2 14 19.54 6106 Diversion weir; 6.7 km pipeline Waihaha R West 11.2 105 9.8 42.9 36.34 3717 7m high weir; Taupo 1.15 km tunnel Marokopa Falls 6.75 119 6.7 29.3 17.99 2676 Diversion weir; Economically attractive 1.45 km pipeline Waikato R at Huka 56.4 10 4.7 20.6 21.41 4556 350m pipe left 3ut with severe Falls aank 133

Waikato R at 56.4 10 4.7 20.6 18.86 4005 300m canal Environmental Huka Falls right bank Constraints BAY OF PLENTY Rangitaiki at 23.7 44 8.5 25.65 3013 High dam Some potential for cheaper Kiorenui diversion Tarawera at Falls 11.7 73 7.0 21.15 3013 Low head T arawera atTe 11.6 103 10.0 36.12 3613 Medium Head Matae Road Kaituna at 24.3 26.5 5.2 19.28 3705 Okere Falls Okere Falls Scheme Waimana at Matahi 20 55 9.0 36.32 4042 Diversion Canal Tarawera at 13.8 55 6.2 33.13 5353 Low head Environmentally Sensitive Fenton’s Mill Mangorewa at 8.3 85 5.7 31.07 5451 Diversion canal Otamanariri Whatatane at 6.75 59 3.2 20.59 6357 Diversion canal Ruatohune Waiari atTe Matai 3.9 93 2.9 21.15 7300 Diversion canal Rd

WEST POVERTY BAY Torere 20.9 39 6.8 29.8 33.24 4887 Earth dam Storage Waitangi 37.3 10 3.1 13.8 21.26 6847 Earth dam Waiata 37.1 10 3.1' 13.6 20.96 6761 Concrete arch dam EAST CAPE Waikohu 2.47 209 4.3 19 20.75 4801 23m earth dam at waterfall supplies tunnelto pwr stn. Waitahaia 8.87 96 7.1 31 49.18 6914 Diversion weir; 2.4km supply tunnel to power station TARANAKI Waiwhakaiho 4.7 72 2.8 12.2 46.78 4336 Augmentation of Mangorei Hydro Scheme Patea 38.8 30 9.7 42.5 46.40 4869 Moderate level storage /higher scheme also unable) Waitara 35 20 5.8 25.4 35.81 6173 Low level storage Waitara 48.2 10 4.1 17.7 27.68 6822 Low level storage Waitara 57.9 11 7.3 32 48.31 6596 Low level storage RANGITIKEI-WANGANUI Makotuku 13.74 89 10.2 41.5 34.12 3338 2-diversion weirs; 7-9 km canal Manganui-a-to -ao/ 3.92 240 7.9 42.9 27.99 3564 2-diversion weirs; Mangaturuturu pump station; 3.6

Mangatepopo/ 3.27 88 2.4 8.3 13.80 5714 Diversion weir; Tawhitikuri 2 km canal Whakapapanui 13.39 43 4.8 17 19.55 4066 Diversion weir; Environmental constraints / Makahikatoa 2.4 km canal; 1 km pipeline Whakapapaiti/ 7.24 53 3.2 7.9 18.02 5671 Diversion weir; Environmental constraints Mangahuia 2.4 km canal Piopiotea /Makaretu 3.15 100 2.8 12.2 10.96 3913 2-diversion weirs; 3.5 km canal Mangawhoro 10.85 28 2.7 11.8 13.88 5230 Diversion weir; 2.5 km canal Makotuku/Makara 2.45 115 2.5 10.9 9.31 3583 3-diversion weirs; /Makaraiti 3.5 km canal; 200 m pipeline Tokiahuru / 15.8 62 8.6 36.7 35.64 4140 Diversion weir; Mangaehuehu 4.1 km canal/pipeline T urakina/ 7.66 47 3.2 14 19.33 6038 2-diversion weirs; 134

Mangapapa | | I I I I K-5 km canal WAIROA Cascade Falls/ 4.64 93 3.6 15.8 15.67 3056 Concrete gravity Environmental constraints Hopuruahine dam Omahanui/Aheke 25.8 27 5.8 25.4 35.34 6081 Earth dam Waiau Gorge/ 21.9 45 8.2 35.9 53.00 6467 Gravity dam Waiau Tarapatiki/ 24.8 14 2.9 12.7 26.65 6828 Earth dam Wakaretaheke HAWKES BAY Tukituki below 12 40 4.0 14 18.09 4844 Diversion weir; Folgers slip 3.1 km canal/pipeline Makaroro above 7.75 65 4.2 19 20.34 4844 Diversion weir; Wakarara 5.3 km canal/ Pipeline Mangataura and 13.46 41 4.6 20 26.48 5751 Diversion weir on Makaroro Makaroro; 25m earth dam; 4.1 km canal & pipelines Waipunga Falls 6 80 4.0 17.5 15.82 3975 Diversion weir (2) Environmental constraints 0.7 km pipeline Tukituki At Rowes 62.6 18.5 10.3 45 67.83 6461 28m earth dam; Rd. adi. Power station DANNEVIRKE Makuri / Gorge 6.3 100 5.6 25 32.72 5842 Mangatainoka/ 16.5 24 3.5 15 23.06 6590 Lower Diversion HOROWHENUA Mangaore Stream 11.34 48 4.5 21.9 19.60 4324 Diversion weir; 3.3 km canal/pipeline Mangahao 4.29 257 9.2 40.3 34.93 6461 Maximum Addition Addition to Mangahao scheme Otaki/ Hautere 38.2 13.5 4.3 18.8 59.43 6786

WAIRARAPA Kourarau Lower 0.78 133 0.9 4.76 1.22 1421 Runner lower steel Extend potential of an Penstocks existing station

Waig-aBend 14.8 43 5.3 23.2 20.54 3877 Earth dam; 12.75 km Cascade Canal Waingawa-Kait una 20.2 40 6.7 29.5 29.85 4422 Diversion weir; 4 km canal; headpond; 1.45 km pipeline; diversion from Mikimiko stream and Black creek

VUadhie-west Bank 24.54 43 8.8 38.5 40.90 4654 Earth dam; Low level Cascade Cascade Gated Spillway; 5 km canal

Ruamahanga - Mt 12.8 60 6.4 28 35.65 5573 Earth dam; 3.2 km canal Bruce Ruamahanga - Reef 12.3 43 4.4 19.3 26.22 5959 Earth dam; 1.6 km canal Hill Tauherenikau & 10.75 38.5 3.5 15.1 21.53 6345 Earth dam; 2.3 km canal Tails Stream Cross Creek/ 3.08 253 6.5 28.5 43.93 6749 Earth dam; 1.13km Pakuratahi tunnel Ruamahanga - 14.85 42 5.2 22.8 36.89 7092 Earth dam; 1.75 km Stoney Flat canal WELLINGTONIHUTT VALLEY

Upper Orongorongo 1.36 265 3.0 13.2 2.43 808 proposed storage

Whakatiki - Dam at 7.13 74 4.4 19.2 19.00 4330 Dude Ranch Pakuratahi - Kaitoke 4.96 167 6.9 30.2 30.72 4458 Saddle Pakaratahi - Railway 3,43 105 3.0 13.1 14.15 4691 vent Shaft

Hutt-Totara Park 30 20 5.0 21.9 24.51 4912 Akaturawa-Gillespies 8.45 35.5 4.8 21 25.23 5267 Road Hutt - Forkes 6 50 3.5 15.5 25.68 7269 SCHEMES ASSOCIATED WITH ECNZ INSTALLATIONS

Moawhango Tunnel 12.5 27-19 4.5 21.6 6.31 1396 Replaces role of Simple and low risk Outfall disperser valve Mangahao R, No. 1 8.1 33.5-22 3.0 13.8 6.63 2205 Replaces role of .imited civil works, simple dam Disperser valve croposal Wairehu Canal 30 36.5 9.5 51.9 30.50 3209 Mangaio Tunnel 6 57 2.7 14 6.37 2352 Small flow, Medium Minor technical problems, (drop shaft) head, variable tailwater drops haft 1.219 m diam. Leak sealing Lake Increased 2 to 4129 Utilise 35 guess 2.4 612 Repair to lake bend Estimate of cost uncertain Waikeremoana flow existing required, could be with very profitable gains through plant; extended to other areas Kaitawa 4,0

Waihohonu Stm 16.7 80 10.5 62.7 31.85 3031 Spring fed and has a Outside the boundary of including Capture of regulated flow. A simple the Tongario National 135

Ay)gEdoeteorxi | I I Scheme. 3ark OVERALL TOTAL 553 MW (> 5 cents/kW) CCI=3650 (Sept 1995)

South Island Scheme, Site, Generation Approx. Estimated Estimated Capital Cost/kW Principal Comments River Flow Net Head Installed Energy Cost ($/kW) Features (m3/sec) (m) Capacity (GWh/y) ($ million) (MW) NELSON REGION Boulder Lake 1.80 210 3.2 14.2 16.45 5075 100 m tunnel Remote Outfall Cobb Scheme 0.80 590 18.4 4.73 Headworks; ECNZ scheme Supplement Supplement Diversion of Existing scheme Wangapeka River 23.00 14 2.8 12.4 13.17 4640 Diversion weir; at Mt Jones 2.4 km canal Fyfe River 2.80 270 6.4 28 23.37 3650 Diversion weir, 2 km tunnel Lake Matin 12.00 80 8.2 35.9 20.65 2519 1.6 km pipeline Seepage Nardoo Ck 4.80 130 5.3 23.2 13.54 2556 Diversion weir; Remote, environmental 1.8 km canal issues MARLBOROUGH Pelorus River 22.00 40 7.3 31.97 32.25 4420 Dam Flood flow uncertainty Goulter River 6.50 45 2.4 10.51 11.41 4755 Diversion weir; 4 km canal Waihopai River 25.00 30 6.3 27.4 24.70 3952 Diversion weir; Irrigation potential 9 km canal Upper Awatere 18.00 25 4.5 19.71 17.58 3905 Diversion weir; River 3 km canal Conway River 13.00 40 4.3 18.83 17.37 4039 Diversion weir; Row not measured 4 km canal Mangatini 2.36 157 3.3 14 11.95 3682 Diversion weir; Acidic water, scenic Area pipeline Lake Rochfort 1.70 370 5.6 24 23.90 4264 2 diversion weirs, pipeline & canal Buckland Ck 1.79 245 3.9 17 14.54 3747 Diversion weir; Environmental issues 1.3 km pipeline Little T otara 2.43 125 2.7 12 14.86 5523 3 diversion weirs; 5.2 km pipeline and canal Awakiari River 2.14 105 2.0 9 11.95 5943 Diversion Weir; 1.7 km pipeline WEST COAST Stony River (b) 7.30 110 6.7 29.3 20.28 3031 2 diversion weirs; Alternative developments 3.8 km canal Considered Larry River 11.50 42 4.0 17.5 18.50 4621 Diversion weir; (Awarau) 4 km canal Giles (b) (with 8.00 45 3.0 13.1 17.38 5793 2 diversion weirs; Alternative developments stony flow) 1.6 km canal considered conflict with Stony (b) Big River 7.10 60 3.5 15.3 18.12 5174 2 diversion weirs; 6.2 km canal Lake Christabel 6.10 125 6.4 28 33.89 5291 700 m tunnel; Environmental issues close underground outlet

Upper Grey (a) 17.00 50 7.1 31 29.89 4211 Diversion weir; 1.6 km canal Amethyst River 2.50 400 8.0 35 27.64 3457 Diversion weir, Access difficulties, small 730 m tunnel existing scheme not operational Poerua River 22.40 50 9.4 41 46.29 4922 Diversion weir; 1 km tunnel L Wahapo 8.00 30 2.0 12 9.20 4599 400 m tunnel, This scheme now replacing existing constructed scheme Tartars River 4.00 180 5.9 31 32.18 5455 Diversion weir; Access difficulties, small 1.35 km tunnel existing scheme not operational Manakaiau River 3.10 115 2.9 15 16.86 5813 Diversion weir; Alternative development 700 m tunnel Considered Mahitahi River 15.80 70 9.0 47 29.89 3322 Diversion weir; 1.4 km canal Moeraki River 12.00 90 8.8 46 22.08 2508 Diversion weir; 2 km canal Zeilian Ck 4.00 270 8.8 50 30.79 3499 Diversion weir; Not viable without Clarke 700 m tunnel scheme Roaring Billy River 6.20 205 10.4 55 111.96 3454 Diversion weir; Not viable without McFarlane 900 m tunnel scheme. Costs are for combined development Casey Ck 2.10 175 3.0 15 15.77 5257 Diversion weir; Remote 170 m tunnel Te Naihi River 12.30 95 9.5 50 50.58 5324 Diversion weir; 1.2 km tunnel NORTH CANTERBURY Boyle River 6.90 55 3.2 14 15.34 4788 Diversion weir; 1.6 km canal Kakapo Brook 3.25 180 5.0 21.9 15.92 3185 Diversion weir; 5.5 km canal 136

Lake Sumner 32.00 30 8.0 35 36.00 4500 Low dam; 4 km Alternative developments outlet (b) canal Considered, Environmental issues Ashley Gorge dam 25.00 37 7.7 33.7 37.94 4927 37m earth dam Recreation users porous Ashley River 20.00 30 5.0 21.9 22.27 4453 Diversion weir; gravels 5 km canal CENTRAL CANTERBURY Broken River 8.00 134 8.7 38.1 50.30 5780 Multiple sources; 2 Wnertnuses SOUTH CANTERBURY Jacks Stream 1.25 360 4.0 18 17.86 4465 Diversion weir; pipeline Boundary Stream 0.93 290 2.4 10.5 12.95 5395 Diversion weir; pipeline South Branch 12.56 85 9.5 42 67.16 7069 Dam; 7 km canal Ashburton River & Rangitata River. Opuha River WAITAKI Lower Waitaki Irrigation- McPhersons Rd 2 14.00 20 2.3 10.12 9.61 4126 Modifies Existing Irrigation Races

Waiareka-Kak Anui 22.00 50 9.2 39.83 33.87 3692 Modifies Irrigation No 1 Proposed Irrigation Scherme Maerewhenua 4.30 60 2.2 9.42 15.69 7297 Diversion weir; River 10.5 km canal Ahuriri-Avon Burn 20.00 36.5 6.2 37.47 25.30 4081 Diversion weir; Environmental issues No’s 1 & 2 2 pm%ehcuses; 650 m tunnel Hopkins River 34.00 30 8.5 37.23 36.68 4315 Diversion weir; 5.5 km canal Huxley River 9.00 55 4.1 17.96 22.49 5482 Diversion weir; Isolated area, Environmental 4 km canal & issues pipeline Temple Stream 6.00 60 3.0 13.14 13.14 4381 Diversion weir; 2.3 km canal & pipeline DUNEDIN Schemes in this report are not comparable with the other reports. They have therefore been omitted from this table and the report should be Examined for details. All the schemes in this region have their water rights vested in the Dunedin City Council. OTAGO Taieri Falls 4.80 201 8.0 35 24.91 3114 40m earth dam; 900m pipeline Middle Taieri River 18.00 45 6.8 29.56 26.62 3943 Diversion weir; Alternative developments No 1 8.5 km canal considered Middle Taieri River 18.00 20 3.0 13.14 15.42 5141 Part of a No2 Proposed Irrigation scheme Deep Stream 4.20 194 6.8 29.78 27.46 4036 Diversion weir; Dunedin City control water 23 km canal •ights Lee Stream 4.20 200 7.0 30.66 26.17 3740 Diversion weir; 8 km canal Gatlins River 2.50 105 2.2 9.64 12.58 5716 Diversion weir; 11 km canal Manuherikia River 6.00 80 4.0 17.5 16.77 4192 Diversion weir; 7 km canal Manuherikia River 9.00 90 6.8 22.7 13.83 2048 Uses proposed Generation is irrigation Irrigation ( Hydro Irrigation dependent Extension Dunstan Creek 4.30 90 32 14 17.04 5324 Diversion weir; 8 km canal Beaumont River 1.40 180 2.1 9.2 10.69 5090 Diversion weir; 4 km canal Pomahaka River 25.00 30 6.3 27.59 25.00 3967 Diversion weir; Recreational use 6.5 km canal OTAGO CENTRAL Teviot River D' 5.10 86 3.9 17.1 8.60 2602 This scheme may be unavailable Teviot River 'C' 6.52 100 5.8 25.4 9.48 2869 This scheme may be unavailable Teviot River ’E’ 3.50 90 2.8 12.3 9.83 2974 Uses Existing This scheme may be ake Onslow unavailable Wye Creek 1.33 320 3.8 16.6 8.08 2444 Diversion weir, Work currently complete Renewal Replaces Existing scheme Meg River 2.22 380 7.5 33 8.43 2551 Raplacsrent of Work currently complete Renewal existing scheme, 2 Dvned-, storage dam

Fraser River 1.75 450 7.0 30.6 9.66 2924 8 m arch This scheme may be Upper diversion dam, unavailable pipeline Thompsons Creek 1.70 165 2.5, 11 10.48 3171 This scheme may be unavailable Doolan Creek 1.48 190 2.5 11 10-50 3178 This scheme may be unavailable 137

Staircase Creek 1.10 480 4.7 20.6 10.74 3250 Diversion weir This scheme may be unavailable Luggate Creek 0.97 300 2.6 11.4 14.31 4329 Diversion weir Moke Creek/Lake 1.13 218 2.2 9.6 14.60 4418 Multiple sources Dispute using pumped water Dunstan Creek 3.47 81 2.5 10.9 15.03 4547 Diversion weir Timaru River 3.75 72 2.4 10.5 20.15 6098 Mararoa Canal 17.50 39 5.6 24.5 24.33 4339 Diversion Weir Recreation area canal 1995)

377 MW (>5 cents/kWh) CCI=3650 (Sept OVERALLTOTAL 139

Figure E2 - Potential wave site areas in New Zealand (shaded areas) 140

APPENDIX F 141

Table - F1 Economic Features of South Pacific Countries

Share of GDP (%) Country Area (km* Estimated 1996 GDP per Imports Exports Principal Import Items Principal Export Net Aid inflows Primary* Manuf. Tertiary" Population capita (US$) (US$ ’m) (US$ ’m) Items (US$ ’m) Sector (%) Industry (%) Sector (%) (‘000) Federated 705 111 1,914 85 33 Mineral fuels; Copra; commercial 113 19.5 1.4 79.1 States of (1998) (1997-8) (1996-7) (1996-7) manufactured goods; fishing rights (1994) (1996) (1996) (1996) Micronesia machinery; food; milled timber and building supplies Fiji 18,376 775 2,395 966 735 Mineral fuels; manuf. Tourism; sugar and 105 27 16 57 (1997) (1997) (1996) (1996) goods; machinery; molasses; garment (1997) (1997) (1997) (1997) food manufacturing; gold; (net lumber; fish; coconut official oil, ginger transfers) Kiribati 811 77.7 523 33 5.3 Mineral fuels; manuf. Copra; tuna fish; 6 8.1 21.8 70.7 (1995) (1996) (1997) (1997) goods; machinery; commercial fishing (1996 (1996) (1996) (1996) food rights Marshall Is 181 56 1,872 75 23 Mineral fuels; manuf. Coconut oil and copra; 50 14.9 2.6 63.7 (1995) (1995) (1995) (1995) goods; machinery; fish; handicrafts (1993) (1995) (1995) (1995) food Nauru 21.1 10.7 4,145 15.4 25.1 Food; clothing; mineral Phosphate deposit Nil N/A N/A N/A (1992) (1996) (1996) fuel; machinery and other manuf items Papua New 462,840 4,417 950 1,151 2,172 Mineral fuel; manuf. Gold; silver; copper; 97.4 54 8 38 Guinea (1998) (1997) (1996) (1997) goods; machinery, oil; (1996) (1995-6) (1995-6) (1995-6) capital equipment; coffee; copra; cocoa; food; consumer goods; palm oil; logs industrial supplies; transport; equipment Samoa 2,934 170 1,052 102.7 63 Food; mineral fuels; Coconut products; 15.8 17 17 55 (1997) (1998) (1997) manuf. goods; fish; (1993) (1997) (1997) (1997) machinery beer; kava; automobile wiring harnesses Solomon 28,369 390 525 54.4 54.3 Mineral fuel; manuf. Fish; timber; copra; 15.2 NIA 2 5 Islands (1996) (.1998) (1998) goods; machinery; palm oil; cocoa; gold; (1998) (1996) (1996) food silver; palm kernel Tonga 699 99.5 1,547 102.4 11.4 Mineral fuel; manuf. Squash; vanilla and 34.7 28 21.3 30.3 (1999) (1998-9) (1998-9) (1998-9) goods; machinery; live (1996-7) (1998) (1998) (1998) food animals; fish; kava; root crops Vanuatu 12,190 177.4 1,348 80.0 36 Food; mineral fuels; Copra; beef; cocoa; 49 23 13 64 (1997) (1995) (1997) (1997) manuf. goods; coffee; kava; timber; (1995) (1995) (1995) (1995) machinery shells 142

Table - F2 Summary of Selected Incentives Provided to Foreign Investment

Country Examples of Investment Incentives Federated States of • Duty free access to the US market for most categories Micronesia • Import duty exemptions / drawbacks Fiji • Tax Free Zone/Tax Free Factory Scheme which includes: • Tax holidays • Accelerated depreciation • Import duty exemptions • Special industry related incentives • Carry forward of losses Kiribati • Case by case approach which may include: • Reduced company taxation • Depreciation allowances • Full or partial exemptions from customs duties • Direct Government investment in certain projects Marshall Islands • Duty free access to US markets for many categories of exports Papua New Guinea • Taxation incentives • Special depreciation allowances • Wages subsidies • Staff training double deduction against company taxation Samoa • Taxation concessions • Customs import duty concessions • Export Finance Facility • Access to industrial land Solomon Islands • Taxation concessions • Staff training double deduction against company taxation • Export promotion taxation incentives • Accelerated depreciation • Customs import duty concessions on capital equipment Tonga • Taxation concessions • Customs import duty concessions on capital equipment • Protection from competition for specified periods Vanuatu • Case-by-case approach which may include: • Customs import duty concessions • Vanuatu has no company tax, no income or withholding tax, no capital gains tax nor sales taxes 143

Table - F3 Limitations on Foreign Investors

Country Access to Land Access to Overseas Workers Federated States of Land ownership is limited to citizens Work permits generally granted Micronesia only. Land may be leased, but subject to availability of local workers. problems may arise due to clan ownership and uncertain boundaries and titles. Fiji Limited land is available for freehold. Foreign investors are not expected to Generally land must be leased from employ expatriates when suitably traditional owners or from the skilled local employees are available. Government. Kiribati Land cannot be owned by foreigners. Overseas workers may be recruited Land can be leased on a long-term where qualified local people are not basis. available. Marshall Islands Limited land is available for lease. Work permits are normally granted Difficulties still remain due to the due to the acute shortage of labour of traditional system of multiple rights. all skill levels in the Marshalls. Papua New Guinea Access to land for development will Overseas workers may be recruited often involve overseas investors in where suitably qualified locals are not direct negotiations with traditional available. land owners. The PNG Government may seek to facilitate mutually successful outcomes from these negotiations. Samoa Land may be leased. Permits for employment of overseas workers are granted only if the skills needed are unavailable locally. Permits must be renewed after six months. Solomon Islands Non-Solomon Islanders may lease, Entry of overseas workers permitted but not own, registered land. only where no trained local is available for a position. Periodic checks are made to ensure that overseas workers are complying with permit conditions. Tonga Land may be leased but not owned by No restrictions on access to overseas foreigners. workers although the Tongan Government prefers that locals be employed where possible. Vanuatu Land may be leased for up to 75 Entry of overseas workers permitted years. only where no trained local is The Government can facilitate available for a position. Periodic negotiations with land owners. checks are made to ensure that Undeveloped land must be improved overseas workers are complying with within five years. permit conditions. 144

Table F4 - Forum Island Countries - Examples of Legislation Relating to Control of Foreign Investment

Kiribati Foreign Investment Act administered by the Foreign Investment Commission. Papua New Guinea Investment Promotion Act 1992 administered by the investment Promotion Authority Solomon Islands Investment Act administered by the Investment Board. Tonga Industrial Development Incentives Act administered by the Ministry of Labour, Commerce and Industries 145

Table F5 - Forum Island Countries - Review and Approval Mechanisms for Foreign Investment Proposals

Federated States of A system of Foreign Investment Permits is administered by Micronesia the Department of Economic Affairs. Fiji All investment proposals from foreign investors must be approved by the Governmenton the advice of the Fiji Trade and Investment Board which now acts as a "One Stop Shop" for all necessary approvals to implement new projects. Kiribati All foreign investment proposals must be submitted to the Foreign Investment Commission (FIC). The FIC may approve projects up to US$156,000 (AUD 250,000). Larger projects are decided on by Cabinet on the advice of the FIC. Marshall Islands Foreign investors require an investment licence which is granted by the Cabinet, Office of the President. Papua New Guinea Foreign investment proposals in the mining and petroleum sectors involve a five phase process from application for an Exploration Licence through to approval, construction and operation of a new Project. Foreign investment proposals are handled by the Investment Promotion Authority. Samoa Proposals for foreign investmentare currently analysed and considered by the Department of Trade, Commerce and Industry. The Government has made recommendations for an improved, more transparent system. Solomon Islands All foreign investment proposals must be approved by the Investment Board on the advice of the Investment Division of the Department of Commerce, Employment and Tourism. Tonga Foreign investment proposals are reviewed by the Standing Advisory Committee on Industrial Licensing on the advice of the Ministry of Labour, Commerce and Industries. Vanuatu New investors require Vanuatu Foreign Investment Board approval. 146

Table F6 - Forum Island Countries - Summary of Controls Relating to Competition Policy and Pricing Controls.

Country Examples of Requirements Fiji • Takeovers and mergers are controlled under the Fair Trading Act. Marshall Islands • Price controls apply to selected essential commodities. Kiribati • Price controls apply to certain essential food commodities and petroleum products. Papua New • Takeovers and mergers must comply with provisions of the Guinea Companies Act. • The Price Regulations Act imposes price controls on certain essential items, principally food items. • PNG is in the process of formulating a National Competition Policy Samoa • Prices of basic food items and various other products are regulated by the Price Control Board. Solomon Islands • The Companies Act and the Investment Act both have implications for takeovers and mergers. • Price controls apply to a limited range of products, administered by the Price Control Unit of the Finance Department. Tonga • Price controls apply to certain essential food commodities, petroleum products and motor vehicles and spare parts. • No legislation exists concerning takeovers and mergers. 147

Table F7 Forum Island Countries - Summary of Labor Market Regulations

Country Examples, of Labor Market Regulations Federated States of • A minimum wage of US$1 .35 per hour applies in the private Micronesia sector. Fiji • A range of legislation applies to: • Non-monetary conditions of employment; • Wages; • The formation and conduct of trade unions and employer associations; • Conciliation and arbitration. Marshall Islands • The minimum wage is US$2.00 per hour. Papua New Guinea • Basic conditions of employment are laid down in the Employment Act. • Minimum rates of pay are determined by the Minimum Wages Board, currently US$9.65 per week. • A compulsory superannuation contribution scheme has been established (by the National Provident Fund Act) which applies to all employers with more than 25 employees. Samoa • Statutory minimum wages apply for the private sector (currently US$0.52 per hour). • Employers and employees are required to contribute to the Samoa National Provident Fund. • Employers must pay a small levy to the Samoa Accident Compensation Board. • Conditions of employment are regulated by the Labour and Employment Act which includes provision for conciliation and arbitration. Solomon Islands • Minimum wages and conditions are set by the Wages Advisory Board under the Labour Act, currently set at US$0.39 per hour. • A compulsory superannuation contribution scheme applies for the benefit of all employees under the National Provident Fund. • The Workmen ’s Compensation Act covers employees for work related injuries and illness. • The Labour Act relates to industrial relations, collective bargaining, dispute resolution and trade training and testing schemes. Vanuatu • Minimum wages are set every four years under the Minimum Wages Act. • Employers and Employees are each required to contribute three percent of wages and salaries to the National Provident Fund. • Legislation exists relating, inter alia, to labour disputes resolution. 148

Table F8 Forum Island Countries - Summary of Taxation Situation

Country • Company Taxes Personal Income tax Sales (or Related) Taxes Federated • A Gross Receipt Tax is assessed on the Six percent of the first US$1 1,000 income and States of basis of "gross revenue" which 10 percent of income over US$1 1,000. Micronesia exceeds US$2,000 per annum. • The rate is US$80 on the first US$10,000 of gross revenue and three percent of gross revenue over US$10,000 Fiji • 35 percent for resident companies. For residents and non-residents, commences at Value added tax of 10 percent on • 45 percent for non-resident companies income of US$3,250 per annum at a rate of 15 all goods and services other than mutual insurance percent and increases in two steps to a flat rate of 35 percent at US$7,750 per annum companies which pay 30%. Kiribati • 25 percent of profits up to US$31 ,200 US$1,120 and 35 percent for income in excess A hotel tax exists at a rate of 10 and 35 percent of profits on profits in of US$31,200. percent of hotel turnover excess of US$31,200. Marshall • The rate is US$80 on the first From zero to US$10,400 per annum individuals Islands US$10,000 of gross revenue and are taxed at 8 percent. Above this level, three percent of gross revenue over individuals are taxed at 12 percent. US$10,000. Papua New • Resident companies 25 percent of 10 percent of income over US$1,680 increasing Sales taxes, capped at a maximum Guinea profits. in six steps to 47 percent of income over of five percent of retail sales price, US$42,000 for resident tax payers. Non-residents • Resident mining companies, 35 percent. are in the process of being phased pay 10 percent of income up to US$840 out as of July 1999. They have been • Non-resident companies, 48 percent. increasing in six steps to 47 percent of income replaced with a 10 percent VAT. An • Resident and non-resident companies over US$42,000. excise tax will still apply to certain engaged in petroleum operations, 50 luxury items. percent. • Gas companies are taxed at 30% (resident and non-resident) Samoa • 35 percent for resident and non-resident Taxation is on a sliding scale from a minimum A value added Goods and Services • companies. rate of 10 percent to a maximum of 35 percent for Tax of 10 percent. income above US$6,667. 149

Country • Company Taxes Personal Income tax Sales (or Related) Taxes Solomon • 35 percent for resident companies. From zero to US$3,287 per annum individuals A goods tax of eight percent applies Islands • 50 percent for non-resident companies. are taxed at 11 percent increasing to 47 percent to all goods. Some services also of incomes greater than US$13,148 per annum. attract a service tax generally no higher than 10 percent. Tonga • Resident -15 percent first US$72,290, 30 10 percent of all income for incomes above Sales tax of five percent is levied on percent over US$72,290. US$1,807 per annum. most goods and services sold. • Non-resident- 37.5 percent first US$36,145, 42.5 percent over US$36,145 Vanuatu * • No direct company taxes are levied. No personal taxes are levied. Hotel licence premise tax of 10 percent is levied on the gross turnover of hotels and restaurants. Fifteen percent rent tax is levied on investment properties. A VAT of 12.5 Percent is applied to gross turnover above US$30,400.