The Art of Fig. 28, cover Skirt, made by a Caroline Islander in Saipan Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum B.8595 Woven banana and hibiscus fiber; red and brown warp stripes Photo by Malcolm Mekaru

Fig. 5 Canoe model, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 5653 Photo by Malcolm Mekaru

Canoe model, (Hambruch, Eilers 1936, 308, Fig. 1)

Sponsored by the University of Department of Art and Partners Supported by grants from the National Endowment for the Arts, , D.C., a federal agency, and the Hawaii Committee for the Humanities with the generous assistance of the Bank of Hawaii, Mobil Oil Micronesia, Inc., Continental ► Air Micronesia and School of the Pacific Islands, Inc. Copyright © 1986 The University of Hawaii Art Gallery Honolulu, Hawaii, USA Art of Micronesia The University of Hawaii Art Gallery

Essays by Jerome Feldman and Donald H. Rubinstein with Introduction by Leonard Mason Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Feldman, Jerome, 1944- The art of Micronesia Bibliography: p. 1. Arts, Micronesian-Exhibitions. 2. Arts, Primitive-Micronesia-Exhibitions. 3. Micronesians-Social life and customs-Exhibitions. I. Rubinstein, Donald H. 1948- II. University of Hawaii at Manoa. Art Gallery. III. University of Hawaii at Manoa. Dept. of Art and Partners. IV. Title. NX596.M5F45 1986 700'.96'5 86-11432

The University of Hawaii Art Gallery Department of Art Honolulu, Hawaii 96822 USA Contents Foreword by Albert J. Simone Acknowledgements Introduction by Leonard Mason Form and Function in the Art of Micronesia by Jerome Feldman Beyond Form and Function by Jerome Feldman Fabric Arts and Traditions by Donald H. Rubinstein Catalogue of the Exhibition Bibliography

Historical photographs, and line illustrations except where indicated, from Ergebnisse der Sudsee Expedition, 1908-1910, edited by G. Thilenius, are reproduced with the kind permission of Walter de Gruyter and Co., Berlin, West Germany, and the Hamburgisches Museum fiir Volkerkunde, Hamburg, West Germany 5 6 Foreword The designation of The Art of Micronesia as an inaugural event and the opening of the exhibition honoring my inauguration as the tenth president of the University of Hawaii have strong symbolic significance in at least two respects. First, it has to do with the importance of the arts and the humanities. In this era of high tech and rapid movement in technology and science, we can easily lose track of who we are, where we have come from and where we might be going, and what is really within us. Art allows us to ex­ press our humanity and permits us never to forget that all of us together make up a world of human beings and a civilization that must be maintained.

A second symbolic implication of the opening of The Art of f\/ficronesia has to do with the Pacific. This is truly the ''Era of the Pacific" where the Pacific Ocean is no longer the dividing ground but the meeting place for the nations of the world. We have brothers and sisters and neighbors throughout Micronesia with whom we share many customs and much history, language and be­ liefs. Coming together through the arts helps create the sense of family, a Pacific family, which is so important to the "Era of the Pacific." We must not lose track of the fact that although there are many minerals and resources in the oceans and that there will be aqua-farming and ocean mining and that each of the Pacific islands may come to have strategic importance militarily, politically and economically, the fundamental underlying essence of the Pacific region is its people. Art helps to bring all of us together and this exemplifies the importance of the symbolic meaning of this exhi­ bition.

For these two very strong reasons, it is an honor that one of the first major exhibitions of Micronesian art should be presented at the University of Hawaii.

Albert J. Simone President The University of Hawaii

7 Exhibition Curators Committee Jerome Feldman, Associate Professor of Art, Hawaii Loa College Donald H. Rubinstein, Executive Director, Centers for Asian and Pacific Studies, University of Hawaii at Manoa Deborah Waite, Professor of Art, University of Hawaii at Manoa

Gallery Director Catalogue Design Director Tom Klobe Peter Salter

Associate Director Design and Production Karen Thompson Allen Hori Christine Kehlor Exhibition Consultant Karen Stevenson Catalogue Photography Malcolm Mekaru Catalogue Editors Delmarie Motta Klobe Audio-Visual Program Donald H. Rubinstein Karl Miyajima Karen Stevenson Karen Stevenson Jeanne Wiig Scott Tome

Micronesian Cultural Fair Margo Vitarelli

Lenders to Belau National Museum the Exhibition Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum E. Akemi Daniells

Honolulu Academy of Arts Lowie Museum of Anthropology, University of , Berkeley

Metropolitan Museum of Art

8 National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution Peabody Museum, Salem Dr. and Mrs. William V. Vitarelli Acknowledgements The Art of Micronesia celebrates the peoples of a multitude of small islands which stretch for thousands of miles across the western Pacific Ocean. To the Micronesians we are profoundly grateful, for it is their cultures which inspired the creation of these objects which we appreciate for their beauty, simplicity and power of design. Professors Deborah Waite, University of Hawaii, and Jerome Feldman, Hawaii Loa College are to be credited with the concept of the exhibition and its planning. They, along with Donald Rubinstein, Executive Director, Centers for Asian and Pacific Studies (CAPS), served as curators for the exhibition. Their atten­ tion to the selection of objects, their research and their advice and assistance are deeply appreciated.

Historically, we owe much to the Hamburg Siidsee Expedition of 1908-1910. Its studies and preservation of traditional Micronesian culture remain of great value to scholars. A most sincere thanks is extended to Karen Stevenson, Ph.D. candidate at the University of California at Los Angeles, for her willing and enthusiastic assistance in all phases of the exhibition and catalogue preparation during the final two months of the exhibition planning. Likewise, associate gallery director Karen Thompson's unbending quest for quality and her coordination of all aspects of the project over the last two years have been essential to its completion. To Karen Stevenson and Karen Thompson along with Jeanne Wiig, faculty assistant to the Gallery, and my wife, Delmarie, and to the curators who assisted in editing and reviewing the catalogue, I am grateful.

Peter Salter, professor of design, is to be commended for his con­ cern for the educational process and for his desire to involve stu­ dents, Allen Hori and Christine Kehlor, in the design and production of the catalogue and related exhibition graphics. Their sensitivity is reflected in this publication. Graduate photo student, Malcolm Mekaru, photographed the objects from the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum. Grace Murakami was typesetter for the invitation, brochure and exhibition graphics.

It is a pleasure to see students develop quality audio-visual presenta­ tions as that which accompanies this exhibition. To Scott Tome and Karl Miyajima sincere appreciation is extended.

Students also play a key role in the installation of any exhibition at the University of Hawaii. Student gallery assistants, Michaela Gil­ lan, Valerie Harmon, Teresa Ho-Turco, Scott Katano, Anovale Lulu, Dean Myatt, Florencio Paraon, Sheryl Saito, Thomas Tsu­ hako, Man To Wan and Wai Tak Yan along with many volunteers and the students in Art 360, Exhibition Design and Gallery Management, make a quality installation possible. To each, to spe­ cial installation assistant Vincent Nakano, gallery management assis- tant Sharon secretaries Monica Bacon and Debra Yee the gallery assistants, I express my thanks.

Margo can be credited the success of the Fair. To them and to Lynn Folk Arts Specialist the State Foundation on Culture the Arts, appreciation is extended for a most meaningful event.

Faustina Honolulu George Direc- tor, Sanna Registrar; Lowie Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, Frank Norick, Principal Museum Anthropologist, Joan Knudsen, Registrar, Assistant Registrars Patricia Podzorski and Valerie Verzuh; Metropolitan Museum of Art, Douglas Nevvtou, Chaim1an, Department of Art, n..,,_..,_..,,.._,, Coordinator of Loans, Nancy Haller, Assistant Conservator, Assistant Registrars Nina S. Maruca and Willa Cox; National l\/luseum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Kaeppler, of Anthropology, James Rubinstein, Loan Coordinator, Natalie Fimhaber, Conservator; Peabody Museum of Salem, Peter Fetchko, Director, Lucy Butler, Registrar; the Vitarelli and E. Daniells.

We are Pauahi Museum from their collections and the enthusiastic support Rose, Ethnologist, and Betty for the care and assistance given by Laura Carter, Curatorial Assistant, and Laura D' Alessandro in preparing the objects and as­ sisting in their installation. The conservation of Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum artifacts was carried out at Pacific Regional Conservation by conservator, Laura D' Alessandro, the of the Andrew W. Mellon

The continued encouragement of the National Endowment Arts and the for the of our quality exhibitions of an historical nature is greatly appreci- special to Bank of Mobil Oil Micronesia, , Continental Micronesia and School of the 10 Pacific Islands, Inc. generous support of this exhibition and to our community support group, \vho enthusiasti­ program.

Tom Klobe Director The Hawaii Art Introduction Micronesia is one of three principal divisions of the Pacific. The other two are and . As the name suggests, Micronesia is composed of very small islands, dispersed over a wide expanse of the Pacific Ocean and located for the most part north of the Equator. Cultural and linguistic differences abound among its constituent parts, the Mariana, Caroline, Marshall, and , and Nauru. Many of the traditional arts and other cultural aspects have been lost in the changes accompanying the islanders' contact with the West over the past three centuries but are still valued by contemporary Micronesians as their ancestral heritage. This link with the past helps them to maintain their separate ethnic identities as the people of Belau, , Outer Island Carolines, Truk, Pohnpei, , Marshalls, Kiribati, Nauru, and the Chamorros. In the political context of the 1980's they are most cor­ rectly recognized as citizens of the American Territory of , the Commonwealth of the Northern , the Federated States of Micronesia (Yap, Truk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae), and the Republics of Belau, Marshall Islands, Kiribati, and Nauru.

The Micronesian arts in this exhibition may be viewed from two quite different vantage points. In the first place the arts of any people, especially those in the Pacific islands, constitute a central or primary expression of the culture in its entirety. The arts, in this sense, include not only the visual arts but also song, dance, drama, and legend, and other features of the oral tradition. The basic values of any people, their hopes and their fears, are sustained by the meaning expressed in their art. Therefore, to view the objects on display is to be introduced to the cultures of Micronesia as through an open window and to enjoy the cultural vistas that extend far beyond the limits of the visual exhibit.

Secondly, the objects themselves can be understood as more than pleasing art forms, if the viewer is informed about their function in their cultural context. These objects are made to be used in the daily household routine, as expressions of social status, rank, politi­ cal authority, and as items of wealth for exchange among kin groups. In addition these objects serve as symbols of spiritual and religious systems. It may be noted parenthetically that a museum or exhibition of "art" is an artificial setting from the is­ landers' viewpoint, a construct of Western culture introduced and

11 maintained more by outside interests than by the Micronesians themselves. To them, if an object still has any meaning in the pres- ent era of rapid it should be seen more properly in context of cultural in the or the village. If that has been lost or discarded, it becomes a dead object, to be valued only by those who seek to revive a sense of the past among the younger generation or to perpetuate the values and identities inherent in the objects as a link between past and present.

of Oceanic art have the visual art Micronesia generally lacks Melane- and To some v,.,,,,~,.,v~• by the smallness communities in Micronesia, a condition that does not ordinarily lead to the development of complex political and religious institutions and their attendant paraphernalia. The relative scarcity of working materials to produce a more elaborate artistic expression is a related factor. The high islands (continental and volcanic in Guam and Islands, Belau, Yap, Pohnpei, and Kosrae, most of which are located in the west. These islands have provided a greater of timber and stone (for sculpture) and day (for pottery), contrast with the is- lands and atolls that make up the rest of Micronesia (Nauru is a raised coral island). In the low islands, coral limestone and marine shells supplement a variety of fibrous plant and species. With the limited materials available, Micronesians nevertheless have achieved an excellence of craftsmanship in architecture, canoe con­ struction, bowls and other receptacles, personal ornaments of marine and shell, tattooing, loom-woven textiles of banana hibiscus fiber, and plaited mats and baskets of pandanus and coconut leaf (see Mason 1964:918-930).

The prevailing tone of Micronesian art is simplicity in form and regularity in design. Functional needs govern the design of bowls, canoes, and houses. Still, a significant portion of the islanders' works goes beyond the apparent requirements of function, and herein lies the true beauty of art. Even so, added surface motifs and detailed embellishments are expressions of the locally defined needs and that are an integral part of each society's way of life. Regardless of how functional and simply formed an

12 object is, historical and religious associations render it especially treasured, indeed revered, as a family or community heirloom.

Micronesian art shows many features in common, attesting to the sharing of cultural ancestry and design development that predate European contact by many centuries. Yet some of the art reveals influences from contacts with Indonesia and Melanesia, as in the loom-weaving of the , the dance masks from Sata­ wan in the Mortlock Islands (Truk), and the surface decoration with pearl-shell inlay in bowls from Belau. Traditional art is never static. It is always changing although not at the accelerated rate of modern times. Change has pervaded the Micronesian islands from earliest human occupation. Differences that are apparent in the art of Micronesia can be understood as a combination of the evolving style modifications within locally isolated groups, plus the diffu­ sionist influences affecting the various cultures at different times in Micronesian prehistory.

Despite the cultural diversity in Micronesian art traditions, there are certain features which occur repeatedly. The small island popu­ lations have been strongly influenced by and dependent upon the always present marine setting. Thus, sea birds, fish and canoe forms appear prominently in Micronesian art. Some of these con­ cepts are readily apparent in the forms and shapes themselves. Other allusions, as in the geometric motifs that grace the weaving, tattooing, and plaitwork, need to be identified by reference to the local linguistic terms applied to these motifs.

Micronesian art also embodies a strong element of the spiritual or the even though formalized religious institutions were never a prominent aspect of Micronesian culture. The spiritual function of model canoes hanging in the men's house, the replica­ tion of canoe forms in bowls and other receptacles used in daily life, the association of bird and human features in canoe prow ornaments, and the incorporation of bird/human features in spirit images and other artifacts associated with weather prediction or control, act to transform the seemingly prosaic elements of Micronesian art into highly suggestive and dramatic productions that place the artistic expressions of the Micronesians proudly alongside the best of Oceanic art.

13 Leonard Mason Professor Emeritus of Anthropology The University of Hawaii

and in the Art of Micronesia Jerome Feldman

n all times and all cul­ as art and therefore not used. tures, art has served Hammering a nail, containing some function. Although food, or providing transporta­ paintings and sculptures tion have not, until recently, in museums, galleries, and been considered as appropriate private collections may at first uses for art. Hence objects used appear to have no practical use, for everyday purposes have they operate as the foci of per­ either never been considered art, sonal or collective pride and or would be degraded by such prestige, while conveying ab­ use to the level of craft. Archi­ stract or literal ideals. These tecture, on the other hand, has concepts may or may not be ex­ been a valid art form despite its pressed in verbal language. In a obvious utilitarian value. How­ religious context, works of art ever, from the times of the an­ serve to illustrate, symbolize or cient Greeks to the twentieth amplify liturgical needs. century, Western architecture has been acknowledged as an art In most cultures, prestige and form largely in that it was deco­ the communication of meaning rated with sculpture or painting. are traditionally considered as valid functions for art. In these The breakthrough in the West, contexts, art is rarely manipu­ forcing change in what could be lated, nor is it used physically. considered art, can most clearly A barrier is usually constructed be seen in the Bauhaus move­ to prevent the object from being ment in the early twentieth cen­ manipulated. In the West it has tury. Objects such as chairs, 15 been customary to separate tables, architecture, automobiles, "art" from "craft" by supply­ and even factories could be ing a frame to a painting, a designed without ornamentation, Fig. 1 pedestal for sculpture, or a for functional purposes, and still Bowl, Truk Bernice Pauahi Bishop museum or gallery which serves be recognized as works of art. Museum 7560 as a visual cue that the object From this time on, one could Photo by Malcolm Mekaru or objects are to be considered justifiably take pride and derive pleasure from the possession of discern general design trends Bird-shaped bowl, Puluwat a beautiful useful object. Excite- typical of all of the islands. If (Kramer 1937, 65, Fig. 3J) ment in the beauty of form one allows for a number of ex- could be appreciated for its own ceptions, it can be said that util- sake. itarian objects are designed with a minimum of surface decora- Certain historical events had set tion. The tendency is toward the stage for these new creative restrained, angular designs con- ideas and for an expanded fined to the edges or borders of awareness of the aesthetic possi- forms. The curving floral de- bilities of other cultures. Begin- signs of the Philippines or the ning in the eighteenth century, Moluccas in eastern Indonesia and throughout the nineteenth are almost never encountered. and twentieth, works of art When they do appear, one sus- from Africa, , America, pects outside influence or Japan and other regions began manufacture. The sculptural to fill the museums and galleries preferences of Micronesia em- of Europe and America. At first phasize finely proportioned geo- considered "curiosities," these metric shapes, clear transitions often utilitarian items gradually between sculptured planes, caught the attention of artists, and expert craftsmanship. stimulating a great transforma- tion of Western art. 1 As the Containers exemplify these aes- possibilities for Western art thetic preferences in Micronesian began to change, an apprecia- art. These receptacles are part of t tion for the arts of other cul- a system of design which is 1 tures became a common reality. manifest in every sort of vessel f from small boxes to coffins and ( While it is difficult to discern canoes. Such items are often t ''1 what role Micronesian art might expressions of a preference for j have played in these changes, it geometric form. They are care- e is evident that many of the utili- fully crafted and conscientiously g tarian arts from Micronesia are designed; parts precisely socket l: reminiscent, to the Westerner, of together, and carefully made ii the finest of contemporary lashings provide handles and r European design. Within Micro- bindings. For example, boxes s, nesia, these items confer pride from the Caroline Islands are p and prestige upon their owners. constructed of plain undecorated b If the objects are old they are wood. Most of these boxes do a invested with historical associa- not have feet and some even re- a tions and the personalities of tain the cylindrical shape of the Ci 16 their former owners. Most im- original log. In the Western portantly, they are admired by Caroline Islands, bowls occa- 1 the public who sees the object in sionally have feet as part of the C1 use. 2 vessel designs. These range from '\i simple base rims or short lugs g: There is great aesthetic diversity forming tripods or quadrupods 0 among the Micronesian islands to elaborate curved legs attached ~ and therefore it is difficult to to rectangular base frames. 3 Ves- h; sels may be painted red ochre, shell inlaid containers. A superb or a restrained amount of geo­ example in the British Museum, metric black and white decora­ dating from 1783, was a gift to tion may be applied to the edges the shipwrecked Captain Wilson. of the It has the form of a bird and is decorated with small inlaid bird There is a great variety of figures. Great prestige distin­ shapes for containers. Many guishes these covered inlaid curve to form pointed ends, bowls which were used for somewhat reminiscent of double­ offerings of coconut candy to ended canoes. Often at the top powerful chiefs. 9 The workman­ of the ends there is a carved T- ship in shell inlay on stained shape. l] The form, resem- wood resembles certain forms in a canoe prow ornament, the Solomon Islands of Melane­ suggests a human face, as in the sia more closely than it does the shape of the brows and nose of bowls of the other Caroline from Satawan in the Islands. Mort lock Islands. 4 Certain con­ tainers such as the tackle boxes Bird bowls are found in a num­ found on Puluwat and elsewhere ber of Western Caroline Islands. are constructed to float should a The finest of these are found in canoe capsize. 5 Owners of these Puluwat and Satawan. They rep­ boxes may use uniquely designed resent white gulls and are used lashings to safeguard against either as food bowls or as con­ tampering or theft. 6 Coffins fol­ tainers for canoe paint. This low a similar design, and except type of bowl is a highly prized for their size and sometimes the household possession that is choice of wood, they appear to passed from mother to daugh­ be very large boxes. Those from ter. 10 [Fig. 2, inside back cover] Tobi Island are among the best examples. Constructed of man­ Certainly the largest bowls come grove wood, 7 these coffins are from Truk. The type of bowl, brought to the beach and placed called uunong, is used exclu­ in canoes. Only men and mar­ sively at the annual breadfruit ried women qualify for such feast when the harvest is cere­ sarcophagi. 8 These coffins are monially presented to the chiefs. paddled out to sea accompanied The uunong is placed upon a by another boat and then set special support (wochang) which adrift. The drifting coffins once serves as both a stand and a again suggest an association of pallet. [Fig. 3] When filled with Fig. 3 containers with canoes. breadfruit, it requires several Large wooden bowl, Uman, men to lift it. The bowl is paint­ Truk 17 The most striking containers ed red inside and out and the (Kramer 1932, Plate 13 B) come from the Caroline Islands. exterior has a special coating Virtually every island in the made of grated and compressed Fig. 4 group produces its own version nuts, giving it a hard, shiny and Large wooden bowl and canoes used as containers waterproof surface. 11 The of a geometric box. In the during a feast, Uman, Trnk Western Caroline Islands, Belau uunong is said to have the form Note the aten on the canoe. has a distinctive tradition of of a canoe, and according to (Kramer 1932, Plate 13 C) Fig. 5 Detail: fruit, they are lashed together ir Canoe model, Marshall and caulked so as to produce C< Islands smooth tapering forms. Si Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 5653 u Photo by Malcolm Mekaru A distinctive characteristic of a canoes from these islands is the fl use of an asymmetrical hull, d that is flatter on the lee than on p the outrigger side. Canoes from i~ the Marshall Islands show the r· asymmetrical hull in its most ex- v treme form. This design coun- t teracts the drag of the outrigger c while the canoe is traveling at f slow speeds. At high speed the g outrigger is lifted out of the v water by the force of the wind i: on the sail, yet the canoe con- c tinues to sail straight. The r curved hull has the shape of the c cross section of a wing and , therefore acts somewhat like an c airfoil, generating lift in the t direction of the outrigger. Since the wind is always from the direction of the outrigger, the force generated by the asym- metrical hull counteracts the pressure of the wind, causing the canoe to sail straight. 14 Their Canoe, Marshall Islands one story the first such bowls sharp ends and narrow hulls put (Haddon, Horne! 1936, Vol. !, were actual canoes. 12 The bowl them among the sleekest vessels 370, Fig. 266) is double-ended and the bottom in the Pacific. [Fig. 5, inside has a keel shape. Decorated front cover and detail, page 18] canoes used as bowls often ac­ Even with this skillful interplay company the uunong during of form and function, these ceremonial occasions. [Fig. 4] canoes nevertheless are equipped with magical protective devices The canoes of Micronesia pre­ at both ends. suppose a vital concern for the relationship of form and func­ As if this fine design, structural 18 tion. The most traditional engineering and supernatural canoes are still found in the protection were not enough, a Caroline and Marshall Islands, sailor from the Marshall Islands and Kiribati. 1 3 All of these areas also uses a unique device, a have finely crafted vessels with "stick chart," to navigate. These very sleek proportions. Although devices are definitely not maps the hulls are constructed of sec­ in the Western sense, as neither tions of wood, usually bread- distance, time, nor currents are indicated. Three types of chart, composed of lashed sticks and sometimes shells, are used to understand and plot wave action as a means of navigation. The te first type, called mattang, is designed to indicate the general )n principle of wave refraction. It n is an abstraction of wave crests resulting from the interaction of ;x- waves and small islands, such as those which comprise the two er chains of the Marshall Islands. From such observations a navi­ gator can follow certain types of wave forms toward unseen islands. The second type of chart, called meddo, records the relative locations of several spe- he cific islands and the necessary wave patterns. Meddo is useful n on specific voyages. The third type, called rebbelith, is a gener- :e al wave navigation device used throughout the Marshall Islands. Shells or coral pebbles indicate specific islands, and the bent sticks illustrate common wave formations. 15 Although one may cir argue that "stick charts" are ut more function than form, their .s unique design has made them collectors' items for visitors to s] the Marshall Islands. They grace 'I the walls of many museums, galleries and homes in the West. ;d For the Westerner they may be pure form. For people from the Marshall Islands, they are pure function.

Some Micronesian arts show 19 rich embellishment and Is functions which imply special cultural significance, yet that :se deeper meaning has either been lost (or never existed) or has re­ Stick chart, Marshall Islands Line illustration by Marc Smith, r mained hidden from outsiders. adapted from Haddon, Hornell Such is the case with the beauti- 1936, Vol. 1, 373, Fig. 267a fully decorated and very highly valued dance paddles (patil en kapir) from Pohnpei. [Fig. 6] They are ceremonial pieces, dis­ played during important dances and festivals, and may be buried with the dead. 16 Patil en kapir are made of breadfruit wood and are richly decorated with painted geometric motifs. Apparently no two paddles are exactly the same. Tufts of dyed hibiscus fiber ornament the edges of older examples; on more recent paddles wool is used. The form of the dance paddles derives from functional canoe paddles, and perhaps the larger ones represent rudders.

Patil en kapir are objects of great pride in Pohnpei. They are displayed prominently in early photographs of high ranking in­

dividuals. 11 The paddles serve primarily in dances, such as the very interesting dance described by Hambruch and Eilers, per­ formed for the consecration of the chief's new canoe. This Fig. 6 Detail: dance accompanies the beat of Dance paddle, Pohnpei the hourglass-shaped Pohnpei Bernice Pauahi Bishop drum, a type common to Mela­ Museum 6805 Photo by Malcolm Mekaru nesia but found only in Pohnpei and the Marshall Islands in Micronesia. The consecration -I- I' dance involves the lashing of a dance floor across a flotilla of canoes. A railing is constructed in front of the line of standing dancers. Seated oarsmen are 20 hidden from view behind the dancers. As the barge ap­ proaches the site of the celebra­ tion, the performers sing and dance impressively as the rud­ ders are skillfully swung about Dance paddle, Pohnpei the barge. At the end of the (Hambruch, Eilers 1936, 205, Fig. 20) performance the paddles and dance aprons are presented to Fig. 7 the nobles who distribute these Warrior in full armor, along with other gifts among the Kiribati 18 (Friedrich Ratzel, The History populace. In this way the pad­ of Mankind, vol. 1, 1896, 137) dles serve as a remembrance of the dance ceremony or as recog­ Fig. 8 nition of an individual's status. Helmet, Kiribati Bernice Pauahi Bishop Certainly the most remarkable Museum ACC. 4534 Photo by Malcolm Mekaru of functional items in Microne­ sia is the armor worn by warri­ ors of Kiribati. [Fig. 7] It consists of a heavy jacket and trousers made of knotted coco­ nut fiber. Sometimes human hair is worked into the fiber to produce motifs said to represent stylized dolphins. A flat panel rises out of the back of the heavy jacket and projects well above the warrior's head. This protection was necessary, as women were wont to throw stones from behind. Some hel­ mets are made of plaited twine with tufts of human hair worked into the tops and ear guards. Other helmets are made of the puffed out, hardened skin of a blow fish. [Fig. 8] These are placed over the head, tail upwards, with the side fins pro­ tecting the ears of the warrior. Hardened sting ray skin provides reinforced protection in the stomach area. The entire suit is so heavy that a warrior must be aided in battle by an unarmed attendant who handles the war­ rior's weapons and other gear. Similar though less elaborate armor once existed elsewhere in 21 the Caroline Islands. 19 Kiribati weapons are also impressive, consisting of long spears, swords, and daggers lined with rows of sharks' teeth. These ferocious arms seem to justify the elaborate and heavy armor. 20 Widespread warfare was com­ mon in Kiribati. Often the abduction of women was the immediate cause for a conflict, and entire islands could become involved. Defensive fortifications attained astonishing size for these tiny islands. Walls seven feet high, stretching across an entire island, might be construct­ ed out of palm tree trunks, sand bags, and coral blocks. Enemies could only enter the island by leaping over the walls. Presuma­ bly they did not wear the armor during the leap. 21 In contrast to other arts of Micronesia whi~ are well adapted to the environ­ ment, the armor and weaponry of Kiribati seem greatly out of place on small humid atolls.

Only a small selection of the many exquisitely designed and functional items of daily use in Micronesia can be presented here. Canoe bailers from each island are unique and beautiful. Coconut graters, especially from Nukuoro and Kapin­ garnarangi, the two Polynesian outliers in the Caroline Islands, are suggestive abstractions of animal forms. 22 [Fig. 9, inside back cover] The exhibit even in­ cludes a nighttime commode for invalids. [Fig. 10] What emerges from a study of these forms is 22 that daily life for traditional Micronesians is enhanced by beautiful implements. These ob­ Fig. 10 jects are appreciated as abstract Nighttime commode for forms of art and, as in the case children or invalids Lowie Museum of Anthro­ of navigation and canoe design, pology, University of may represent empirical observa­ California, Berkeley 11-167 tions of natural principles. Notes 'For a more detailed description of these "Eilers 1936 2:101, figs. 17-20 events see Rubin 1984. •see McKnight 1964:10-17. 2 0 Peter Steager, 1979, explored the ' Damm 1935:65-66, Someki 1936: 172-190 phenomenon of utilitarian objects on "LeBar 1964:14-15 Puluwat and concluded that it was indeed "Kramer 1932:147, 151 a great and recognized art form in much "Formerly called the Gilbert Islands. of Micronesia. 14See Whitney 1955:36-49. 'See Muller 1917 1:157, figs. 205, 206. "For more details and references see Daven- 4 The masks are discussed in the essay, "Be­ port 1960. 0 yond Form and Function." ' Hambruch and Eilers 1936:203 5 Steager 1979:346 "See Christian 1967:78, 108, 204. 0 This was described for Truk by LeBar, "Hambruch and Eilers 1936:210-211 1964: 128-129. 19Legge 1974: 13-14. For terminology used 'It is possible that the red sap of this wood for parts of Kiribati weapons and armor suggests blood, and by extension, the see Murdoch 1923. wood symbolizes the human body. At this 2°For a description see Koch 1965:193-197. time we have no direct evidence for this "Parkinson 1889:45-48 connotation from Tobi. The idea finds its 22 A very similar tradition can be seen in most eloquent expression on the ritual bisj other Polynesian outliers in Melanesia and poles of the Asmar of . See in certain parts of Indonesia. Gerbrands 1962:34. Micronesian art is part of a broader context of art in the Pacific. Certain similarities extend throughout the area. These suggest, but do not in them­ selves prove or disprove, contact or rela­ tionships.

23 F c T B l\ T tc F Beyond Form and Function Jerollle Feldlllan

gerous situations such as war­ fare. As mentioned earlier (see previous essay), canoes from the Marshall Islands bore ornaments attached to the bow and stern, presumably for protection. Such prow ornaments are indeed quite common in Micronesia, and the most striking are found in Truk. he traditional carvings These appear on large paddled of Micronesia encom­ war canoes called waa faten. pass far more than The figurehead is a removable objects of daily use. plank of wood with a cut-out Much of the art collected and design in the form of two birds, recorded during the period of facing each other beak to beak. early contact could not be ex­ [Fig. 11] They are made by plained by function alone. These master canoe builders arts embody the indigenous be­ (soufanafan) out of Ficus lief systems, and serve as sym­ carolinensis (aaw)2 and are bolic links to the spirits, deities painted red, black and white. and ancestors who control those Birds also appear on the war aspects of life beyond the help canoes of Yap. 3 This suggests of technology. that bird canoe prow ornaments are perhaps for protection or Although very little of this older success in warfare. The bird religious art is in use today, and figures on the canoes from Truk little of it was ever produced in represent sea swallows, accord­ comparison to Melanesia, this ing to Kubary. He also tells us art is surprisingly abundant in that these ornaments (aten) are the context of the resources of treated with the greatest respect; even the high islands of Micro­ they are removed from the nesia. In the sparse low islands canoe when it is not in use, and it is astonishing to find that any they can be raised or lowered. 25 Fig. 11 wood could be spared for non­ When a waa faten approaches Canoe prow ornament (aten), utilitarian items. 1 another canoe, it is customary Truk to lower these figureheads as an Bernice Pauahi Bishop A natural place to appeal for indication of peaceful intentions. 4 Museum 791 The stick may have been used supernatural help is on canoes to raise the ornament. traveling long distances at sea, The meaning of the aten repre­ Photo by Malcolm Mekaru or when encountering other dan- sentation is still unclear. Kramer records a very interesting in- war canoes and their connection terpretation concerning the with sea swallows remain prob- form. He shows a diagram in lematic. Perhaps the meaning of which the parts of the aten are these human figures, appearing given Trukese interpretations. on men's houses or canoe The projecting tails of the birds prows, is rooted in mythology. are the arms: the right is male and the left is female. The nar- Another human figure is the row center of the object' is the weather charm, a uniquely hip, and the bottom extensions Micronesian item associated are the legs. Kramer feels that with the safety of canoes. the aten represents a human These are common espe- figure with the neck and head cially in the Western Fig. 12 Fig. shown as the middle projection Caroline Islands. They Weather charm, Yap Spi1 between the bird beaks. The usually consist of a Bernice Pauahi Bishop Ben arms of the figure hold the two janus wooden torso in Museum D.4347 Mu: birds with their beaks pointing human form. The Photo by Malcolm Mekaru Phc to the top of the head. Kubary bottom half has sting had noted the same although ray spines attached less specific interpretation to the torso with earlier, without contributing any coral cement. These additional explanation. Kramer's figures often are Trukese consultants did not at- festooned with knotted tach much value to this interpre- palm leaves, a practice tation, even though they had which may be in- supplied the terminology. 5 That tended to ward off these two reliable early research- sorcery, or may be ers independently found this in- related to divination. 8

formation tends to support its [Fig. 12] In Ulithi, Lamotrek ', •, validity, and to suggest that the and elsewhere, weather bird motif had greater sig- charms called hos are conse- nificance in the past. crated by navigators (pelu) in 26 order to divert storms and other Displayed fem ale figures are rare bad weather from their canoes. in Micronesia. They adorn the Benevolent water spirits, Belau men's house, and their Yalulawei, respond to appeals disguised form on war canoes made by manipulating the Fig. Cane from Truk suggests an unrecog- image. The navigator will Bern nized presence elsewhere in usually take the image to a Must Micronesia. 6 Their placement on coconut tree in the vicinity of Phot the canoe house. In the presence or miniature canoes are some- of the tree, which is usually a times provided as vehicles for gift of the person Who taught spirits and . In Belau, when the navigator, the owner will a high chief or an. entire village chant his request to Yalulawei becomes sick, a small boat is for protection. After doing this, fashioned to transport the spirit the navigator can take the of a deity (galid) to the vicinity. weather charm along in the The priests could protect an canoe. When not in use the hos entire community by placing a is stored in the canoe house, but two-meter long canoe in the never in the dwelling house. 9 men's house (bai). 14 The Tobi Islanders have a spirit house In Ulithi, the hos is placed in a dedicated to their high small spirit house on the outrig- Rugeiren (known elsewhere in ger booms, or attached between Micronesia as Luugoilang). the booms. The two or four Inside the house is a spirit ship sting ray spines, from which the which serves to transport the name hos is derived, represent deity so that he may converse legs. Two kinds of incantation with the priest. [Fig. 13] Offer- are used to activate the charm. ings are placed on the ship and One is for the construction of a yearly feast is given by chiefs Fig. 13 the canoe, and the other is to commemorate the painting of 15 Spirit canoe, probably Tobi performed at the commencement the ship. An ancient ceremony Bernice Pauahi Bishop of a voyage. 10 was reportedly conducted at the Museum 3547 great stone ruins of Nan Madol tru Photo by Malcolm Mekaru The hos can also be used for in Pohnpei. Canoes made during sorcery. This makes the naviga- the past year would be launched tor a very powerful person in and consecrated. One canoe, the community. Among other hung in the high chief's house, acts he can change the weather, is reserved for the spirit of negate the ill effects of breaking the god. 16 [Fig. 14] a taboo, and perform divination and sorcery. 11 In Ulithi, a hos In Yap, spirit canoes play an with a single sting ray spine is especially prominent role. A used to counter sorcery directed small spirit house could be con- against an individual. 12 The structed for offering to the navigators solicit help from a deities during times of sickness. group of spirits (yalus) who may The top of this dwelling is be good or evil. Generally, bene- carved in the form of a war ficent ya/us live on the sky or canoe. 11 The ceiling beams of air, while those at sea are spirits the Yap men's house (pebaey) of people who died under unfor- are decorated with motifs 27 tunate circumstances. Good derived from the spirit canoe, yalus possess a person who then and the houses (faiuw) for the becomes a waiiyalus, or a young men have the same canoe Fig. 14 "canoe of the yalus." Such prow motifs on the center posts. Canoe model, Pohnpei 13 Bernice Pauahi Bishop mediums can also predict storms. [Fig. 15] The canoe prow orna- Museum 7550 ment appears again in dance Photo by Malcolm Mekaru In the Caroline Islands, actual headgear. 19 The most spectacular spirit of a burning coconut. From I canoes come from Truk. here the spirit would enter a v According to one myth, a mes­ medium. In a state of posses­ l; senger of the named Olufat sion, the spiritualist answered c (known elsewhere as Yelofath, ' questions for the dead. 20 r: Fig. 15 the son of Luugoilang) in­ v Pebaey interior, Bale bat structed a man from the island The half-moon motifs that orna­ s Village, Yap Canoe prow ornaments of Toloas in Truk Lagoon to ment the ends of Olufat's boat c appear in the upper rafters. construct a model of the double represent the phallus of the fish a (Muller 1917, Plate 49, No. 2) canoe Olufat had used to travel of the god who dwells in c from the heavens. [Fig. 16] He heavenly pools, and the prow v called the boat nen. The Toloas ornaments represent crab claws. i1 man painted the boat, hung it in Sometimes frigate bird figures r the boathouse and performed a sit on top of the crescent as c dance around it. The boat they do in Belau canoe orna­ c model-would frequently be used ments. 21 However, the presence t: to call forth the spirits of the of a person's hair comb, ear­ t: Fig. 16 dead. According to one story rings, and other body ornaments t; Spirit canoe, Truk Bernice Pauahi Bishop the spirit would leap onto the hanging from the spirit canoe i~ Museum X-183 nape of the neck of a ''spirit seems to indicate that this is a t Photo by Malcolm Mekaru caller" and then into the flames boat for departed spirits. i1 [Figs. 17 and 18] 11

1' t s d f s i: s t. n t: a b 1 1' 28 e n l< t1 1' In the past if a man in Truk wanted good fortune, such as a large breadfruit crop, or a great catch of fish, or even to learn a new dance to impress the women, he would construct a ta- spirit boat, place it between two Fig. 17 canoe hulls in the boathouse, Spirit canoe in the canoe h and dance around the four house, Moen Island, Truk canoe prow ornaments. He (Kramer 1932, Plate 27) would then hang the spirit boat in the boathouse. In this way he placed his request ~ith the anu Fig. 18 or ancestor spirits. The boat Man in full costume, Moen could also be used to transmit Island, Truk the talents of a dead person to (Kramer 1932, Plate 1) the living. Hence a dancer could ts take his spirit boat to another island where he could call forth the spirit of a deceased dance instructor to teach him a new dance. 22

Masks are another device used to establish contact with the spirit world. The only masks in- digenous to Micronesia come from the Mortlock Islands, south of Truk. [Fig. 19J It ap- pears from early sources that Satawan Atoll is the center of this tradition, although some masks (tapuanu) in early callee- tions are attributed to Lukunor, and one example was collected by the Hamburg expedition in Truk. Masks are common in Melanesia, and it can be debat- 29 ed if mask-like objects were made in Polynesia. 23 This has led some scholars to speculate that the tradition derives from Melanesian contact.

Hair ornament, Truk (Damm 1935, 33, Fig. 21) Fig. 19 A Mask, Satawan, Mortlock tl Islands p Bernice Pauahi Bishop el Museum 5620 f( Photo by Malcolm Mekaru n

Sc tt: h p ff a1 ti L l\i

g1 rr

T C< tl Is C( p; w n al di n al Ill ru C( F sr st T bi sr Although masks appear only in black curving forms suggesting teresting detail is that the masks the Mortloek Islands or more either broad lips, or a mustache. with combs form the front and precisely Satawan, everything The center of the bottom lip is back of the line of dancers. else about these objects fits per­ usually attached to the geometric Those in the middle do not have fectly into a traditional Micro­ beard which covers the perimeter combs. This implies a hierarchy nesian context. They are created of the face. At the top of the or differentiation among the especially for the purpose of mask there is sometimes a pro­ masks. 28 ·warding off hurricanes and jection which resembles a hair typhoons in order to protect the comb or top-knot. On one ex­ Other than masks, the human breadfruit crop and thereby ample there is a small mask face image takes the form of a guarantee the sustenance of the on the comb. The older masks sculpted figure, although free­ island. Tapuanu also means are very large and made of standing figural sculpture is rare sacred spirit derived from the heavy breadfruit wood. Minia­ in Micronesia. In Belau and Yap term anu meaning ancestor or ture masks were rare at the turn they are part of the architectural human spirit. So it is not sur­ of the century and their con­ tradition and are usually ren­ prising that small wooden fig­ struction out of soft wood dered in high relief. This type of ures are occasionally used. 24 We suggests they were intended sculpture is discussed below are reminded here of the protec­ for sale. 26 under architecture. A few rough tive function of the hos of images have been reported from Lamotrek and other western The masks are produced by a the Mortlock Islands but even Micronesian islands. The masks, secret organization called sou­ these have doubtful proveni­ as protective devices, also sug­ tapuanu. This organization ob­ ence. 29 Other figures have been gest the aten, canoe prow orna­ serves certain taboos and is associated with Kiribati, ments of Truk. responsible for the mask songs although again the provenience and dances. They also maintain is uncertain. The Mortlock masks clearly a large house called f ale/ol conform to the aesthetics found where the performances accom­ An outstanding sculptural tradi­ throughout the Caroline panied by feasts are held in tion of Micronesia comes from Islands. 25 They are flat, minimal March or April. Masks decorate the Polynesian outlier, Nukuoro. carvings, and are sparingly the support beams of the Dramatic figural sculpture ap­ painted black on a white face falefol, either carved out of the pears throughout Polynesia, but with a few details painted in pillars, or attached to them. The it is usually not found in Micro­ red. The same sort of features pillars of boathouses on Sata­ nesia. These striking images and coloring typify wind charms wan may also be adorned with represent two categories of discussed earlier. The brows the masks. The dance perfor­ worshiped on the resemble the wings of sea birds mances consist of one group of tiny atoll. One is called tupua, and form a T-shape with the men calling "who are you?" the mythical distant gods, and nose. The combination of bird while the other answers, ''uh, the other is the aitu tanata or and human references is reminis­ uh" as the two groups fight the spirits of dead ancestors. 30 31 cent again of the aten of Truk. each other in a stick dance. 27 A Deities could be represented by Facial features are suggested by performance, filmed perhaps at wooden images, stones, or cer­ small slits for eyes and a the request of the Germans, tain types of animals. The shows the masked men dancing majority of wooden images are Fig. 20 straight ridge for the mouth. Masks dancing on the beach, The tapuanu rarely have ears, on the beach. [Fig. 20] The representations of the tupua Satawan Island, Mortlock but when they do, they are very staging of this dance does not and therefore represent gods. Islands small. The mouth is outlined in include a stick battle. An in- Each of the five original clans (Kramer 1935, Plate 3) on the island has its own breasts. Another large figure special tupua which is worshiped with no recorded name has a in the spirit houses. There is peg-like protuberance coming also a community spirit house from the top of its head. 34 A called the amalau which is used figure said to represent Tehi by the entire island. The major Tapu is also large and has a founding deities are worshiped protrusion coming from the in the amalau. 31 back of its head. 35 Some of the figures are more distinctly fe­ The images, called tino in the male than others. Occasionally early literature and more recently the rectangular base has a dinonga eidu, appear like highly groove running around it, per­ abstracted human forms. [Fig. haps indicating that the figure 21] The head is a pointed egg was lashed to something. A shape, often with no other f ea­ number of these images were tures on it. The neck is cylindri­ associated with the amalau, cal and connects to a massive according to Kubary's infor­ chest. The arms hang down at mation. the sides and are sometimes at­ tached to the hips with a peg shape. The genitalia are most often a relief triangle, and the buttocks are a raised flat sur­ face. The legs are the only somewhat naturalistic elements in the figures. Often the figure has a base and sometimes toes and fingers are minimally ren­ dered as incised lines. The images are of two types, accord­ ing to Eilers: small images made out of dark, hard breadfruit wood, and life-sized images made out of soft, somewhat red wood, which have incised tattoo marks on the shoulders and neck. 32 A third type, represented by a single image in the Auck­ land Museum, is an enormous female figure made of dark breadfruit wood. 33 32 The identity of most of the Nukuoro images is not known. Several of the figures show some distinguishing features. The giant figure in the Auck­ Images (tino, dinonga eidu), land Museum represents the Nukuoro (Eilers 1934, 277, deity, Ko Kawe, and has distinct Figs. 199, 200) Three labeled figures exist in known museum collections. Tehi Tapu and Sope are identified by Eilers. 36 Ko Kawe is described as a huge female kept in the amalau. She is the spouse of Ariki Tu Te Nato Aki, the god of the underworld, and she is also the protective goddess of the Sekawe clan. 37 Kubary was unable to bring the image to Germany and it was later taken by traders to Auckland. Evidence collected by the New Zealanders indicates that image was given human . Contemporary infor­ mants claim that ''Kawe,'' also known as Dehinealigi, was an evil fem ale spirit who controlled Nukuoro in the absence of Iaigausema, an "omnipotent es­ sentially good male spirit." 38 Kawe is definitely not the same being as Ko Kawe, according to Kubary. 39 The description of the giant Auckland image in the early literature matches Ko Kawe more exactly than it does Kawe. 40

The amalau or main spirit house, as described by Kubary, is a long rectangular structure with three open sides and hung around with mats. The men sit along the open side with the 33 women behind them. The mid­ dle of the enclosure is open space and the short side of the Fig. 21 house has a wall in front of Image (Tino, dinonga eidu), which the god images are Nukuoro arranged. Below the gods are Honolulu Academy of Arts seated the priests. The images 4752 are decorated with flowers and wrestling, held in a special circu­ crown-like decorations. 41 Within lar enclosure. During this time this setting occurs the main the newly tattooed women are ceremony in the amalau, the returned to the amalau until the takatona. It is held at the time entire group of participants of the breadfruit harvest, and finally gathers on the beach with begins in the month called Mata bowls of food. The priests place Ariki when the Pleiades are in offerings in coconut leaves along the western evening sky. This is the beach, and the participants a time for following certain lie down with their heads taboos, for renewing the god towards the sea. As the priests images, for feasting, and for the recite their , the par­ tattooing of young women. ticipants attempt to stand on their hands with their feet During the takatona high priests toward the sky. The tattooed make offerings and incantations women are now considered to to the gods, and serve the offer­ be free of all taboos. On the ings to the images. 42 The women next night the men perform a then dance until sunrise in the stick fight, followed by another open space in the amalau. On feast. Then the tattooed women the second evening, the festivi­ dance, and a period of free sex­ ties are repeated, only this time uality and feasting ensues. Ten the men dance. These ceremo­ days later the community goes nies continue each day until it is torch fishing at night, and the time for the women to be tat­ amalau is closed until the next tooed. For three months prior year, ending the which to the takatona, these women lasted several months. 43 Fertility Woman with tattoos remained in seclusion in their lo­ and renewal are important (Kramer 1932, ll l, Fig. 81) cal spirit houses. They are taken themes in takatona rituals, and from the amalau to the beach this perhaps sheds some light on for the operation. Next, the men the purpose of the images. participate in racing and public Regardless of what explanations

34 are given for the various figures, The pandanus thatched roof of of tribute and exchange stretch­ the dramatic rituals and the the building on Butaritari covers ing over most of the Western enigmatic, striking images an area approximately 35 x 76 Caroline Islands. The villages of compel our fascination. meters. The unwalled structure Gachpar and W onyan in Gagil consists entirely of the enormous collect tribute from the faraway Architecture deserves special gabled roof supported on coco­ atolls of Ulithi, Fais, Eauripik, mention because it includes all nut pillars held together by intri­ Sorol, Ifaluk, Faraulep, of the other art forms. By shel­ cate lashings. 44 Lamotrek, Elato, Satawal, Pulu­ tering the people and their artis­ suk, Pulap, and Namonuito. tic possessions, it incorporates The social importance of the This system formerly included the combined significance of its maneaba equals its enormous Ngulu as well. 46 With such a contents into a meaningful struc­ size. It is a center for ceremo­ concentration of power, it is not ture. Architecture can have a nies and feasts and for trials surprising to find that the tradi­ range of possibilities from the and the arbitration of disputes. tional public buildings of Yap purely functional need for shel­ As Grimble wrote: "Far more are some of the finest in the ter to stately monuments of than a place of social festivities, Pacific. communal pride. It may also be or a hall of debate, it was a a miniature house habitable only tabernacle of ancestors in the Three of these architectural by spirits. As with sculpture, it male line; a sort of social map structures (naun) are of aesthetic can symbolize the world view or where a man's group or clan interest. The first is the dwelling the structure of a society. In all could be recognized the moment house, or tabinaw. A much areas of Micronesia architecture he took his seat, his totem and more elaborate structure is the is carefully designed, functional his ascendants known, and his council house (pebaey), located and neatly put together. In ceremonial duties or privileges in the center of the village. Per­ Kiribati, Yap, and Belau the discovered. " 45 The enormous haps the most visually dynamic architectural tradition is truly importance placed upon is the f aluw or house for young extraordinary. ceremonial houses in Kiribati men. Built on a massive stone has its parallels in Yap and platform beyond the shore, each The largest buildings in all of Belau. of these buildings has a hexa­ Micronesia are found in Kiri­ gonal ground plan, consisting of bati. The council houses From the earliest times, Yap has a long rectangle with triangular (maneaba) can be fifty feet high. been the center of a vast system extensions at the short ends.

35 They are elaborately constructed Like all important houses in The pebaey, or men's communal of massive, often undecorated Yap, the tabinaw 1s an imposing house, in Yap is usually located timbers finely fitted together, structure. The roof is supported along a main road in the center sometimes with intricate on seven massive, undecorated of the village. It is a massive lashings. pillars. Side pillars stabilize the structure on a large stone plat­ roof but do not lend any sup­ form. At key positions there are The structure of the home port. The architect directs the stone backrests for dignitaries. (tabinaw) is composed of a construction of the rough foun­ Stone money is used for back­ series of oppositions. It has an dation. Then the center support rests near the triangular ends of open veranda under each of the posts are sunk deep into the the house. [Fig. 22] The back­ gabled ends. A log running the ground, so that the roof may be rests of the chiefs form a circle entire length of the house di­ installed and thatched. Smooth around a stone table used for vides the interior into two sec­ flat stones of the foundation are the ceremonial distribution of tions. The front half of the put in place and finally the side fish. In front of the building house is generally for the public walls are completed. The walls there is a dance and ceremonial and the women of the house­ are finely fitted constructions ground (malal) where much of hold, while the back half is with panels that hinge at the top the giant disk-shaped stone reserved for the male head of allowing for privacy or ventila­ money of Yap is displayed. It is the household. The back is tion. When lifted, the panels are a place of great prestige, the called tabgul "place of origins" held in place with carved hooks ceremonial and religious center and is used to store valuables covered with stylized human, of the village. 50 and the sacred objects used in animal or abstract motifs. 49 prayers to the ancestors. 47 The Fig. 22 front gable (gathith) of the Stone money, Yap house is a public area. Even (Muller 1917, Plate 49, No. 2) here it is divided and includes the taboo male side. A stone platform in front of the house serves as an offering platform for the elder men. The rear ver­ anda (pe 'ne 'un) is taboo to all but the elder men. The taboo side of the house and the rear veranda may include an area which is supernaturally danger­ ous. Here magic is performed to cause plants to grow or for curative purposes. 48

36 The pebaey resembles the dwell­ ture, connected to the land by a ing house, but is far grander. short bridge of wooden planks. Inside, the massive pillars and Usually the narrow end of the beams are wrapped and held house faces the land. The struc­ together by a network of com­ tures are massive, built to with­ plex lashings, as elaborate as is stand the elements, and to found anywhere in Oceania. weather the frequent typhoons. Lozenge-shaped motifs created There are no open verandas to by the lashings cover the catch the wind, and two sets of wooden structure and rise into walls enclose the interior for the recesses of the ceiling. [Fig. extra protection. 52 15, page 28] Horizontal beams in the ceiling terminate in forms The f aluw is a center for social resembling upturned canoe activity. Each group of land­ prows, complete with the curv­ owners would either build its ing war canoe ornaments men­ own f aluw, or share in the con­ tioned earlier. Support pillars struction of one with a neigh­ and lintels are painted with fish boring estate. Consequently, and porpoise motifs. Incised many such houses were built. figures depicting animals, sea The young men are allowed creatures and humans, painted great freedom within the con­ 51 black and white, also abound. . fines of the house, but they are also expected to defend the vil­ The f aluw is a house for the lage from attack, especially if it young men of Yap. Its architec­ comes by sea. The f aluw is also tural distinction is that it is the place where young men always situated on a great stone learn the techniques of fishing, platform in the water beyond rope making, tool making and the shore. Often a peninsula or construction. Through legends an island is built for the struc- and they also learn about laws, , magic and tradi­ tional culture. No women are Fig. 23 permitted in the f aluw except Woven currency cloth, Yap for the mispel, ''wife of the (Muller 1915, Plate 47, No. 1) men's house." She holds a pres­ tigious position as a marriage partner or concubine for all the young men of the faluw. Her duties are to entertain and care for the house as would a wife. 53 Visitors from other regions who arrive by canoe are expected to 37 dock and enter at the faluw. The young men, as warriors, assure that there are no aggres­ sive intentions. 54 Magic, as suggested above, is an These are specific for each important element in Micro­ magician, and may include nesian life and is employed in carved fish or bird figures. A the construction of houses on house-warming feast is also part Yap. Indeed, the magician (tama of the ceremonies of house ran ko naun or tama ran ko building. The feast for pebaey, unve) is as important as the undertaken at great expense, is architect, according to Miiller. called the "raising of the During the construction of a house.'' Friendly neighboring house or its platform, the villages will provide huge rolls builder and magician must ab­ of woven currency-cloth (mbul). stain from sex, even though the [Fig. 23] These are prominently building of a large faluw may displayed in the pebaey. 55 require ten years. There are other less rigorous requirements the finest houses in Belau are as part of its construction. First, the men's meeting houses, the a young coconut is placed on bai. [Fig. 24] In their form, the ground where the building is decoration and construction, to be constructed. After the these buildings closely resemble construction of the stonework, similar buildings in Indonesia, the coconut placement is repeat­ usually called bale, or balai. ed and tama ran ko naun offers Belau buildinqs have rectangular incantations. The combined ef­ ground plans. They also are fect is to call forth the favorable raised upon pillars. The older spirits for the house. Every bai had stone pillars but recent house is thought to possess cer­ photographs show wooden pil­ tain demons (dootsra). Talis­ lars or planks being used. The mans (vonod) are placed on the side walls, of socketed and beams in each corner of the pegged construction, do not house and on the veranda. reach the thatch of the roof,

Fig. 24 Two bai, Melekeiok, Belau The bai on the left is notable for its lack of narrative story boards. (Kramer 1919, Plate 16, No. 1)

38 Fig. 25 allowing an opening for light in Belau. 57 The top of the front Image of Dilukai, gable of and ventilation. The steep slop­ gable of the bai is called madal bai, Belau ing roof terminates in gables a bai or the eye of the gable, Metropolitan Museum of Art which are often the object of 1978.412.1558 a-d which looks towards the fertile 58 The Michael C. Rockefeller intense artistic elaboration. rising sun. The gables are Memorial Collection replete with symbols of fertility. Gift of Nelson A. Rockefeller, There are several kinds of bai. One finds that pour forth 1970 Those with decorated wooden fruits, animals and humans. An image of Dilukai on the gables are called tetib el bai; There are also sun disks, and gable of a bai may be seen in Fig. 24 thatched gabled ones are keldok roosters that crow at the rising el bai; and wide ones are called sun. 59 The most prominent im­ meteu el bai. Some are double age in this location is the dis­ the normal width; others are played female figure, Dilukai. two stories high, and some bai [Fig. 25] have large openings for improved air circulation. 56 The image of Dilukai in the exhibition is one of the finest Bai are oriented to the sculptures of Micronesia. Her east. The entrance is at legs are spread out to the side the gabled end of the revealing a large black triangular building, where the pubic area. Her hands rest upon rays of the rising sun her thighs and the entire struc­ enter each morning. ture of the figure can be des­ The sun is associated cribed as a combination of with a deity angular geometric units. In this sense, and in the use of black and white paint, the image fits the ·aesthetics of the Caroline Islands. Other images of Dilukai may have more rounded geo­ metric proportions, or they may be painted on the gable of the bai.

39 Dilukai must be understood in ing from it. On the other side, its context on the gable. The penises replace the rays. 64 The board behind the female image lower edge of the gable is lined is incised and painted with male with representations of heads. images with enormous penises [Fig. 26] Old sources suggest pointed towards Dilukai. These these are symbols of headhunt­ planks are called bagei, the ing. As in much of Southeast name of Dilukai's brother. Bagei Asia, headhunting is associated also means "married." It has with cosmic renewal of fertility been suggested that Dilukai and and the placation of ancestors. Bagei might be primordial an­ Roosters and bats herald the cestors. 60 The location facing the morning sun, and there are fertile rays of the morning sun, depictions of other food animals the displayed posture and the and plants, the products of fer­ proximity of male figures with tility. 65 The rooster is associated obvious erections, in addition to mythologically with the creation the other fertility symbols on the of the first bai and, almost gable, binds the image to the simultaneously, with the placing notion of fertility and of the sun in the sky. 66 reproduction.

There are many stories about Fig. 26 Dilukai. She is seen as a symbol Threshold piece, bai, Belau of protection and of shame. She Belau National Museum protects the fertility of taro 981.106 This work shows a row of fields and heals the sick. Other carved heads similar to those stories tell how a man, embar­ found at the base of the rassed by his promiscuous sister, gable. had her image carved on the bai to shame her. 61 Modern inter­ pretations stress her role in reminding women to be moder­ ate in their sexual activities. 62 However, given the role of fer­ tility in the overall religious meaning of the bai, this seems to be an overly modest and comparatively recent interpreta­ tion. Her role parallels that of the concubine (mongol) of the bai who, like her counterpart in 40 Yap, the mispel, provides the female presence in the bai. 63

Other elements on the front gable also strongly indicate the fertility theme. On one section of the gable there may be a sun disk with whirling rays emanat- On the gables and on the tie form which illustrates, rather stream or foot path, or perhaps beams within the bai, there are than symbolizes narratives is the division may only be sym­ long narrative story boards. In unique in the Pacific. 68 Many of bolic. 69 Within the bai the high their oldest known form, these the oldest photographs of bai chiefs sit at the four corner are carved in very low relief and facades show few if any narra­ posts while other title holders sit painted, with no suggestion of tive story boards. The unprov­ opposite each other along the linear perspective. The scenes able possibility exists that they long sides of the building. The generally run from left to right represent a unique and very two sides are seen as opposed to and depict events of historical early adaptation to outside in­ the first and second ranking importance from mythology and fluence. chiefs, who occupy the two clan history. Important stories posts under the front gable. are usually centered, as is true Traditional society in Belau is Such oppositions are given ex­ of most important symbolic ele­ organized on the basis of oppo­ pression in mythology. On a ments in the ornamentation of sitions. Ideally a village should larger scale the six bai within a the bai. 67 Although the story have six bai arranged into two village are conceived of as the boards are not complete narra­ groups of three. The bai are corner posts supporting the tives and require someone f amil­ then ranked as junior, middle entire village. The system has iar with the stories to interpret and senior. Each village is further ramifications in the so­ them, the presence of an art divided down the middle by a cial organization and land tenure

41 system in Belau. 70 On a grander aspects of life. It ranges from scale, at certain times in its his­ the simplest utilitarian objects to tory, the four most important great public monuments. It ex­ villages were known as the cor­ presses man's relationship to the ner posts of Belau. The entirety spirit world, and in daily life it of Belau could also be divided enhances the quality of even into "other heavens" (implying menial tasks. All of the art is two sides) consisting of opposing functional in a sense and it northern and southern f edera­ probably has deeper meaning tions of villages aligned against than is possible for any individ­ each other. 71 ual to comprehend. The beauty of Micronesian art goes beyond The most unusual traditional form, function and meaning. It building of Belau is the blil a can be perceived directly. galid, a house for the priest, that was described by Kubary. While most of these houses resemble dwelling houses or sometimes approach the bai in complexity, the one illustrated by Kubary is unique. The house has an irregular plan. A veranda surrounded by sculpted nude human figures encloses an open room. From this room a ladder goes up to a second story, com­ posed of two small bai which cross each other at the center. It is here that the god dwells. 72

Small spirit houses are associ­ ated with the bai. There are five different types. Some are porta­ ble and can be carried in a basket. Somewhat larger shrines are dedicated to the double­ headed sun goddess, Turang, and even larger structures called tet are for offerings to the vil­ lage god. The largest of these miniature houses are what 42 Kramer calls "Prunkhauschen," pride or ostentation houses. These commemorate a range of life stages from the time of mar­ riage to the attainment of chiefly titles. 73

Art in Micronesia permeates all Notes 1 Since it is difficult to determine which of Solomon Islands. Figures 11 and 13 do not the ancient arts are still practiced today, at all resemble the documented and the present tense will be used to describe stylistically consistent figure from the all of the art of Micronesia. It is also a Mortlock Islands. See Kramer 1935:118, matter of respect for those who still fig. 65 produce, use, or hope to revive some of 3 °Kubary 1900:92 these arts to not place them in the past "Eilers 1934:274-275 tense. 32Eilers 1934:275 'LeBar 1964:67-68 33Davidson 1968:77 3Haddon and Hornell 1986:393-394; Miiller 34Eilers 1934:278, fig. 202 1917:180 35Eilers 1934:279, fig. 204 4 Kubary 1889:53 36Eilers 1934:279, figs. 203,204 'Kramer 1932:236-237. Perhaps the people 37Kubary 1900:97 of Truk were using human analogies for 38Davidson 1968:78 the parts of the canoe prow. 39Kubary 1900:97 •Belau is discussed below. 40Two other images have been identified as 'The distribution of "displayed female Ko Ka we. See Eilers 1934:278, fig. 201; figures" as indicators of protection and Damm, Drost, Hartwig 1966:136-137, fig.92 offense has a wide, although scattered, 41Kubary 1900:90 distribution in Oceanic mythology and art. 42The images do not have mouths. Perhaps See Fraser 1966:47-57 the offerings are placed on the point of "Lessa documented the use of knots for the head. divination in the Caroline Islands, but he 43Kubary 1900:94-101. In many ways this did not mention their use in connection ritual resembles the Hawaiian makahiki. with these charms 1959:188-204. He also 44Mason 1964:923 noted the apotropaic function in regards "Maude 1963:11 to weather magic. Lessa 1961:62 46Lingenfelter 1975:147-155; Lessa 1950:27-52 9Alkire 1965:119 47Lingenfelter 1975:21 10Lessa 1950: 157 48Lingenfelter 1975:21-23 "Alkire 1965:120-121 49Miiller 1917:136-139 0 "Lessa 1950: 152 ' Lingenfelter 1975:80-82 "Alkire 1965:114-118 51 See Muller 1917: plate 49, figs. 1-4; "Damm 1954:54 plate 50, figs. 1-4 "Damm 1954:53; Eilers 1936:108 "Millier 1917:139 1•Kubary as repeated by Christian "Lingenfelter 1975:82. A similar service was 1966:95-97 performed by certain women in the men's "Muller 1917:377 houses of Belau. 18 4 Miiller 1917:Plate 49, Nos. 1,2 ' Lingenfelter 1975:82-83 19Miiller 1917:23. The use of this curving "Muller 1917: 154-155, plate 47, fig. 3 form for headgear, house decoration and 56Robinson 1983: 164-165 canoes is exactly parallel to the customs of "Kramer 1929, v:3-5 8 the tribal peoples of Indonesia. There such ' Krarner 1926 Ill:262. 235 9 forms have the additional references to the ' Kramer 1926 lll: 245-262 horns of sacrificial animals, coiled ferns, 6 °Frase r 1966: 61 or as in Yap, to canoes. 61 Kramer 1926 IIl:278 20Damm 1954:54 6 'Robinson 1983: 171 "Kramer 1932:240 63Kramer 1926 IIl:277. An extensive discus­ "Damm 1954:55 sion of the mango/ is in Schlesier "See Teilhet 1979 1953:40-48 24Kramer 1935:117-118 ••see Kramer 1929 v:4 "The same observation was made by Mason 65Kramer 1929 v:3 1964:924. ••Robinson 1983:171 26Kramer mentions the soft wood, 1935:120. 67Robinson 1983: 169 He does not mention the tourist art possi­ ••in the modern context it is not at all 43 bility. unique. In fact story boards are being "Kramer 1935:118 made for sale in a number of places. '"By the mid-1930's information on the 69Alkire 1977:30-31 function of the mask was already availa­ 70See Parmentier 1985:840-852 for a more ble, although the masks could still be pur­ comprehensive explanation. chased. Yawata 1933 71 Alkire 1977:31 29See Damm 1952:figs. 11-13. His figure 12 72Kubary 1895:255, plates 38-39 is undoubtedly from Luangiua or "Kramer 1926 lll:226-229 Nukumanu, Polynesian outliers in the

Fabric Arts and Traditions Donald H. Rubinstein

Expert little one, expert little one; nimble little one, nimble little one; as nimble-fingered as 1, as swift as my shuttle; as swift as my shuttle, as nimble-fingered as l. Quicker than a flash, quicker than a twinkling. Done in less than a twinkle!

(A Micronesian mother's chant over her young daughter, to ensure the little girl's dexterity at weaving.) 1

icronesia holds a Detail of Fig. 29 (see full special place in the figure on pp 50-51): field of Pacific Sash, Caroline Islands Bernice Pauahi Bishop fabric arts. 2 The Museum 1921.14.115 loom-woven textiles of the Caro­ Liliuokalani Collection; line Islands display an artistry August 1921 and technical virtuosity unrivaled Woven banana fiber with elsewhere in the Pacific. Indeed, supplementary weft patterning outside of this archipelago of and warp stripes with knotted fringe; red, natural and brown western Pacific islands, only a Photo by Malcolm Mekaru few other island peoples of Polynesia and Melanesia acquired loom weaving at all. In addition, Micronesia shares with the wider Pacific area and Island Southeast Asia a rich tra­ dition of plaitwork matting and basketry, ornamental cordage and lashing, and to a lesser degree, bark-cloth. 45

Many of the fabric arts featured in this exhibition belong to a lost tradition in Micronesia. Although the archaic type of sacred burial shroud from Fais is still woven there today, 3 the superb textile sashes of Pohnpei the textiles, plaitwork, cordage and Kosrae, and the woven and bark-cloth, before turning currency-cloths of Yap, were al­ to the question of the cultural ready disappearing when Ger­ traditions that give meaning to man anthropologists arrived in these fabric arts. Micronesia early in this century. New items for trade and wealth, Loom-Woven Textiles and changing styles of clothing, Believed to be a gift from the were replacing traditional textile gods, the art of weaving is high­ production. Under the influence ly esteemed in Micronesia. Yet of starched New England mis­ despite the legends of its divine sionaries, Micronesians dressed origin, knowledge of weaving in blue flannel, long closed evidently entered Micronesia dresses, and Sunday suits rather from a more earthly direction, than woven loincloths, sashes, probably Indonesia, carried by and wraparound skirts. 4 the long-distance trading and drift voyages of the seafaring Although fabric arts play atoll ·dwellers from the Caroline primarily a utilitarian role in Islands. Linguistic terms for Micronesian societies, as in the "woven cloth" in the different woven wraparound skirts for Micronesian languages all form women and loincloths for men, a cognate set that appears relat­ or the plaited fans, clothing ed to Indonesian (see Table 1). mats, and mats for sitting and In its shape, the Micronesian sleeping, the traditional signifi­ loom also follows an Indonesian cance of these fabric artifacts model, and it seems to be far exceeds their function simply derived from the most archaic as items of daily wear and and rudimentary of the three household use. The objects on basic forms of body-tension view in this exhibition serve as looms found in modern day cultural "texts": highly con­ Indonesia. 6 densed visual expressions of social and economic relations, Weaving spread throughout ritual affairs, and aesthetic nearly all the low coral atolls of ideals of Micronesian society. 5 the Caroline Islands, and now For Western viewers, it is neces­ occurs from the tiny Southwest sary to know something of the Islands lying between Belau and cultural role and importance of the northern Moluccas of Indo­ 46 these Micronesian fabric arts. nesia, through the Yap Outer Otherwise, one risks seeing them Islands and Truk Lagoon, to the merely as "ethnic handicrafts," Mortlock Islands southeast of albeit aesthetically pleasing, and Truk. 7 Loom-weaving also thereby missing much of their reached the two most far-flung cultural meaning. But it is in­ of the Caroline Islands, the structive to first look closely at Polynesian atolls of Nukuoro the fabric objects themselves, and Kapingamarangi, and evi- dently from these Islands it was eastern end of the Caroline carried to a dozen or so Polyne­ Islands, textile arts developed to sian outliers and Melanesian an unsurpassed degree. Yet east islands south of Micronesia. 8 of the Caroline Islands, weaving Among the "high" basaltic was not introduced into the islands of Micronesia, only Marshall Islands, Kiribati (form­ Belau is without traditional erly Gilbert Islands) and Nauru, loom-weaving. Yap acquired nor evidently did it reach Guam weaving, and in Pohnpei and and the Mariana Islands north Kosrae, the high islands at the of the Caroline Islands. 9

Table 1: Linguistic terms for weaving and woven cloth Term Language Meaning thuw Yapese 'man's loincloth' 10 thor Ulithian 'to weave, loom, woven skirt or loinclothn 1 tear Woleaian 'to weave, loom, woven skirt or loinclothn 2 tier Puluwatese 'to weave, loom, woven skirt' 13 tur; tuur Trukese 'to weave; loom, woven skirt' 14 do hr Pohnpeian 'woven belt' 15 tol Kosraean 'woven belt' 16 tenum Proto- 'weaving' 17 Indonesian

Banana fiber is the material of filaments, and these are knotted choice for Micronesian weavers, end-to-end to produce the con­ although in recent years tinuous fiber yarns for weaving. mill thread is increasingly popu­ In the finest textiles, several thin lar. To prepare the fiber, the filaments are twisted together weaver fells a banana palm, into multiple-ply yarns, 19 but then she 18 strips the stalk length­ more commonly the weaver wise into long strands. The works with single-ply yarns of banana stalk contains an onion­ banana fiber. 47 like arrangement of concentric, pulpy layers. After gently scrap­ Hibiscus fiber, which is easier ing the pulp from the skin, the to dye, supplements banana. weaver lays out the remaining The weaver strips the fibrous long ribbons of silky fiber, to bark from hibiscus branches, dry in the sun. Each fiber rib­ then soaks the bark in sea water is then separated into thin for several days, until the retted bast fiber can be combed from the bark. Dyes once came from various plant and mineral mate­ rials, but today have been en­ tirely replaced by synthetic dyes. Charred candlenuts, scrapings of pumice mixed with mashed Ter­ minalia leaves, and mangrove calyx mixed with a type of mud, all produced a black dye; tur­ meric tubers provided yellow; banana suckers gave blue; and the roots of the Marinda citri­ jolia yielded a prized red color. 20

The first stage in weaving is to Backstrap loom, Kapingamarangi wind the continuous warp yarn (Eilers 1934, l 10, Fig. 70a) onto a frame. In Kosrae and Pohnpei and several western atolls, a low wooden bench, ofter; intricately incised with pat­ terns similar to woven motifs, holds a set of pegs around which the weaver winds the yarn in a continuous spiral. Elsewhere in Micronesia, pegs are simply staked into the ground. When Fig. 27 the warping is complete the Woman weaving on a back­ weaver inserts the various loom strap loom parts (heddle-stick, shed-stick, (Muller 1915, Plate 31, No. 1) lease-rods, beams) in place of the pegs, and moves the great spiral of warp yarn onto the loom. She sits on the ground, legs extended and feet braced against the loom frame, with the 48 warp stretched out horizontally along her legs. [Fig. 27] The near end of the warp spiral passes around a board (breast beam) that is held to her lap by a strap around her waist, and the far end passes around another bo~rd or cylinder (warp- beam) that is fastened to a kind of loom, unique in Micro­ around behind the warp-beam. house wall or the loom frame. nesia, was used to weave This open-warp loom permits From this position she proceeds currency-cloth (mbul) that weaving of longer textiles be­ to weave, strapped to the loom reportedly reached the extra­ cause the weaver does not need and maintaining the tension of ordinary length of 60 to 200 to support the full weight of the the warp yarns by leaning back­ meters. 21 The loom was propped warp spiral around his back. ward while her outstretched feet off the ground and braced with press against the loom frame. sticks and the extended warp Micronesian textiles display a Hence this loom is known as a was open rather than contin­ variety of patterned motifs, horizontal body-tension or back­ uous. The warping was done created in dyed warp and weft strap loom. directly onto the loom. Taking yarns. The whole yarn is dyed. up the length of a house yard, (The Indonesian technique This type of loom limits the size the loom was far too long to be of wrapping and dyeing selected of the textile to roughly a half set up indoors. On the Yapese sections of yarn does not occur meter in width and two meters open-warp loom, the weaver in Micronesia.) These motifs are in length, the typical dimensions rolls the newly woven cloth onto mainly geometric, detailed fig­ of the woven wraparound skirts the breast-beam, rather than ures: stripes, bars, or zigzag and and loincloths. In some villages shifting a continuous warp spiral wavy lines; repeating rows of of Yap, however, a different under the breast-beam and diamond lozenges, triangles,

Sashes, Pohnpei (Hambruch, Eilers 1936, 286, Figs. 68, 69)

49

_.:..----·- ·--~ rhomboids, or chevrons; bands which occurs nearly everywhere of four-dot clusters, checkered in the Micronesian weaving squares, or hachuring; and bor­ area. 22 [Fig. 28, cover] In wind­ ders of dentate lines. Many of ing the warp yarn, the weaver these are similar to motifs cre­ changes yarn color regularly, ated on other surfaces, especially producing groups of warp yarns human skin and wood, such as in different colors. Loincloths the finely detailed body tattoos, and wrap-around skirts in the and the incised and painted pat­ Yap area are patterned this way terns on houseposts and tie­ with broad stripes, dyed black beams, dance paddles, and or dark blue, that alternate in wooden combs. bold contrast with the ecru stripes of undyed fiber. The de­ Judging from the names given sign of these simple warp-striped Combs, West Caroline Islands to these motifs, they may be textiles. is remarkably similar to (Eilers 1935, 123, Fig. 42) highly stylized representations of some textiles of a sacred and stars, human figures, or of fins, seemingly archaic nature found tails, teeth, and bones of fish. in Indonesia. 23 Some of the most elaborately patterned textiles of the Yap The pattern of warp stripes on Outer Islands display rows of Micronesian textiles is precisely· tiny motifs resembling the hu­ symmetrical. On skirts and loin­ man effigy figures used as cloths for everyday wear in the weather charms in the Caroline Central Caroline Islands, the Islands. typical design consists of seven dark stripes running longitudi­ The simplest means of pattern­ nally. Less frequent are even­ ing is longitudinal warp stripes, numbered stripes, from two to

50 eight. The number of stripes measuring grid fastened to the modern clothing. 26 may identify the textile with front of the warping bench aids specific islands or different the weaver as she winds the A quite different patterning usages. warp. Rather than spiralling the technique, also widespread in yarn continuously around the Micronesia, is supplementary Often the weaver elaborates on bench pegs, she repeatedly weft, sometimes called brocad­ the plain arrangement of stripes breaks the yarn and knots in a ing. 21 After each throw of the by the technique of warp-float new color at selected intervals shuttle carrying the undyed weft patterning: selected warp yarns along the measuring grid. 24 By yarn, the weaver lays in an ad­ ''float'' over two or more weft altering the length and the color ditional dyed yarn, and by using yarns, which gives an interesting of knotted-in sections, the a slender bone needle she picks striated or hachured appearance weaver produces elegant, it over and under the warps. to the longitudinal stripes. detailed designs. Many Kosraean The shuttle-thrown weft creates Weavers in the Central Caroline textile sashes have a solidly dyed the ground weave, while the Islands used this technique to center, while the two ends of supplementary dyed weft creates best effect in embellishing the the sash, and perhaps one lateral a variety of surface patterns. edge stripes and elaborate cen­ edge, are filled with fine warp­ tral stripe of the textiles worn striping. A slight transverse stag­ In the western Carolines, the for special occasions. gering of the colored sections of most elaborately patterned tex­ knotted-in warp yarns produces tiles using supplementary weft In Pohnpei and especially in a pattern of gently undulating or are the sacred burial shrouds Kosrae, warp-striping developed diagonal warp-stripes. As many (machiy), such as the extra­ into a complex technique that is as eight different types of sash­ ordinary 18th century example perhaps unique among weaving es, distinguished by pattern, exhibited. [Fig. 34] The two cultures of the world. [Fig. 29, were woven traditionally in ends of the textile are filled with and detail, page 45] This tech­ Kosrae, 25 although by the rows of densely patterned geo­ nique involves knotted-in warp early 1870s these textiles had metric motifs dyed blue-black, sections of different colors. A already been supplanted by and four rows of stylized human

Fig. 29 Sash, Caroline Islands Bernice Pauahi Bishop 51 Museum 1921.14.115 Liliuokalani Collection; August 1921 Woven banana fiber with supplementary weft patterning and warp stripes with knotted fringe; red, natural and brown Photo by Malcolm Mekaru Fig. 30 Sash, Kosrae Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 1952.26.01 Woven banana fiber; warp stripes and knotted-in warp with supplementary weft Photo by Malcolm Mekaru

figures dyed reddish-brown. In The motifs are entirely while the glass beads lay flat, Tauo·os with plaitwork motifs, its design composition the geometric-intricate diamond nearly embedded in the fabric. Pohnpei (Hambruch, Eilers 1936, 277, Fig. 56, 57) machiy also resembles some lozenges, zigzags, rows of These different ways of beading archaic sacred textiles of Indone­ triangles-and their design com­ and laying the shell discs create sia, especially those of the Batak position follows the same biaxial patterns on the textured surface. in northern Sumatra. A precise symmetry characteristic of many Edge-set shells form raised crest­ symmetry governs the design ar­ Micronesian fabric arts. In addi­ lines accentuating square areas 52 rangement of the machiy, along tion, some Pohnpeian sashes are of shingled shells, or demarcat­ the axes of both length and heavily decorated with glass ing boldly striped rows of breadth of the textile. 28 beads and tiny shell discs ·that colored beads. are in-woven on extra wefts In Pohnpei and Kosrae exqui­ while the fabric is on the loom The overall design effect of sitely detailed motifs in sup­ rather than applied afterwards. 29 these sashes is superb. They are plementary weft embellish the The shell discs lay in shingled very tightly woven; the finest textile sashes. [Figs. 30 and 31] formation or are set on edge, have warp-counts as dense as 87 yarns per inch. 30 In combining Fig. 31 several patterning techniques Sash, Pohnpei (knotted-in warp-stripes, sup­ Department of Anthropology, plementary weft, and various National Museum of Natural History ways of beading) all rendered Smithsonian Institution 5703 with masterful precision, these remarkable textiles attest to the artistry and skill of the Microne­ sian weaver.

PJaitwork Mats and Basketry To Pacific art historians, plaited and patterned mats are espe­ cially interesting as surviving examples of a possibly very early tradition of surface design that provided a source for Pacific design developments in other media. Painted geometric patterns on Polynesian bark­ cloth, for example, frequently derive from earlier traditions of plaited mat designs, 31 and some 53 Micronesian tattoo motifs also appear drawn from plaitwork. In Pohnpei, the women's tattoos that encircled their abdomen, buttocks, and upper legs ap­ peared "like a delicate, dark­ blue, openwork fabric." 32

Micronesian mats are plaited motifs-interlocking diamonds from dried coconut fronds, or and crosses, squares, triangles, from pandanus leaves that have and hooked lozenges reminiscent their thorny edge cut away, and of Indonesian and Southeast then are smoothed and softened Asian textile patterns. At least by rolling and pounding. Some­ six varieties of clothing mats times the leaves are toughened were formerly made in the Mar­ by passing them briefly over a shall Islands, in addition to fire pit before they are dried. several types of sleeping mats, Elaborate patterns may be and a wide range of plain mats worked into the mat with dyed used as wall-coverings and canoe hibiscus fibers or reddish-brown sails, as lining for ground-pits burbark. The most elaborately that contained preserved panda­ patterned mats are those of the nus fruit, as a face-cover for Marshall Islands and Nauru, someone being tattooed, and for where loom-weaving was absent. a number of other specific pur­ poses. 33 [Fig. 32] In the Marshall Islands, richly patterned mats (in or nieded) Plaited pandanus mats from served as clothing for both men Nauru display a similar tech­ and women; women wore two nique of patterning with dyed mats, front and back, in the hibiscus fiber. Although less manner of aprons, while men finely patterned than the mats wore a single mat, tucked be­ from the Marshall Islands, tween the legs like a loincloth. Nauman mats exhibit a great The mats measure about a meter variety of designs. The German square, and contain a plain ethnographer Hambruch collect­ Fig. 32 (facing page) and Detail: center bordered on all four sides ed nearly eighty different kinds Mat, Marshall Islands with bands of intricate geometric during his 1909 visit, yet even Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum D.3366 Plaited pandanus leaf with hibiscus fiber patterning along edges; natural, black and brown Photo by Malcolm Mekaru

55

Mats, Marshall Islands (Kramer, Nevermann 1938, Plate 10, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4) this large collection does not and patterned plaitwork is often represent the full repertoire of used to wrap spears and dance designs. 34 The geometric patterns paddles. In the Marshall Islands, appear entirely abstract, consist­ very long plaited cords (20 to 80 ing of combinations of stripes, meters in length) of pandanus bars, checkered fields, and zig­ and dyed hibiscus fiber over a zags that completely fill the sur­ core of sennit once served as face of the mat. Yet patterns belt-like wrappings to hold the carry imaginative names, such as plaited clothing-mats. "morning star, blood spot, liz­ ard tail, frigate bird, red-tailed Baskets, typically plaited from fish, whale tooth, sea phos­ coconut fronds, are ubiquitous phorescence, roof beam, or tree in Micronesia, and follow sev­ of life with gifts." Mats may be eral basic models. Most com­ embellished with feathers tied to mon is the elongated; open the corners, or dolphin teeth basket that is strung on a and shell discs or small cowry braided fiber cord and worn shells sewn to the surface. over the shoulder, to hold betel nut, tobacco, perfume, and These square mats from Nauru other personal belongings. Larg­ served traditionally as "mater­ er and rougher versions of this nity mats." [Fig. 33] An expec­ type serve as carrying-baskets tant woman would wear one for fish and food. For special from her fifth month of preg­ occasions, hand-baskets embel­ Baskets and fan (top), Pohnpei nancy, and at the same time, lished with long fiber fringes (Hambruch, Eilers 1936, 376, her husband would wear a simi­ and tassles may be carried. The Figs. 165, 166, 167) larly patterned mat, and would be enjoined to sexual abstinence. A much smaller version of the mother's mat, displaying the same pattern, would be made as a "receiving mat" upon which to lay the infant.

Micronesian fabric traditions in­ clude a large number of other plaited objects for everyday use and adornment. In the Caroline Islands, finely plaited fans are made from pandanus leaf and dyed hibiscus fiber. Elaborate 56 fans from the Marshall Islands and Kiribati are plaited from young coconut leaflets, and sometimes include attached plates of thin tortoise shell. Plaited and patterned head­ Fans, Marshall Islands bands and headdresses are part (Kramer, Nevermann 1938, 13, of decorative dance costumes, right, Fig. 5; left, Fig. 7) finest ones are the small occur in the lashing of looms, envelope-shaped pouches made fish hooks, canoes, and various from stripped pandanus leaf, small tools; in the hafting of with surface patterns of triangles adzes; and in the wrapping of and diamond motifs in plait­ bundles of sennit used as cur­ work twill. Micronesian baskets, rency for ceremonial payments however, are mainly utilitarian and trade. The most dramatic in design, and show less techni­ display of this lashing tradition cal artistry and aesthetic interest is in the great meeting houses, than the textiles and plaited mats. where massive beams and sup­ porting posts are entirely Cordage and Bark·-cloth wrapped in sennit, forming an Throughout Micronesia, sennit ornamental fabric sheath around cordage is made from the inside the wood. fibers of the coconut husk. 35 The green husk is split, and the Bark-cloth is much less impor­ sections are soaked in seawater tant in Micronesian fabric tradi­ for about two months, until the tions, unlike its development in retted fiber can be pulled from Indonesia and Polynesia. The the husk, dried, then combed tree, that pro­ and cleaned, twisted into string, vides the best materials for and rolled into two-ply cordage. bark-cloth, does not grow on This material serves innumerable low coral islands, nor evidently purposes, in fishnets and net­ was it cultivated on the high is­ bags, for rope, as lashing in lands of Micronesia. However, house and canoe construction, some Micronesian islanders used for bfoding and hafting tools, breadfruit trees, yielding a lower and as everyday string. The peo­ quality of bark-cloth. The bark ple of Truk made durable boxes is peeled from the branch of a and baskets from sennit twine, young tree, then beaten and tightly woven by means of a washed several times until it is tension-frame and a netting nee­ soft. The first European visitors dle. During the era of island to Guam in 1521 described warfare in the 19th century, men women's clothing, probably from Kiribati and Nauru wore made from breadfruit bark­ heavy protective suits and head­ cloth. 37 In Belau, bark-cloth guards of sennit coir "armor," and loincloths were sometimes patterned with several once worn, and similar ponchos vertical rows of black diamond were also in use in Pohnpei and motifs. Kapingamarangi. 38 Pohnpeian bark-cloth, often dyed brown, Sennit also provides the main provided material for women's 57 material for an ornamental lash­ aprons and for large sheets that ing tradition in Micronesia, that were sewn together with sennit is shared by eastern Melanesia and used as mosquito covers; 39 and Polynesia. 36 The lashing cre­ bleached white and patterned ates plaitwork-like motifs of with red or blue lines, the bark­ Warrior in full armor, Kiribati crosses, diamonds, triangles, and cloth served for headbands worn (Ratzel 1896, 137) squares. Small examples of this by men. 40 Cultural Fabrications: Woven Symbols of Identity, Power and Wealth

Long ago thel'e was no weaving, and the people went about naked. During that time, incest was frequent because men could not distinguish among their sistel's, their children, and their wives. So the Heaven-Dwellel', LuugoUang, gave his son Wolofaat the task to bring the loom to men, so that they would weave themselves clothes, and thel'eby distinguish among one anothel'.

(From an lfaluk Island tale about the mythic origin of loom-weaving.)41

In all human cultures, clothing creates a symbolic language of social categories, marking out­ ward differences between com­ moners and kings, among different occupations, and be­ tween ritual and everyday events. Micronesian fabric ar­ tifacts are interesting in this regard, for they are closely bound up in a cultural system of traditional rank and status.

Indeed, the myth fragment cited above equates the introduction of textiles with the origins of culture, culture being a system of social categories and ordered kinship relations. Clothes not only make the man, but in Micronesian mythology clothes 58 make culture. In this section we will look at the cultural impor­ tance of Micronesian fabric arts-as markets of social status and role; as ritual instruments of spiritual power; and as items of wealth for tribute, trade and gift exchange. On some Micronesian islands, ating women and most older In the highly ranked society fabric artifacts bear different de­ women once wore a coarse, of Pohnpei, the use of cer­ signs that identify them with undyed skirt of hibiscus fiber, tain kinds of woven sashes, specific families. Individual fam­ rather than the striped skirt of plaited belts, and dyed ilies in Pohnpei traditionally banana fiber used for everyday grass skirts was the special owned certain patterns and wear. 44 A 19th century account prerogative of the colors used on woven sashes and of Tobi Island in the far nobility, and a com­ plaited headbands, and imitation western Caroline Islands moner could be put of these designs was not per­ describes a braided belt of fiber to death, in earlier mitted. 42 Likewise in Nauru, the or hair worn by girls until first times, for putting large repertoire of designs on pregnancy; a plaited pandanus on a chief's plaited "maternity mats" seems belt marks the beginning of belt. 47 A legend Fig. 33 to have been equivalent to pregnancy, and after delivery the from Yap Family emblem/maternity tells that the mat, Nauru "family crests," so that the pat­ woman wears a pandanus mat Metropolitan Museum of Art terned mats not only proclaim with a distinctive rectangular long, coarsely woven 1883.545.28 45 the woman's pregnancy but also pattern. currency-cloth served Gift of the American Friends identify her with a specific originally to cover the ground of the Israel Museum, 1983 family and clan. 43 Fabric artifacts also signify on which a chief would walk as social rank in Micronesia socie­ he approached and entered his Fabric artifacts also mark ties, where hierarchical systems men's house for special 59 changes in stage of life. In the of titles, ranked clans, castes, ceremonial gatherings. 48 Central Carolines, girls wear a and hereditary chieftainship are until their first prominent. In Puluwat, certain Likewise, in the Marshall Is­ menses, which is then publicly motifs and colors of woven loin­ lands, some plaited mats were betokened by their wearing, for cloths could be worn only by once associated exclusively with the first time, a woven wrap­ master navigators and crafts­ royalty. One type of small mat, around skirt. In Truk, menstru- men, chiefs, and ritual specialists. 46 in the style of the clothing mat, was used only for serving the queen her meals. Another mat type, also similar to clothing mats, was considered a "king's mat." The maker of such a mat customarily had to surrender it to the chief, who would return it after several days. 49 Further­ more, only chiefs and high­ ranking men were privileged to wear the most valuable item of traditional Marshallese clothing, the long plaited cords used as belt-like wrappings. In the cul­ ture of Yap, which is rigidly stratified along hereditary caste lines, plaited baskets still play an additional role as badges of rank; different types of baskets are associated with different caste levels. 5° Caste etiquette re­ quires that outer islanders, who are not highly ranked in Yap so­ ciety, may not wear a fringed or decorated shoulder-basket when visiting Yap, but should carry their belongings in a rough field basket normally used for carry­ ing garden produce or fish. 51 The fabric artifact, symbolically Fig. 34 Detail: Belau society also is ordered by linked to chiefly power and to Burial shroud (machiy), hereditary rank, and there the ritual, also acquires a sacred Fais Peabody Museum, Salem E 5568 privilege of wearing bark-cloth character of its own. Woven banana fiber with ponchos and loincloths was supplementary weft in dyed traditionally a mark of chiefs. 52 Some woven and plaited objects hibiscus fiber from Micronesia are used almost Photo by Malcolm Mekaru The use of fabric items as pub­ exclusively for ritual purposes. lic symbols of rank and privilege In their own cultural context is intertwined with their use in they are important not only as ceremonial and ritual events. artistic and technical achieve­ Special types of fabric articles, ments, but even more as instru­ often more elaborately patterned ments of sacred power. Like 60 than others, play a central role crowns of office or religious as symbols of the ritual impor­ icons in Western culture, ritual tance of the occasion, such as fabrics in Micronesia symboli­ during pregnancy, puberty cele­ cally transform the wearer, tan­ brations, inauguration into gibly imbuing him or her with chiefly office, funerals, and at spiritual force. One such item is the opening and completion of a type of textile sash from Kos­ important harvest ceremonies. rae, called nosunap because it is considered sacred to the god of office. These textiles also Nosunap. 53 The sa~h is woven served in the initiation of island wholly from banana fiber, and boys, who wore a machiy during has a lustrous, silky white sur­ a four-day period of seclusion, face with no patterning. Worn at the end of which the boy by chiefs, its use was restricted presented the textile to his ritual to certain dances and dance con­ sponsor. tests, and other ritual occasions. The sacred machiy from Fais The Fais Island burial shroud evidently is part of a very old (machiy) exhibited here is tradition of similar ritual textiles another such textile. [Fig. 34] which were once more wide­ Though woven in the style of spread in the Western and Cen­ the wrap-around skirt, the tral Caroline Islands. Variants machiy is never worn. 54 Tradi­ of the term "machiy" ("madzi, tionally they were woven for mashiy, mechi") occur from the chiefs. The people of the islands southwest of Belau, to Western Caroline Islands con­ Truk lagoon over a thousand sider them sacred due to their miles eastward. Unfortunately, close association with chieftain­ the early descriptions by mis­ ship and with the ancestors and sionaries, traders, and German guardian spirits of the commu­ anthropologists usually describe nity. In Fais, women of certain these textiles simply as items of f arnilies had the duty to weave clothing, and provide very little one textile annually for information about their ritual the chief. When the chief re­ importance. However, photo­ ceived this textile, he would lay graphs from the early 1900s it upon the spirit-shelf of his taken in the Southwest Islands house for four days, as an (Tobi, Ngulu and Sonsorol) offering to his ancestral spirits. show narrow woven sashes pat­ Only then could it be carefully terned quite similarly to the Fais folded, wrapped, and put away. machiy. 56 Ancestor spirits are no longer ritually honored in Fais, but In Truk Lagoon, a special textile these sacred textiles continue to called ''the-mechi-of-the­ have special ceremonial impor­ breadfruit'' once played a role tance as tribute gifts and ulti­ in harvest ceremonies and was mately as burial shrouds for worn by the native priest (the chiefs and senior men. Until re­ ''Summoner-of-Breadfruit'') cently they also were used dur­ whose role was to officiate at ing the ritual inauguration of these ceremonies. 57 The term the island chief. The machiy "mechi" in Truk refers also to 61 would be held outstretched over a ritual textile, woven of banana the head of the incoming chief fiber and usually colored a gold­ during an inaugural blessing that en yellow by rubbing it invoked the most potent of the thoroughly with turmeric. island gods. 55 Then the textile Woven for a pregnant woman would be laid over the new by her sister or mother, and evi­ chief's shoulders like a mantle dently believed to have protec- tive properties, it was worn fringe yarns cut from their around the waist during the wives' woven skirts, which they month or two prior to delivery. mixed with water and stored in If the mother or her infant died a bottle. 62 Believing this to be a in childbirth, the textile was cure for homesickness and used as a burial wrapping; if melancholy, they carried the they both lived, the mother medicine with them on pro­ returned the textile to the wom­ longed excursions from home. an who had woven it. 58 Fabric articles also play a cen­ In earlier times, when fabric arts tral role as forms of wealth for still flourished in Micronesia, payment, political tribute, trade many ritual restrictions evidently and exchange in Micronesian so­ applied not only to the use of ciety. The economic value of these items but also to their cordage, fine textiles and plaited production. The weaving of the mats does not rest solely on the Trukese mechi was accompanied utility of these goods in daily by numerous taboos. 59 Likewise, life. Their significance, already the preparation of the red textile discussed above, as symbols of dye in Kosrae was a task consid­ social identity and status, and as ered as sacred to one particular instruments of spiritual power spirit, and only certain men and protection, is closely bound were privileged to prepare the up with their economic value, dyestuffs. The dyer worked in a and augments their worth. small cookhouse which was spe­ cially erected for the task, and Until recently in the Caroline Fig. 34 was taboo for others. During Islands, a currency system of Burial shroud (machiy), the month or more of work, he fairly fixed equivalents existed Pais Peabody Museum, Salem E 5568 obeyed prohibitions on sexual among woven skirts and loin­ Woven banana fiber with relations and on eating certain cloths, plaited mats, hanks of supplementary weft in dyed species of fish. While actually sennit twine, lengths of sennit hibiscus fiber gathering the dyestuffs in the rope, sticks of turmeric, and Photo by Malcolm Mekaru bush, he was enjoined from eat­ other goods such as tobacco, ing or speaking whatsoever. 60 canoes, and shell belts. For example, one textile skirt was The belief in the healing or equivalent to one 100-fathom apotropaic power of these ritual length of heavy sennit rope, or fabrics may have been wide­ four 100-fathom hanks of sennit spread during earlier times, twine, or one plaited sleeping judging from the fragmentary mat, or two sticks of turmeric; descriptions we have today. five textiles were equivalent to 62 Fabric articles worn during preg­ one shell belt, and so forth. 63 nancy in Truk and Nauru, the woven mechi and the plaited Textiles served traditionally as and patterned mat, both seem to payment for a variety of per­ have had associations with sonal insults and public health and protection. 61 For­ offenses. In Truk, a man found merly in Fais, men made a guilty of committing, or merely medicinal concoction from proposing, adultery to another man's wife was obligated to community. Typically, one dis­ Fabric goods took part in sever­ redress the injured husband by a puting party presents the ritual al large regional systems of gift of loincloths. 64 In Fais textile to the chief who mediates inter-island trade which formerly Island, divorce payments to the in the dispute. 66 existed in Micronesia, similar to dishonored spouse still include the Melanesian kula trade-ring great quantities of traditional The payment of political tribute made famous in Malinowski's fabric goods in addition to other in parts of Micronesia is in the writing. 69 One such system items. A recently recorded pay­ form of highly valued fabric linked the high islands in Truk ment consisted of 27 woven goods. The machiy traditionally Lagoon with the nearby coral loincloths, one large plaited mat, was woven for the paramount islands at a sailing distance of a 500-fathom ball of sennit chief of Fais, who in turn might several days, and occasionally twine, a 50-fathom length of present it to his Yapese "over­ much further, to Nukuoro and heavy rope, and a bundle of lord,'' as part of the system of Kapingamarangi, nearly 500 turmeric, in addition to foreign political gifts and trade that miles to the south. Grass dance­ textiles-many store-bought linked the Yapese chiefs to their skirts, woven loincloths, plaited blankets, sheets, and fathoms of outer island wards. In Kosrae, sail mats and sleeping mats, sen­ cotton cloth. 65 fine plaited mats (saki), folded nit rope and twine, turmeric and 63 to form a pouch and decora­ red earth for dye, ornamental Ceremonial textiles also may tively embroidered on the out­ headbands, and elaborate shell enter into this payment system. side, once were part of the ornaments were among the trade The machiy on occasion serves tribute given monthly to the items. 10 Individual islands spe­ to make peace between dispu­ king. 67 Plaited mats were used in cialized in certain products, such tants if the conflict has dis­ like manner as chiefly tribute in as the very fine pandanus mats turbed the harmony of the the Marshall Islands. 68 and small pandanus purses made in Puluwat. 11 The more elabo­ counter-gifts among individuals, Micronesian fabric arts are rate the design, the greater the families, and groups. Social ties embedded in a web of diverse value the textile might have in between individuals are thereby symbolic meanings, social roles, this trade system; woven skirts renewed and reaffirmed. In the and cultural values. To under­ from Romonum in Truk La­ Yap outer islands, for example, stand the significance of these goon were ''valued according to social ties grounded in shared objects, it is necessary to appre­ the number of [dark warp­ use of land become pathways ciate them as more than just stripes]. " 72 for textile gifts. It is common pleasing pieces of "art." They for families or groups to make are part of a "total social phe­ Some textiles evidently were use of others' land, with the nomenon"78 that intertwines aes­ woven exclusively for use as cur­ land users giving periodic pay­ thetic, social, political, religious rency, and were neither worn ment to the land owners. These and economic activity. In this nor used for ritual adornment. usage agreements may persist for sense, the fabric objects in the One example is the rather mys­ generations, long after the origi­ exhibition are densely woven terious, large rolls of banana nal contractants have died. Typi­ texts, informing the viewers fiber cloth woven by Yapese cally, payment for land use is in about the culture and traditions men on unusual open-warp the form of woven cloths, cere­ of Micronesia. looms. Wrapped in matting and monially presented by "users" suspended inside the great meet­ at funerals of "owners." Funer­ ing houses, these rolls of als thus are occasions for ritual currency-cloth [Fig. 23] were reinvestment in numerous land­ part of an indigenous money use agreements among families, system that also included red and the textile gift symbolizes (Spondylus) shell necklaces, the "user" group's acknowl­ mussel shell "spoons," large edgement of the primary rights tusk-shaped objects made from of the "owner" group. 76 giant clam (Tridacna) shell, and the huge disks of limestone that Certainly much more is involved were quarried abroad and rafted here than payment pure and to Yap. 73 In Kosrae also, one simple; the textile gift also artic­ variety of textile belt seems to ulates and reinforces social ties have served only as an item of and alliances. Glenn Petersen, currency or trade. It is interesting an anthropologist with keen to note that both the Yapese understanding of Pohnpeian currency-cloth and the Kosraean society, has described this espe­ currency-belt are very coarsely cially concisely: woven, in comparison with tex­ tiles for ritual use or political The weaving of cloth, belts, headbands, baskets, mats, and sails, all done by tribute. Indeed, when the women, produced a set of materials Frenchman Dumont d'Urville that in turn served to weave together received two such textiles during the fabric of Ponapean society. The 64 his 1830 visit to Kosrae, he was various life crisis rituals or rites of pas­ highly indignant at the poor sage, political and religious presentations quality of the gift. 74 to chiefs, and the daily flow of feasting all included the exchange of the fruits of women's labor .... The production The Micronesian adage that "all and exchange of handcrafted goods was things circulate"75 applies espe­ of vast importance throughout the cially to fabric goods, in their Carolines . . . . 77 continuous cycle as gifts and Notes 1 Rubinstein 1979: 189 "Weaving is female work everywhere in 'Following Emery (1980:189) "fabric" here Micronesia except in two islands, Yap and refers to all fibrous constructions (plait- Kapingamarangi. In Yap, only men work, braiding, felted bark-cloth, etc.), worked the open-warp looms used for and is differentiated from "textile" which weaving prestigious currency-cloth, and refers specifically to woven (interlaced both women and men wove ordinary tex- warp-weft) fabrics. tiles. In Kapingamarangi only the men 'Rubinstein 1986 wove (Riesenberg 1952:350). 4 The German ethnographer Hambruch not- "Riesenberg 1952:352 ed in 1909 that the foreign cloth was high- 2°Kramer 1937:75; LeBar 1964:49-51; Office ly detrimental to the health of the of the Chief of Naval Operations Micronesians, but profitable for the mis- 1944: 133; Sarfert 1919: 175-176 sion, which imported and marketed the 21 Miiller 1917:115-116 cloth, while discouraging the natives from 22Warp-striping is absent in Puluwat and their traditional wear (Hambruch and Eil- Namonuito near Truk, and in the Polyne- ers 1936:115-116). Today in Truk, 'skin sian outliers Nukuoro and Kapingamarangi fungus' and 'prickly heat' are still named (Riesenberg 1952:369). after the village of Kuchuwa, where the 23These sacred textiles (umbag kombeng) are Protestant mission dressed the schoolboys from northern Lombok (Bolland and Po- in clothes during the last century (Goo- lak 1971; Gittinger 1979:150). denough and Sugita 1980:171). 24These textiles are described in detail in 'Good analyses of textiles as symbolic cul- Riesenberg 1952. tural "texts" are in March 1983 and Nies- "Sarfert 1919:195 sen 1985. A related discussion of ethnic 26Sarfert 1919:89 jewelry is beautifully presented in Rodgers 27The use of supplementary weft was absent 1985. only in Pulusuk, Namonuito, and Kapin- 6 In Indonesia, the ring-warp loom (in gamarangi (Riesenberg 1952:369). which the warps form a continuous spiral) '"Design symmetry in the machiy and relat- is an earlier form than the open-warp ed Western Caroline textiles is analyzed in types. Today, ring-warp looms appear Rubinstein 1986. Similar design symmetry mainly in "outer" Indonesia (outside the in Indonesian textiles is analyzed in Nies- central area of Indianized states and sen 1985 (for Batak) and Adams 1973 (for Hindu-Javanese influence) and frequently Sumba). are associated with the weaving of sacred 29 A detailed description and diagrams of textiles (Gittinger 1979:229-232; Pelras beading techniques for Pohnpei sashes are 1972). in Riesenberg 1952:353. 7Nama and Losap, lying about 65 miles 10Riesenberg 1952:356 southeast of Truk Lagoon, apparently "Taylor (1960:51) concludes that "tapa never had the loom (Riesenberg decoration [in Polynesia] is traceable to 1952:343n). matplait designs in two respects: individual 8A detailed discussion of the diffusion of design elements, and their overall arrange- loom-weaving in Oceania is in Riesenberg ment." Koojiman (1972) illustrates the in- 1952:342-350 and 367-372. A map showing fluence of plaitwork design upon the probable diffusion of the Caroline Is- bark-cloth from Hawaii (p. 155-156), Futu- land loom into eastern Melanesia is in na (p. 266-274), and Fiji (p. 395-397). Roth 1977:106. Roth reports (p. 105) that 32 Hambruch and Eilers 1936:276 the loom may have reached , "Kramer and Neverman 1938: 154-157. Cur- north of Fiji, which would mark the tis (n.d.) gives a good description of these easternmost penetration of loom-weaving mats and other Marshallese fabric ar- into the Pacific. ti facts. 65 9Carano and Sanchez 1964:29 34Hambruch 1915:22ff 0 I ' Jensen 1977:69 "The people of Truk lagoon did not make I "Author's fieldnotes. sennit cordage, but relied on trade with I 12Sohn and Tawerilmang 1976:149, 267 nearby islands. The local belief was that "Elbert 1972 "the maker of coconut fiber lines is par- I.: 14Goodenough and Sugita 1980:352 ticularly vulnerable to the effect of black /:: "Rehg and Sohl 1979: 110 magic" (LeBar 1964:23). I. 1•Lee 1976:43 36Mead 1972:427; also Steager 1979:349-350 17Wurm and Wilson 1975:237 31 1 Pigafetta, the chronicler for Magellan's • Hambruch 1915:23 2 voyage, described Chamorro women wear­ • Author's fieldnotes. ing little aprons that consisted of "a nar­ 63Alkire 1965:126; Goodenough 1966:56-57 row strip of bark as thin as paper, which ••Goodenough and Sugita 1980:19 grows between the tree and the bark of ••Rubinstein 1979: 177 the palm" (quoted in Carano and Sanchez ••Rubinstein 1986 1 1964:29). • Sarfert 1919: 158 38Koojiman 1972:453-455 ••Kramer and Neverman 1938:197 39Hambruch and Eilers 1936:284-285 ••Malinowski 1922 0 70 • Hambruch and Eilers 1936:301 0ffice of Chief of Naval Operations 41Damm 1936:170 1944:22 42Hambruch and Eilers 1936:285 and 301 11Steager 1979:349 43Hambruch 1915:22ff 12LeBar 1964: 154 44LeBar 1964: 153-154 73Furness 1910:104-105 "From the narrative by Horace Holden, 14Sarfert 1919:197 shipwrecked on Tobi in 1832-34, quoted in "Rubinstein 1979:86 Eilers 1936:140-141. 76Alkire (1965:51) describes this system in ••steager 1979:349 Lamotrek. A slightly different arrangement 47Hambruch and Eilers 1936:285 exists in Pais. At the funeral of a married 48Author's fieldnotes. person, a reciprocal exchange of turmeric, 49Kriimer and Neverman 1938: 156 textiles, and sennit rope occurs between '"Personal communication, Lynn Martin. the husband's and wife's relatives. Addi­ "Author's fieldnotes. tionally, any person who has received land 52Koojiman 1972:455 gifts from the deceased is expected to "Sarfert 1919:195 make a non-reciprocated gift of textiles, as "This section is a condensation of a more an indemnity against the deceased's family detailed description in Rubinstein 1986. reclaiming the land at some future time "The inaugural chant, literally called "the (Rubinstein 1979:132-134, 206). See also unfolding of the chief's mantle," is given Welborn and Bothmer 1977). in Rubinstein 1979:276-277. 77Petersen 1982: 137 56Eilers 1935, Pl. I; Eilers 1936, Pl. 3, 4b 18 In the conclusion to his influential essay 57LeBar 1964: 152 on gift exchange, the French sociologist 58LeBar 1964: 155 Mauss discusses the concepts of ''total 59LeBar 1964: 155n prestation" and "total social phenome­ 0 • Sarfert 1919:176 non" (1967:76).

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Friederichsen, de Gruyter, I 972 Walab Im Medo: Canoes and Navigation Hamburg in the Marshalls. Oceans 5(1):25-37 ElbertS. Carano, P. and Sanchez, P.C. 1972 Puluwat Dictionary, Pacific Linguistics, 1964 A Complete History ofGuam, Charles E. Series C., No. 24. Australian National Tuttle. Rutland. Vermount University, Canberra Curtis, C. Emery, I. n.d. Hand-crafts ofthe Marshall Islands, 1980 The Elementary Structures ofFabrics: an Alele Museum, Majuro, Republic of lllustrated Classification, The Textile the Marshall Islands. Museum, Washington, D.C. Christian, F. W. Fischer, J.L. 1899 ( 1967) The Caroline Islands, Frank Cass 1966 The Eastern Carolines, Human Relations and Co. Ltd., London Area Files Press, New Haven, Connecticut Damm,H. Fraser, D. 1935 Inseln um Truk: Polowat, Hok und 1966 The Heraldic Woman: a Study in Satowal, Ergebnisse der SiMsee­ Diffusion. The Many Faces ofPrimitive Expedition 1908-1910, II. B. Vol. 6, Pt. 2, Art, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, edited by G. Thilenius. Friederichsen, de New Jersey Gruyter, Hamburg Furness, W.H. 1938 Zentralkarolinen: lfaluk, Aurepik, 1910 The Island ofStone Money: Yap of the Faraulip, Soro!, Mogemog, Ergebnisse der Carolines, Lippencott and Co.• Sudsee-Expedition 1908-1910, II, B. Vol. Philadelphia 10, Pt. 2., edited by G. Thilenius. Gerbrands, A.A. Fricderichsen, de Gruyter, Hamburg 1962 The Art of the AsmatofNew Guinea, I 951 Sakrale Holzfiguren von de nordwest­ Collected by Michael C. Rockefeller, polynesischen Randinseln. Jahrbuch des Museum of Primitive Art, New York Museumsjiir Volkerkunde zu Leipzig Gittinger, M. 10:74-87. Abb. 8-13 1979 Splendid Symbols: Textiles and Traditions I 954 Mikronesische Kultboote, Schwebealtare in Indonesia, The Textile Museum, und Weihegabenhanger. Jahrbuch des Washington, D.C. Museums fur Volkerkunde zuLeipzig Goodenough, W.H. 13:45-72 1951 (1%6) Property, Kin, and Community Damm, H., Drost, D., Harwig, W. in Truk, Anchor Books, Hamden, I 966 Ornament and Sculpture in Primitive Connecticut Society, translated by P. Prochnik, State Goodenough W.H. and Sugita, H. Museum of Ethnology, Leipzig, October 1980 Trukese·English Dictionary, American 67 House, New York Philosophical Society, Philadelphia Davenport, W.A. Haddon, A.C. and Hornell, J. 1960 l\farshall Islands Navigational Charts. 1936 The Canoes of Polynesia, Fiji, and Imago Mundi 15: 19-26 Micronesia. The Canoes ofOceania, Vol. Davidson, J.M. I, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special 1968 A Wooden Image from Nukuoro in the Publication 27, Bishop Museum Press, Auckland Museum. Journal of the Honolulu Polynesian Society 77:77-79 Hezel,F.X. 1937 Zentralkarolinen: Lamotrek-Gruppe, Mauss,M. 1983 The First Taint ofCivlization: A History of Oleai, Feis. Ergebni~se der Sudsee­ 1925 (1967) The Gift: Fonns and Functions of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in Pre­ Expedition 1908-1910, II, B. Vol. 10, Pt. I, Exchange in Archaic Societies, Translated Colonial Days 1521-1885, Pacific Islands Friederichsen. de Gruyter, Hamburg by I. Cunnison, W.W. Norton Co., Monograph Series No. I, University of Kramer, A. and Nevermann, H. New York Hawaii Press, Honolulu 1938 Ralik-Ratik (Marshall-Inseln). Ergebnisse McKnight, R.K. Hambruch, P. der Sudsee-Expedition 1908-1910, II, B, 1964 Shell Inlay Art of . Micronesian 1915 Nauru. Ergebnisse der Sudsee-Expedition Vol. 11, edited by G. Thilenius. Reporter 12(2): 10-14 1908-1910, II, B, Vol. I, Pt. 2, edited by Friederichsen, de Gruyter, Hamburg Mead,S. G. Thilenius. Friederichsen, Hamburg LeBar,F.M. 1972 Formal and Iconic Analysis of Polynesian Hambruch, P., Eilers, A. 1964 The Material Culture of Truk, Yale Hafted Adzes: A Preliminary Statement of 1936 Ponape. Ergebnisse der SUdsee-Expedition University Publications in Anthropology Interrelationships within Oceania. Early 1908-1910, II, B, Vol. 7, Pt. 2, edited by 68; Department of Anthropology, Yale Chinese Art and its Possible Influence in G. Thilenius. Friederichsen, de Gruyter, University, New Haven, Connecticut the Pacific Basin, edited by N. Barnard Hamburg Lee,K. and D. Fraser, Intercultural Arts Press, Jensen, J. T. 1976 Kusaiaen-English Dictionary, University New York 1977 Yapese-English Dictionary, University of of Hawaii Press, Honolulu Muller (Wismar), W. Hawaii Press, Honolulu Legge,C. 1917 Yap. Ergebnisse der Siidsee-Expedition Koch,G. 1974 Arms and Armor of the Gilbert Islands. 1908-1910, IL B. Vol. 2, Pt. I, edited by 1965 Materielle Kultur der Gilbert-lnseln, Field Museum ofNatural History Bulletin G. Thilenius. Friederichsen. Hamburg Museum filr V iilkerkunde, Neue Folge 6, 45( 10): 12-14 Murdoch, G.M. Abteilung Siidsee III, Berlin Lessa, W.A. I 923 Gilbert Islands Weapons and Armor. Koojiman, S. 1950 The Ethnography of Ulithi Atoll, Journal of the Polynesian Society 1972 Tapa in Polynesia, Bernice P. Bishop University of California, Berkeley and 32:74-75 Museum Bulletin 234, Bishop Museum Los Angeles Niessen, S.A. Press, Honolulu 1959 Divining Knots in the Carolines. Journal 1985 Motifs of Life in Toba Batak Texts and Kubary, J.S. of the Polynesian Society. 65: 188-204 Textiles, Doctoral dissertation, State 1889 Ethnographische Beitriige zur Kenntnis 1961 Tales from Ulithi Atoll: A Comparative University of Leiden, Institute of Cultural des KarolinenArchipe/s, Pt. I, P. W.M. Sti1dy of Oceanic , University of and Social Studies, Leiden, Netherlands Trapp, Leiden California Publications: Folklore Studies, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations 1900 Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Nukuoro-oder 13, University of California, Berkeley and 1944 Civil Affairs Handbook, East Caroline Monteverde-Inseln. Mittheilungen der Los Angeles Islands, U.S. Navy Department, Geographischen Gesellschaft in Hamburg Lingenfelter, S.G. Washington, D.C. 16:71-137 1975 Yap: Political Leadership and Culture Parkinson, R. 1895 Ethnographische Beitriige zur Kenntnis Change in an Island Community, 1889 Beitrage zur Ethnologie der Gilbertin­ des Karolinen Archipe/s, Pt. 3, P. W.M. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu sulaner. International es Archiv fiir Trapp, Leiden Malinowski, B. Ethnographie 2:31-48, 90-106 Kramer, A. 1922 Argonauts of the Western Pacific, Parmentier, R.J. 1919 Palau. Ergebnisse der Sudsee-Expedition Routledge and Kegan, London 1985 Diagramatic Icons and Historical 1908-1910, II, B, Vol. 3, Pt. 2, edited by March,K.S. Processes in Belau. American G. Thilenius. Friederichsen, Hamburg 1983 Weaving, Writing, and Gender. Anthropologist 87(4):840-852 1926 Palau. Ergebnisse der Sudsee-Expedition Man: Journal of the Royal Pelras, C. 1908-1910II, B, Vol. 3, Pt. 3, edited by G. Anthropological Institute (N.S.) 18(4): 1972 Contribution a la geographie et al' Thilenius. Friederichsen, Hamburg 729-744 ethnologie du metier atisser en indonesia. 1929 Palau. Ergebnisse der Sudsee-Expedition MasonL. Langues et Techniques, Nature et Socihe. 1908-1910, II, B, Vol. 3, Pt. 5, edited by 1964 Micronesian Culture. Encyclopedia of Vol. II, Approche Ethnologique, Approche G. Thilenius. Friederichsen, de Gruyter, World Art 9:915-930, Plates 543-548 Naturaliste, Klinchsieck, Paris Hamburg Matsumura, A. Petersen, G. 1932 Truk. Ergebnisse der Siidsee-Expedition 1917 The Caroline Islands Canoe and its Prow 1982 Ponapean Matriliny: Production, 68 1908-1910, II, B, Vol. 5, edited by G. Decorations (in Japanese). Jinruigaku Exchange, and the Ties that Bind. Thilenius. Friederichsen, de Gruyter, Zasshi 32(11 ):321-327. American Ethnologist9( l): 129-144 Hamburg Maude,H.E. Rehg, K.L. and Sohl, D.G. 1935 Inseln um Truk (Centralkarolinen ost): 1963 The Evolution of the Gilbertese Boti: 1979 Ponapean-English Dictionary, University Lukunor-Inseln und Namoluk; Losap und an Ethnohistorical Interpretation, The of Hawaii Press, Honolulu Nama; Lemarafat, Namonuito oder Polynesian Society, Memoir No. 23, Riesenberg, S.H. and Gayton, A.IL Onoun; Pollap-Tanatam. Ergebnisse der Wellington 1952 Caroline Island Belt Weaving. South-west Siidsee-Expedition 1908-1910, II, B, Vol. 1, Journal ofAnthropology 8:342-375 Pt. I , Friederichsen, de Gruyter, Hamburg Robinson, D. Someki,A. 1983 The Decorative Motifs of Palaun 1936 The Wooden Dishes Used in the Caroline Clubhouses. Art and Artists of Oceania, Islands (in Japanese), Minzokugaku edited by S. Mead and B. Kernot, Kenkyu2:172-190. Ethnographic Arts Publications, Steager, P. W. Mill Valley, California 1979 Where Does Art Begin in Puluwat. Rodgers,S. Exploring the Visual Art of Oceania, 1985 Power and Gold: Jewelry from Indonesia, edited by S. Mead, University of Hawaii Malaysia and the Philippines, Barbier­ Press, Honolulu Miiller Museum, Geneva Taylor, D. Rose,R.G. 1960 The Relation of Matplaiting to Bark cloth 1980 A Museum to Instruct and Delight: Decoration in Polynesia. Journal ofthe William T. Brigham and the Founding Polynesian Society 69( 1):43-53. of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Teilhet,J. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special 1979 The Equivocal Nature of Masking Publication 68. Bishop Museum Press, Tradition in Polynesia. Exploring the Honolulu Visual Art of Oceania, edited by S. Mead, Roth,H.L. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu 1-918 ( 1977) Studies in Primitive Looms, Wellborn, S. and Bothmer, J. (Reprinted from the original Bankfield I 977 Lavalava~ Glimpses ofGuam and the Museum Notes. Halifax, England) Robin Western Pacific 17(3):23-25 and Russ Hand weavers, McMinnville, Whitney, H.P. Oregon 1955 An Analysis of the Design of the Major Rubin, W. Sea Going Craft of Oceania, Master's 1984 Primitivism in 20th Century Art, Museum thesis, University of Pennsylvania, of Modern Art, New York Philadelphia Rubinstein, D. Wurm,S.A. 1979 An Ethnography of Micronesian 1975 English Finderlist ofReconstructions Childhood: Contexts of Socialization in Austronesian Languages, Pacific on Fais Island, Doctoral dissertation, Linguistics, Series C. No. 33, Australian Stanford University, Department of National University, Canberra Anthropology, Stanford. (University Yawata,I. Micro-films No. 80-02002), Ann Arbor l 933 Masks of Mortlock Island (in Japanese). 1986 ·The Social Fabric: Micronesian Textile Dorumen 2(1):38-42 Patterns as an Embodiment of Social Order. Mirror and Metaphor: Material and Social Constructions ofReality, edited by D. W. Ingersoll Jr. and G. Bronitsky, University Press of America, Lanham, Maryland. In press. Sarfert, E. 1919 Kusae. Ergebnisse der Sudsee-Expedition 1908-1910, II, B, Vol. 4, Pt. I, edited by G. Thilenius. Friederichsen, Hamburg Schlesier, E. 1953 Die Erscheinungsfonnen des Mannerhauses und das Klubwesen in Mikronesien, Mouton and Co., 'S-Gravenhage (The Hague) Smith D.R. 69 1975 The Palauan Storyboards: From Traditional Architecture to Airport Art, Expedition 18(1 ):2-17 Sohn, H. and Tawerilmang, A.F. 1976 Woleaian-English Dictionary, University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu Catalogue of the Canoe prow ornament (aten), Spirit canoe, Truk Romonum, Truk Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum X-183 Exhibition National Museum of Natural History, Hawaiian National Museum Collection, 1891 Smithsonian Institution 206261 Wood; painted red, black and white Collected by H.F. Moore and Townsend on Length 79 .5 cm the U.S. Fish Commission cruise of the U.S.S. Albatross in 1899-1900 Spirit canoe, probably Tobi Wood Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 3547 Length 43 cm Hawaiian National Museum Collection, 1891 Wood; lozenge shape. Painted red, black Canoe prow ornament (aten), Truk and white; sides ornamented with white Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 7914 zigzag lines Hawaiian National Museum Collection, 1891 48 cm x 21 cm x 14 cm Wood Length 198.1 cm Navigation ch.art, Marshall Islands Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 6806 Canoe prow ornament (aten), Truk Hawaiian Board of Missions Collection; Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 7916 acquired in 1892 Hawaiian National Museum Collection, 1891 Palm Wood 92 cm x 51 cm Length 173 cm Weather charm, Yap Canoe prow ornament (bellik), Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum D.4347 Marshall Islands Gift of William H. Alkire, 1967 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum X-160 Wood; coconut leaves tied to arms Hawaiian National Museum Collection, 1891 Height 40 cm Basketry and wood Length 39.5 cm Image (tino, dinonga eidu), Nukuoro Honolulu Academy of Arts 4752 Canoe model, Marshall Islands Exchange, 1943 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 5653 Collected in Micronesia by the Reverend Hawaiian Board of Missions Collection, 1 E.T. Doane, member of the American 1892 Board of Commissioners for Foreign Wood Missions. Purchased by the Bernice Pauahi Length 94 cm Bishop Museum in 1895 Wood War canoe (waa faten) model, Truk Height 39.5 cm Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 7551 A. F. Judd Collection, 1900 Image of Dilukai, gable on men's house Wood (bai), Belau Length 63 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art 1978.412.1558 a-d Canoe model, Pohnpei The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 7550 Collection Hawaiian National Museum Collection, 1891 Gift of Nelson A. Rockefeller and Purchase, Wood 1970 Length 142.2 cm Former Linden Museum Collection, Stuttgart; collected by Augustin Kramer, 1908-1910 70 Wood Height 65 .5 cm Interior post (chellabd) from a bai, Belau Threshold piece, bai, Belau Story board, Belau Belau National Museum 981.99 Belau National Museum 981.106 Vitarelli Collection Collected from Airai Bai Collected from Airai Bai c. 1945 Wood Wood; painted red, black and white Wood Height 152.5 cm 94 cm x 25.5 cm 155 cm x 17.8 cm

The main image on the post is a rooster This piece was originally located under the The Unfaithful Wife carved in low relief and painted. Commonly front entrance of a bai and was stepped depicted on the main posts of a men's over to enter the bai. It is painted red, A man went fishing one day in his outrigger house, bai, the rooster refers to the Belau black, and white and carved in low relief. canoe. While at sea, he spotted a shark legend about the building of the first bai, The uppermost row of images includes swimming with its belly upwards, a sign that the legendary ruins of which are located human faces alternating with money something is amiss back home. He beneath the sea near Babeldaop Island. symbols. Two rows of money symbols are immediately headed for shore. Upon According to tradition, a god craftsman, represented. The depiction of small faces arriving at the dock, the man thought of a Kladaelbai, was working beneath the sea on just below the threshold of the doorway has way to trick his wife's secret lover into the parts for the first bai, while two other been suggested as originating from an revealing himself. He jumped onto the gods, Uchel Kebesadel and Techadrengel, ancient custom in which "the heads of shore, calling out, "I know who the guilty began to argue over who was going to enemies slain in battle were hung on stakes man is, so run for your life!" Startled, a control the building enterprise. Uchel outside the bai or under the threshold of the man jumped from among a group sitting at charred some coconut fiber and tossed it bai, perhaps in order to. symbolically step on the dock, and ran. The suspecting husband into the air. A rooster appeared and began them while entering or leaving." (Robinson then speared the guilty man in mid-air. to crow. At the seventh crow, Techadrengel, 1983: 172) Uchel's rival, thrust out the sun, which he All three boards (carver unknown) were had previously carved, and daylight flooded Story board, Belau carved in the mid 1940's, incorporating the islands. Since the gods only work at Vitarelli Collection Maui traditional stylistic elements such as the night, this act put an end to the work, and c. 1945 incised visual outlines filled with white the first bai was never completed. Wood; painted color, the simple zigzag border designs, and 155 cm x 15.2 cm subdued colors. The flat linear character of Just below the rooster on the post are rows Story unknown the design also makes these boards resemble of Belau money, also carved in low relief. closely the stories carved on the horizontal Above the rooster is the face of the monster Story board, Belau tie beams inside the old bai.' Blellek. He is represented on the post, Vitarelli Collection allegedly, to remind women to stay out of c. 1945 When looking at a board, it is sometimes the ocean and out of the bai, a man's Wood; painted difficult to identify the story, as not every world, or else be molested by Blellek. 155 cm x 15.2 cm event in a story is depicted on the board. In traditional times, the boards recorded Section of wall post (chad) from bai, Belau Orachel and his Snake Mother historical events and narratives and were Belau National Museum 981.100 used as mnemonic devices for the story­ Collected from Airai Bai Orachel, a heroic demi-god, was the tellers who sat inside the bai. A single snake Wood discoverer of the first bai. While out at sea, (Board 2) or an upside-down shark (Board Length 190.5 cm Orachel dove down to discover an undersea 3) would evoke the story, which was often civilization at work building a magnificent much too long and detailed to show visually Low-relief incised designs on the post A-framed structure. From these people, in its entirety. (Margo Vitarelli, Personal represent circular money symbols, triangular Orachel learned the art of bai building and Communication) Tridacna clam shell symbols, and Blellek spread it throughout the archipelago, faces. The Tridacna clam was highly prized teaching all who deserved to learn this fine "Monkey" figure, Truk for its meat and for the shell which was art. His mother, the snake, travelled with Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 1976.154.14 fashioned into a variety of cutting tools. him everywhere, but was feared and Gift of R.I. Partridge, June 17, 1976 misunderstood by the people, who Collected on Truk between 1952 and 1955 constantly tormented her. In the end, she Wood; turbo shell eyes 71 died of exhaustion, helping Orachel anchor Height 18 cm a boat with her body in one of his many adventures. The animals and birds of the "Monkey" figure, Truk forest held a funeral for her, crying and Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 1976.154.15 singing out in their animal voices. The Gift of R.I. Partridge, June 17, 1976 Belauans say that to this day you can hear Collected on Truk between 1952 and 1955 them late in the evening and early morning. Wood; pearl shell eyes Height 18.5 cm Bird, Puluwat Drum, Marshall Islands Bowl, Yap Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum B.621 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 5660 Honolulu Academy of Arts 4806.1 Hawaiian National Museum Collection, 1891 Hawaiian Board of Missions Collection, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Alfred J. Ostheimer, Wood; body painted white, head black with 1892 1979 white crest, tail with red pigment. The Wood; shark skin tympanum Clay; unglazed, low-fired wings, carved separately and fitted into a Height 109 cm 37 cm diameter channel on the back of the body, are held with three or more wooden pegs. Drum, Marshall Islands Bowl for serving fish, Belau 24.5 cm x 9 cm x 38 cm wingspread Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 7462 Made by Renguul of Peleliu Wood; tympanum made from the skin of a National Museum of Natural History, Bird, Puluwat shark's bladder Smithsonian Institution 394588 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum B.622 Height 59 cm Acquired in 1958 by D.H. Nucker, High Hawaiian National Museum Collection, 1891 Commissioner of the Wood; similar construction and paint as Courting stick, Fefan Island, Truk Department of Interior B.621 National Museum of Natural History, Polished hardwood dort (lntsia bijuga) 29.5 cm x 8 cm x 38.5 cm wingspread Smithsonian Institution 398174 81.2 cm x 34.2 cm x 9.5 cm Collected by J .A. Brandt Mask, Satawan, Mortlock Islands Wood Bird-shaped bowl (paint palette), Puluwat Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 5620 Length 98.5 cm National Museum of Natural History, American Board of Commissioners for Smithsonian Institution 398176 Foreign Missions Collection, 1895 Courting stick, Truk Collected by J .A. Brandt Obtained by the Reverend E.T. Doane,' National Museum of Natural History, Wood February 4, 1874 Smithsonian Institution 400954 Length 18.5 cm Wood; painted white with black trim D.H. Nucker Collection; acquired 1963 67 cm x 45 cm Wood Bowl, Truk Length 87.9 cm Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 7560 Mask, Satawan, Mortlock Islands Gift of Mrs. C.M. Hyde,' c. 1900 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 5634 Courting stick, Truk Wood; painted re<;i with black edges Hawaiian National Museum Collection, 1891 National Museum of Natural History, 76 cm x 42 cm x 24 cm Wood; painted white with black trim Smithsonian Institution 400957 72.5 cm x 54.5 cm D.H. Nucker Collection; acquired 1963 Nighttime commode for children or invalids, Wood Nukupro Dance paddle, Pohnpei Length 78.5 cm Lowie Museum of Anthropology, University Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 6805 of California, Berkeley 11-167 Collected on the expedition of the S.S. Courting sticks (okuniar) carried by the Wood Morning Star,' April 21, 1898 young men of Truk, each bore a distinct 47 cm x 14.7 cm Wood; fiber tassles along edge of paddle pattern. A young man poked a stick Length 144 cm through the house wall near the place where Basket, Kiribati a young girl slept. She recognized the owner Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 7518 Four dance paddles, Kosrae of the stick by its carving and accepted or Hawaiian National Museum Collection, 1891 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 7085 rejected him by accepting or rejecting the Plaited coconut leaflets with pandanus leaf Hawaiian National Museum Collection, 1891 stick. The practice ended in the 1920's when edging; two handles of sennit Wood more solid houses replaced thatched ones. 36 cm x 27 cm x 15 cm Length 79 cm; 76 cm; 65 cm; 62 cm Basket, Pohnpei Dance paddle, Pohnpei Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 7559 Lowie Museum of Anthropology, University Gift of Mrs. C.M. Hyde, c. 1900 of California, Berkeley 11-14928 Plaited coconut leaves with two handles Wood 44.5 cm x 27.5 cm x 8.5 cm Length 91.5 cm 72 Basket, Nauru Fan, Kiribati Jacket, Kiribati Metropolitan Museum of Art 1983.545.l Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 1982.394.01 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 3536 Hiltrup Mission Museum Collection Collected by Louisa Wilson of the Eric Craig Collection, 1891 Gift of the American Friends of the Israel Congregational Mission between 1898 and Coconut fiber Museum, 1983 1910 Length 28 cm, sleeve 58.5 cm Square container of plaited palm strips Plaited pandanus fiber edged with a row of sharks' teeth Length 37 cm Trousers, Kiribati 8.9 cm x 9.5 cm x 7.6 cm Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 3539 Sword with branched guard, Kiribati Coconut fiber Coconut grater, Nukuoro Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 3273 Length 125 cm Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum D.374 Eric Craig Collection, 1891 Collected by Kenneth P. Emory, 1950 Palmwood; sharks' teeth Girdle, Butaritari Island, Kiribati Wood Length 72.5 cm Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 10,218 58.4 cm x 32 cm Hawaiian Board of Missions Collection, Long spear, Banaba Island, Kiribati 1910 Neckrest, Guam Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 832 Coconut fiber Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum B.7684 J .S. Emerson Collection; received 1889 104.5 cm x 29.8 cm Hornbostel Collection; collected July 7, 1924 Palmwood; attached branches of sharks' Wood teeth Skull cap, Nonouti Island, Kiribati 36.5 cm x 9.5 cm x 10 cm Length 326 cm Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 3534 Eric Craig Collection, 1891 Ball of twine, Pohnpei Short spear, Kiribati Coconut fiber Lowie Museum of Anthropology, University Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 1982.394.18 23cmx27cm of California, Berkeley 1103255 Collected by Louisa Wilson, a 30 cm x 23 cm Congregational to the Marshall Helmet, Kiribati Islands from 1898 to 1910. Before Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum ACC. 4534 Brush, Nauru permanent location in the Bishop Museum, Porcupine fish Metropolitan Museum of Art 1983.545.22 the spear resided in Iolani Palace, then was 30 cm x 32 cm Hiltrup Mission Museum Collection presented. by Queen Liliuokalani to Amanda Gift of the American Friends of the Israel Belle Mapel, an Episcopal missionary to Shell money, Yap Museum, 1983 Hawaii. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 1978.05.01 Fiber brush with basketry handle; feathers, Palmwood; sharks' teeth fastened with Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Roy Goss, 1978 shells, and coral beads twisted coconut fiber and human hair Tridacna shell Length 19.7 cm x l.3 cm diameter Length 72 cm Length 40. 5 cm

Spoon, Belau In various areas of Kiribati, long and short Tridacna shell blade attached to coir handle. Daniells Collection, Maui spears of different sorts were used in Presented to donor approximately fifteen Turtle shell warfare and family feuds (Murdock 1923). years ago to redress an insult. Length 15.9 cm Leading warriors wielded long spears, while other warriors accompanied them bearing Money belt (senuto), Truk Fan, Pohnpei shorter spears and clubs. Long spears were Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum C8551 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 3344 hurled; the shorter weapons served in close Micronesian Expedition, 1936 J .S. Emerson Collection; purchased May II, combat. The warriors' heavy armor did not Shell, wood, fiber 1886 provide full body protection, thus they had 94 cm x 14 cm Plaited coconut fiber to handle their weapons skillfully in order to Length 34 cm guard their exposed face and throat, arms Women's money (toluk), Belau and legs, groin and armpits. Daniells Collection Fan, Truk Turtle shell Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum C.8427a Cuirass, Kiribati Length 15. 7 cm Y. Kondo Collection; acquired c. 1936 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 10,216 73 Plaited coconut fiber Hawaiian Board of Missions Collection, Women's money (toluk), Belau Length 49 cm 1910 Daniells Collection Coconut fiber Turtle shell 101 cm x 52 cm Length 16.5 cm Women's money (toluk), Belau Necklace, Yap Ear ornaments, Caroline Islands Daniells Collection Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum D.4247 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 8064 Length 18.4 cm Frank H. Walker Collection Collected by the Reverend C. M. Hyde in Gift of Frank H. Walker, 1966. Collected in 1898 A toluk is made from a thick piece of the Yap in 1945 Coconut shell and marine shell back shell of the hawksbill turtle. The piece Shell; sperm whale tooth pendant Length 55 cm of shell is first softened by heating, then Length 53 cm pressed between the two sides of a wooden , Truk mold to form the upturned rim (Kramer Necklace Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 3491 1926:125, fig. 126). New post-contact toluk Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 11,298 J.S. Emerson Collection; are highly polished and may have some R.J. Etheridge Collection; received in April acquired April 4, 1887 small motifs cut into the edge, suggestive of 1914 Woven banana and hibiscus fiber warp and the head, tail and four legs of the turtle. Red shell banana fiber weft with knotted fringe; Length 56 cm natural color Toluk originally were serving dishes, but 90.8 cm x 180 cm owing to the rarity of large single pieces of Necklace turtle shell and the difficulty of manu­ Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 1963.30 Loincloth, Truk facture, they gradually became regarded as Gift of Walter N. Kaneshiro, 1963. Made Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 3486 precious objects. Usually, toluk are given to by donor in 1963 J.S. Emerson Collection; a woman by her husband's female relatives Sea urchin spines acquired April 4, 1887 if the woman has worked hard in service to Length 100 cm Woven banana fiber; natural color; brown her husband. Possession of toluk is a mark warp stripes on edge of high status, and women therefore collect Pendant, Arno, Marshall Islands Warp 234 cm x weft 56 cm them, keeping them carefully wrapped in a Metropolitan Museum of Art 1983.545.17 safe and hidden place. Like men's money Hiltrup Mission Museum Collection Skirt, Truk (glass and ceramic beads), women's money Gift of the American Friends of the Israel Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 8072 is used in ritual exchanges and especially in Museum, 1983 C.M. Hyde Collection, c. 1898 ceremonies for rites of passage. (Margo Shell Woven banana fiber; natural color, warp Vitarelli, Personal Communication; Kramer 16.2 cm x 2.9 cm x .7 cm stripes of dark brown 1926: 124-126) Warp 100 cm x weft 61 cm Breast plate Head ornament, Truk Honolulu Academy of Arts 1946.1 Skirt, made by a Caroline Islander in Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 3414 Gift of the Island Trading Company, 1954 Saipan J .S. Emerson Collection; possibly one of Turtle shell; circular plaque with hole in Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum B.8596 three "head necklaces" listed under lot center made from the underside of the shell Hornbostel Collection; acquired in 1924 number 397 purchased from Captain Worth, of a hawksbill sea turtle. Curvilinear motifs Woven banana fiber; yellow; warp stripes of April 28, 1890 on the surface result naturally from karatin parallel zigzag motifs Coconut beads secretions in the shell. Warp 121 cm x weft 63 cm Length 36 cm 6 cm diameter Skirt, Ulithi Head Ornament, Nauru Arm rings, Truk Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum B.8607 Metropolitan Museum of Art 1983.545.20 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 3472, 3473, Hornbiistel Collection; acquired in 1924 Hiltrup Mission Museum Collection 3475 Woven banana fiber; natural, red and Gift of the American Friends of the Israel 3472 and 3473: J.S. Emerson Collection, brown; hibiscus fiber supplementary weft in Museum, 1983 1889 a stripe motif Pair of fiber cords; feathers and coral beads 3475: Hawaiian National Museum Warp 178 cm x weft 47 cm at each end and center, tooth at one end. Collection, 1891 Co)ors: natural, black, brown, orange, white Turtle shell Skirt, Truk Length 38.7 cm 3472: 6 cm diameter Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum B.10,473 74 3473: 5 cm diameter Hornbostel Collection; received in 1926 Necklace, Truk 3475: 5 cm diameter Woven banana fiber; natural color with Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 3323 warp stripes of lozenge motifs in brown Eric Craig Collection, 1891 fiber Coconut rings with coconut shell pendant Warp 190 cm x weft 53 cm Length 45 cm Skirt, Caroline Islands Sash, made by a Caroline Islander in Saipan Family Emblem/Maternity mat, Nauru Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 1979.142.01 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, B8596 Metropolitan Museum of Art 1983.545.28 Gift of Robert Sparks, 1979 Hornbi:istel Collection, 1924 Hiltrup Mission Museum Collection Collected in 1944 Woven banana fiber; natural, red and Gift of the American Friends of Israel Woven hibiscus fiber; yellow and brown brown warp stripes Museum, 1983 warp stripes with ·knotted fringe Warp 121 cm x weft 62 cm Plaited mat with zigzag pattern; shell, seed Warp 168 cm x weft 45 cm and feathers Sash, Pohnpei 39.4 cm x 18.4 cm Skirt, Caroline Islands National Museum of Natural History, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 7818 Smithsonian Institution 5703 Leaf bed mat, Caroline Islands American Board of Commissioners for Wilkes Expedition Collection, 1838-40 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 7835 Foreign Missions Collection Woven banana fiber American Board of Commissioners for Woven hibiscus fiber; red Weft IO cm Foreign Missions Collection, 1895 23 cm x 50 cm Pandanus leaf blades folded and sewn in Sash, probably Caroline Islands shingle arrangement Skirt, made by a Caroline Islander in National Museum of Natural History, 308 cm x 125 cm Saipan Smithsonian Institution T-12269 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum B.8595 Possibly from Wilkes Expedition, 1838-40 Bark-cloth, Pohnpei Hornbi:istel Collection; acquired in 1924 Woven banana fiber; red, brown, white Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 7836 Woven banana and hibiscus fiber; red and Warp 174 cm x weft 11.5 cm American Board of Commissioners for brown warp stripes Foreign Missions Collection 132 cm x 56 cm Burial shroud (machiy), Fais Two sheets of bark-cloth (probably banyan Peabody Museum, Salem E 5568 bark) sewn together with strips of breadfruit Skirt for young girl, Yap Collected by George Nichols and given to bark and fringed at opposite ends. Other Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum D.1670 the East India Marine Society in 1801 strips are stitched through the piece of bark­ Gift of Leonard Mason, 1959 Woven banana fiber with supplementary cloth in irregular rows resembling an Pandanus and banana leaf weft in dyed hibiscus fiber attempt to reproduce weaving. A similar 52 cm x 55 cm 141.8 cm x 50.8 cm piece, acquired before 1860, exists in the Peabody Museum, Salem, Massachusetts Two skirts, Belau Mat, Marshall Islands (E 3187). Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum D.683 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 3217 142.2 cm x 155 cm Exchange from the Honolulu Academy of Plaited pandanus leaf with hibiscus fiber Arts, 1954 patterning along edges; natural. black and Coconut fiber brown 35 cm x 27 cm; 35 cm x 22 cm 140 cm x 140 cm

Sash, Caroline Islands Mat, Marshall Islands Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 1921.14.115 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum D.3366 Liliuokalani Collection, August, 1921 Gift of Mrs. D. M. Taylor, July 31, !964 Woven banana fiber with supplementary Plaited pandanus leaf with hibiscus fiber weft patterning and warp stripes with patterning along edges; natural, black and knotted fringe; red, natural and brown brown Warp 144 cm x weft II cm 188 cm

S11Sh, Kosrae Family Emblem/Maternity mat, Nauru Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum 1952.26.01 Metropolitan Museum of Art 1983.545.27 Gift of Maurine P. Waterman in memory Hiltrup Mission Museum Collection of Colonel Hawley Chapel Waterman, 1952 Gift of the American Friends of Israel Woven banana fiber; commercial red wool, Museum, 1983 warp stripes and knotted-in warp with Plaited mat with geometric pattern; top 75 supplementary weft; intricate motifs, border decorated with sharks' teeth including red worsted woven in center, end 14.6 cm x 8.9 cm fringes, plus a fringe in the middle; red, natural and brown Warp 200 cm x weft 15.5 cm Notes 'The Hawaiian Board of Missions was the local board of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). 2 Story boards represent portable adaptations of relief carvings on the bai. During the Japanese occupation of Micronesia in the 1930's, Dr. Hisataku Hijikata, an anthro­ pologist and artist, encouraged the carvers of Belau to produce traditional stories on small boards for sale and export to Japan. This was the beginning of a major craft in­ dustry that still thrives (Robinson 1983:176; Smith:l975). 3The Reverend E.T. Doane and his wife were from Hawaii with the ABCFM on Pohnpei and in the Marshall Islands. They arrived in Pohnpei in 1855 (Hezel 1983: 150-151, 154-155). 4 The S.S. Morning Star was a packet ship used by members of the ABCFM in Micronesia beginning in the year 1855 (Hezel 1983:151, 258-259). 'Dr. Charles McEwan Hyde came to Hawaii in 1877 at the request of the ABCFM in order to supervise development of the North Pacific Missionary Institute, a theo­ logical school for training Hawaiian recruits for Micronesian missions. He also became a trustee of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Es­ tate and is apparently credited with being the first person to suggest that a museum of Hawaiian material be established in Hawaii (Rose 1980:1, 13-14). Fig. 2 Bird-shaped bowl (paint palette), Puluwat Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History Smithsonian Institution 398176 Photo by Malcolm Mekaru

Fig. 9 Coconut grater, Nukuoro Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum D.374 Photo by Malcolm Mekaru

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