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Quarterly Access (QA) is the national quarterly publication of Editorial Team the young professionals’ networks of the Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA). • Editor-in-Chief Nina Roxburgh All the views expressed in this publication are solely those of • Deputy Editor Tamara Tubakovic the individual writers. While providing a forum for discussion • Editor Alyce Hogg and debate on international issues, the AIIA does not • Editor Finian Cullity formulate its own institutional views, and eschews political bias. • Editor Bernadette Anvia • Editor Kelly Rogan Launched by ACCESS, the AIIA’s Network for Students and Young Professionals, Quarterly Access is an entirely volunteer- • Graphic Editor Alicia Sherman based publication providing a forum for students and young • Social Media Officer Jeremy Rees professionals with an interest in international affairs to contribute to the exchange of ideas. Contact the Committee via email [email protected] The Editorial Committee comprises a group of students and or for information on submitting an article visit: young professionals. www.internationalaffairs.org.au/publications/quarterlyaccess 01 Looking Into: Women Poppy Farmers in Myanmar Kirsty Dempsey
04 Gazing at the Stars: Australia’s Strategic Space Prospects Jonathan Lim
14 The Ugly Truth About Fake News: Fragility of Liberal Democracies in the Internet Age Zia Khan
resigned as President of Jono Lim investigates why From the Zimbabwe, after a 37 year rule. Australia’s geopolitical Russia has been accused of standing and national Editor-in-Chief interfering in the US elections. Just recently Ratko Mladic, security interests can only be the former Bosnian Serb safeguarded and advanced with the establishment of a Dear readers, military commander known as the “Butcher of Bosnia,” was governmental space agency Thank you for joining Quarterly found guilty of genocide at The and development of a Access for another fantastic Hague. Same Sex Marriage proactive space policy. year exploring the ideas and has passed in Australia. Zia Khan explores the research of young Australian Issues continue to unfold with writers and emerging role “fake news” has in the closure of Manus Island undermining the quality of academics in International detention centre sparking Relations. public discourse and electoral weekly protests in Australia’s decision-making within This has been quite the year. In major cities. The Rohingya liberal democracies, and the the beginning António Guterres crisis has refugees fleeing into threat this poses for liberal became the ninth secretary neighbouring Bangladesh; democratic governments. general of the United Nations. with accounts of torture, Donald Trump took control human rights violations, Kirsty Dempsey writes on of the oval office and was mass killings, and systematic the absence of women’s sworn in as president of the rape. All this and the planet experiences in academic United States. The European continues to endure the effects literature and development Union and the UK have bitterly of climate change and policy agency work in poppy farming dragged out inadequacies across the globe. in Myanmar, due to the the political, economic and In reality, this is just a short list global value chain of opium social divorce triggered by of the many, many, significant production and broader Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty. international events that have transnational factors. North Korea has relentlessly occurred during 2017, which We say farewell to one of our pursued its nuclear capacity, affect us all. editorial Committee members, recently testing a ballistic With this in mind, in our final Alyce Hogg, and thank her missile in contravention to issue of Quarterly Access for all her work bringing this global pressure through for the year, we look to the journal to life throughout the sanctions. France welcomed its stars and to the power of the last two years. youngest president in history internet, to explore some of Happy reading, with the election of Emmanuel the bigger questions facing our Macron. Robert Mugabe global and local communities. Nina Roxburgh, Editor-in-Chief
From the Editor-in-Chief 01 DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4 Looking Into: Women Poppy Farmers in Myanmar
Article by Kirsty Dempsey
Kirsty graduated with a Bachelor of International Relations in 2015 and currently in her final semester of the Master of International Relations at University of Melbourne. DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4 02
Interviews with Myanmar farmers indicate that theories. These studies have produced a range farming poppies “may be as normal as breathing” of outcomes, including theories claiming the for native peoples.1 2 Opium production has a long drug abuse issue stems from colonialism.8 history in Myanmar, being handed down through More recently, anthropological accounts of generations within families, a tradition that has opium production have assessed the impact been in the region for hundreds of years.3 The on local villages. However, absent from almost local reliance upon the plant was highlighted all academic literature on this topic is studies by a 2005 ban, in which 89.5% of villages in a of women, and how they have been specifically Myanmar region suffered food shortages.4 Clearly, impacted. Effectively, like other extractive opium production is an industry that is deeply industries, such as mining and palm oil,9 women rooted in Myanmar history, culture and politics. in opium production have been ignored by many key stakeholders. Yet despite this importance, as highlighted by Oxfam International in the Position Paper on Why is this? Gender Justice and the Extractive Industries, women working in Myanmar opium production are A common theme in the study of extractive discriminated against at every stage, from farming industries, the lack of literature on women in to cultivation, to trafficking.5 Although women the opium industry is an example of what occurs 10 often partake in all areas of opium production, when global processes contrast local dynamics. they are mostly overlooked in the academic Global consumption of cocaine, heroin and literature, as well as by development and aid methamphetamine is growing dramatically – agencies, like the United Nations Office on Drugs there are now an estimated 255 million drug 11 and Crime (UNODC). The question, then, is why? users globally. This has meant that much of the Myanmar opium finds its way to the global market This article posits that women are overlooked due as it is trafficked through the borders of Thailand to the global value chain of opium production, as and China.12 the literature is shaped by wider transnational factors that minimise the experiences of Myanmar John F. McCarthy et. al. argue that the role women, who are silenced by local systemic of women is overlooked in this process as practices. international actor frameworks fail to account for those local dynamics.13 This means that On June 26th, 2017, Myanmar 6 authorities as Myanmar opium is moved transnationally, publicly burnt $385 million of heroin, opium, the ability to focus on women in Myanmar is cocaine, and methamphetamines, marking the diminished. International Day Against Drug Abuse.7 The act symbolised the larger battle against drug abuse This is reinforced by Ko-lin Chin, who highlights in Myanmar, which has subsequently struggled to how wider regional activities have influenced overcome the flow on economic and social effects. the cultivation of opium, but omit the role of, or effects on, women.14 Although women appear As a result, the issue of opium production in to be acknowledged as present in, and affected Myanmar has been studied by many academics by the opium industry, their experiences are through varied theoretical frameworks, including overshadowed by other factors that are embedded using historical or transnational security in the global value chain of opium production,
1 M. Jelsma, T. Kramer, and P. Vervest, Trouble in the Triangle: 8 Alan Dupont, “Transnational Crime, Drugs, and Security in Opium & Conflict in Burma (2005), Book. East Asia,” Asian Survey 39, no. 3 (1999); Linda Farthing and Benjamin Kohl, “Conflicting Agendas: The Politics of Development 2 Ko-lin Chin, The Golden Triangle. [Electronic Resource] : Inside Aid in Drug‐Producing Areas,” Development Policy Review Southeast Asia’s Drug Trade (Cornell University Press, 2009), 49. 23, no. 2 (2005); Bertil Lintner, Burma in Revolt: Opium and 3 M. Jelsma, T. Kramer, and P. Vervest, Trouble in the Triangle: Insurgency since 1948 (Silkworm books, 1999). Opium & Conflict in Burma (2005), Book. 9 Kuntala Lahiri-Dutt, Gendering the Field: Towards Sustainable 4 UNODC, “Myanmar: Opium Survey,” (United Nations Office on Livelihoods for Mining Communities (ANU Press, 2013). Drugs and Crime, 2005), 29. 10 John F McCarthy, Piers Gillespie, and Zahari Zen, “Swimming 5 Oxfam, “Oxfam International: Position Paper on Gender Justice Upstream: Local Indonesian Production Networks in “Globalized” and the Extractive Industries,” (Oxfam International, 2017). Palm Oil Production,” World Development 40, no. 3 (2012). 6 Myanmar is also referred to as Burma, Myanmar will be used in 11 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNDOC), “World Drug this article for ease of reference. Report,” (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2017). 7 Rebecca Tan, “Watch Myanmar Police Torch a Mound 12 Chin. of Heroin and Cocaine,” https://www.vox.com/ 13 McCarthy, Gillespie, and Zen, 555-56. world/2017/6/27/15875218/myanmar-police-burn-heroin- cocaine-fire-cambodia-thailand-southeast-asia. 14 Chin, 84. 03 DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4
such as the state and transnational actors.15 of their role is inadequate. Women are not just involved in the cultivation of opium they are also Equally important, women’s experiences are often involved in trading and trafficking. Despite this, lost as local authorities use opium production as their agency is diminished in the global value a means of control and income. In other words, chain of opium production, as the literature is opium is used by local authorities to ensure a shaped by wider transnational factors. More maintenance of power. In this system, the voices needs to be done to study and understand the of women are even further marginalised. Without effects that opium industry has on Myanmar’s a hold on power at the local level in opium female population. production, women remain hidden in broader structural analyses, evidenced by the literature. References United Nations Involvement Boeck, Filip De. “Garimpeiro Worlds: Digging, Dying & ‘Hunting’for Diamonds in Angola.” Review Development agencies also fail to address and of African Political Economy 28, no. 90 (2001): acknowledge the unique role of women in the 549-62. Myanmar opium industry. This is due to difficulties associated with working in remote locations in Chin, Ko-lin. The Golden Triangle. [Electronic Myanmar, compounded by the tense political Resource] : Inside Southeast Asia’s Drug Trade. situation, resulting in international aid agencies Cornell University Press, 2009. struggling to provide support to locals.16 Although the UNODC conducts development projects, Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud. “Opium Ban Risks Greater monitors opium cultivation, and educates Insecurity for Wa in Myanmar.” Jane’s Intelligence citizens in Myanmar,17 a 2003 UNODC report Review 16, no. 2 (2004): 39-41. highlights that: “although [there is a] need for… a Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud, and Joël Meissonnier. “gender-integrated” manner… to benefit women Yaa Baa: Production, Traffic, and Consumption of 18 directly, this has not happened”. A 2008 report Methamphetamine in Mainland Southeast Asia. conducted by UNODC does not mention women NUS Press, 2004. or gender at all.19 There is no further evidence to indicate that the UNODC is attempting to address Dupont, Alan. “Transnational Crime, Drugs, and the unique needs of women, or that women in the Security in East Asia.” Asian Survey 39, no. 3 Myanmar opium industry are being considered. (1999): 433-55. This is further demonstrated in the most recent 2017 report by the UNODC that solely addresses Ey, Melina, Meg Sherval, and Paul Hodge. “Value, the inequality between wages and does not Identity and Place: Unearthing the Emotional consider the unique needs of women beyond Geographies of the Extractive Sector.” Australian wages.20 Geographer 48, no. 2 (2017): 153-68. Looking into the role of women in the opium Farthing, Linda, and Benjamin Kohl. “Conflicting cultivation industry of Myanmar highlights how Agendas: The Politics of Development Aid in – like other extractive industries – women are Drug‐Producing Areas.” Development Policy often unnoticed by academic and development Review 23, no. 2 (2005): 183-98. stakeholders. Although women are fully Fuller, Thomas. “Myanmar Returns to What Sells: acknowledged as working in the industry, analysis Heroin “ The New York Times, , https://www. nytimes.com/2015/01/04/world/myanmar- returns-to-what-sells-heroin.html?mcubz=1. 15 McCarthy, Gillespie, and Zen. 16 Ku, 56. Jazeera, Al. Poppylands: Understanding Myanmar’s Addiction to Heroin. Al Jazeera 2016. 17 “Life in Wa Hills: Towards Sustainable Development.” 18 Ronald D. Renard et al., “Terminal Evaluation Report: Drug Jelsma, M., T. Kramer, and P. Vervest. Trouble in Control and Development in the Wa Region of Shan State,” the Triangle: Opium & Conflict in Burma. 2005. (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2003). Book. 19 Ronald D. Renard, “Terminal Evaluation Report: Regional Collaboration on Community-Based Alternative Development to Ku, Yongli. “Interrogating the Interrelationship Eliminate Opium Production in Southeast Asia,” (United Nations between Governance and Development: Opium Office on Drugs and Crime 2008). Ban in Wa State, Myanmar.” (2017). 20 UNODC, 2017, ‘Evidence for enhancing resilience to opium poppy cultivation in Shan State, Myanmar’ Lahiri-Dutt, Kuntala. Gendering the Field: Towards
Lintner, Bertil. Burma in Revolt: Opium and Insurgency since 1948. Silkworm books, 1999. McCarthy, John F, Piers Gillespie, and Zahari Zen. “Swimming Upstream: Local Indonesian Production Networks in “Globalized” Palm Oil Production.” World Development 40, no. 3 (2012): 555-69. Oxfam. “Oxfam International: Position Paper on Gender Justice and the Extractive Industries.” Oxfam International, 2017. Renard, Ronald D. The Burmese Connection : Illegal Drugs and the Making of the Golden Triangle. Studies on the Impact of the Illegal Drug Trade. Vol. 6: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996. ———. “Terminal Evaluation Report: Regional Collaboration on Community-Based Alternative Development to Eliminate Opium Production in Southeast Asia.” United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2008. Renard, Ronald D., Rita Gebert, Philippe Redon, and U Tin Aun. “Terminal Evaluation Report: Drug Control and Development in the Wa Region of Shan State.” United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2003. Su, Xiaobo. “Development Intervention and Transnational Narcotics Control in Northern Myanmar.” Geoforum 68 (2016): 10-20. Tan, Rebecca “Watch Myanmar Police Torch a Mound of Heroin and Cocaine.” https://www.vox. com/world/2017/6/27/15875218/myanmar- police-burn-heroin-cocaine-fire-cambodia-thailand- southeast-asia. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNDOC). “World Drug Report.” United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2017. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). “Life in Wa Hills: Towards Sustainable Development.” United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2006. ———. “Myanmar: Opium Survey.” United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2005. ———. “South-East Asia Opium Survey 2015- Lao Pdr and Myanmar.” United Nations, 2015. White, Julia, and Ben White. “Gendered Experiences of Dispossession: Oil Palm Expansion in a Dayak Hibun Community in West Kalimantan.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 39, no. 3-4 (2012): 995-1016. 05 DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4 Gazing at the Stars: Australia’s Strategic Space Prospects
Article by Jonathan Lim
GDLP student with the Australian National University, and is a Juris Doctor and Bachelor of Arts (International Relations) graduate with Monash University. His post-graduate and career ambitions include international law; with particular interest in International Space Law DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4 06
Australia is commonly characterised by the creation of an Australian space agency. 8 commentators as a middle power – a state However, political uncertainties persist; given with hard power characteristics below that that the executive declaration by the liberal of a super power or great power, but which government is not a bi-partisan initiative, and has the capacity to moderate and influence the declarative formation of a space agency international affairs. Because of this, Australia presently lacks a legislative basis (pending has traditionally been able to act in, and think revisions to the Space Activities Act). 9 independently about, the world from a distinctly Australian perspective – effectively exercising Presenting a public case for Australia’s middle power diplomacy and maintaining balance development of a robust economic and legal within the international order. 1 2 But Australia’s framework for outer space in the form of a position and relevance as a middle power moving space agency requires multiple things. It forward is contingent upon the establishment, needs a consideration of the existing global maintenance, and development of an active space environment, an overview of Australia’s governmental space agency and space policy. space environment and the reasons underlying the creation of a space agency, and the The active maintenance of a space program has economic viability of such a measure. become an increasing means and requirement for states to sustain relevance and project power Outer space has long been a key area of strategic 10 internationally, with the number of countries importance for states. This emerged in 1957 possessing independent launch capabilities with the launch of the world’s first artificial numbering ten. 3 These consist of one superpower satellite, Sputnik 1, by the Soviet Union. Its orbital (US), six great powers (China, Russia, Japan, India, path over the United States initiated public alarm Iran, Israel), two middle powers (UK, France), over the loss of the strategic high ground, and and one developing power (North Korea). 4 5 6 initiated the Space Race between the two Cold War superpowers. 11 Since then, technological While Australia consistently ranks as one of the developments have played a pivotal role in world’s most technically capable states, 7 its international relations. Indeed, throughout the independent military and economic capabilities 20th and 21st centuries, the development of in outer space remain virtually non-existent. In information and communication technologies September of 2017 the Ministry for Industry, have facilitated the transition of states from Innovation and Science under the Turnbull industrial to post-industrial information societies, government announced its commitment to characterised by novel forms of transnational production and distribution processes. 12 In relation to a state’s hard power capabilities, technological developments in space contribute 1 Mark Beeson, ‘Does Trump’s arrival herald Australia’s middle to its military and intelligence (i.e. GPS, Corona power moment?’ on The Conversation (16 November 2016)
technical capabilities (i.e. cybersecurity). 13 affairs elicits doubts over our preparedness to Pertaining to a state’s soft power capabilities, meet the challenges of the burgeoning ‘Space developments in space are conducive to 2.0’ economy. 19 Space 2.0 refers to the future a state’s image and reputation – as seen of private entities facilitating space travel and during the Cold War, where the Space Race exploration, and the wider integration of existing served as a propagandistic element for the and emerging technologies into space. 20 greater ideological conflict of communism and capitalism between the USA and USSR. 14 15 Rationale behind an Australian space agency A state’s ability to project power internationally Considering the continuous disregard by within the 21st century and beyond is states of established international principles contingent upon their capacity to develop pertaining to outer space, the adoption of a thriving space-based economic and legal a realist position by Australia is necessary. framework. In Australia’s case, continued Indeed, the ever-present propensity of states to economic prosperity and strategic security unilaterally pursue power, to advance national is assured if we can adapt ourselves to the security interests in the global community, challenges of the developing Space 2.0 has fostered a spiral of insecurity as nations 21 economy though increased governmental compete to accumulate power in outer space. support and involvement, and by supporting Space is increasingly being perceived as a and cooperating with the private space sector. new frontier, one that will be exploited as part Australia possesses a strong scientific base, with of the inevitable and enduring struggle for 22 a high-intensity volume of public research and state power. Australia must therefore seek development expenditure, world class-universities, to actively secure its position in space through and high-quality scientific publications.16 the establishment of a space agency and Moreover, Australia’s economy is regarded as development of indigenous space capabilities. the 22nd most competitive state out of 138 The existence of a space agency creates surveyed states; per the World Economic Forum. coherence across a complex sector, fosters 17 Yet out of the 35 OECD members, Australia scientific progress and international collaboration, remained one of two members without an active oversees a state’s exercise of geographical governmental space agency. 18 Despite the sovereignty (landmass/oceans/atmosphere), 23 government’s indication of the formal creation and contributes to sovereign security. of a governmental space agency in September There exist a multitude of reasons that justify the 2017, Australia’s turbulent history in outer space creation of a space agency in Australia. Firstly, a space agency would establish the utility of satellites and other space technologies useful for 13 Cyber Security Intelligence, ‘US must prepare for cyber warfare in Space’ on Cyber Security Intelligence (26 May 2016)
24 This would lead stakeholders to engage with scope for this industry to expand further by the industry, rather than the industry seeking building upon Australia’s strengths in innovation engagement with stakeholders - a more proactive and technology. For example, NASA illustrates developmental approach for industry growth. how the growth of a civilian space industry has resulted in various technological spinoffs (i.e. Secondly, a dedicated agency would allow LEDs, cordless tools, water purifiers). 30 With every Australia to play a proactive and leading role in $1 USD spent by the US government on NASA, space activities. At present, Australia assumes the agency contributes $10 USD (approximately a reactive approach to overseas initiatives on $13.30 AUD) to the economy in the form of space missions, and a space agency would spinoff technologies and employment. 31 32 be instrumental in committing Australia to significant involvement in international programs Finally, a space agency would safeguard and projects with allied and partner states. 25 geopolitical security and project leadership. It Most pressingly, an agency would drag Australia would promote and secure Australia’s national out of its dependence oriented approach to security interests in space, maintain Australia’s satellite utilisation. 26 The disadvantage of such reputation as a dynamic and competent middle dependence is illustrated within the Australian power, and contribute Australian perspectives bushfire monitoring system, Sentinel (which to international multilateral organisations and relies on raw satellite data being processed in within international agreements and disputes. 33 the US); posing a major risk during crises like the US government shutdown of 2013. 27 Leadership, through a governmental space agency, is required to adequately capitalise upon Third, a space agency would stabilise funding the developing global space economy. Successful for space related activities and initiatives. Apart government leadership was previously illustrated from the recent plans for an independent space within the $40 million ARSP, which provided 14 agency, government funding for space was grants to domestic and international consortiums historically non-existent. The Australian Space as a means of fostering improved connections Research Program (ARSP) between 2009 and between industry and government. 34 Outcomes 2013 represented the most recent government from the ASRP included collaboration between funded initiative; after which no further funding government and business, the development was committed for the foreseeable future. 28 of niche capabilities and human capital, and promotion of the Australian space sector Further, a space agency would stimulate the with various positive spill-over effects. 35 domestic space industry and wider economy. While the Australian space sector records annual The global space environment revenue of $3 billion AUD and employs 11,500 people, it captures only 0.8 per cent of the global space economy. 29 There is significant 30 NASA Spinoff, ‘NASA Technologies Benefit Our Lives’ on NASA (8 March 2008)
The increased pace of advancement among develop its satellite capabilities for mapping nations within outer space should serve as and surveying crops and damages from natural a catalyst for Australia’s development of a disasters. They are also constructing a space governmental space agency. Space is becoming infrastructure that would ensure its ease of increasingly territorial, as more states gain access access to space and enable telemedicine and to space and construct space infrastructure for telecommunications for remote areas. 41 the following century. Should Australia further delay its entry into space, it risks being at a Regarding the geopolitical climate pertaining severe economic and military disadvantage. to outer space, the rapid growth of the Space Developments within the global space 2.0 industry has compelled many states to environment can be examined along economic intensify their civil and military space activities. developments, and geopolitical developments. The mass proliferation of Space 2.0 related industries (i.e. space tourism), the vast potential OECD nations have sought to configure and for resource exploitation in outer space, and reorient their industrial research and development increasing affordability of access to space have capabilities in response to the emergence of been underlying factors within the desire of many the Space 2.0 economy. Global venture capital states to reform the 1967 Outer Space Treaty investments in Space 2.0 have increased from (OST). 42 The OST has served as the international $1.8 billion USD in 2015 to $2.9 billion USD framework in governing states’ actions in outer in Jan 2016 (approximately 2.4 and 3.8 billion space for the past fifty years, with the broad AUD), of which 80 per cent were invested within purpose of preserving outer space and its the preceding five years.36 Moreover, between celestial bodies as the “province of all mankind”, 2000-2015, space start-ups accumulated $13.3 which is not to be claimed or weaponised by billion USD in investment funds and $2.9 billion any state. It has fallen upon the United Nations USD in venture capital (approximately $17.7 to balance between the universal principles of and $3.8 billion AUD). 37 This growth trend has freedom of exploration, freedom of navigation/ aligned with the development of the global access, and freedom of scientific investigation space industry expanding from $240 billion USD and the sovereign national security priorities and to $323 billion and $350 billion USD between economic imperatives of individual states. 43 2010, 2015 and 2017 (approximately $319, $429, and $465 billion AUD respectively). 38 39 In response to international deadlock over reforms to the OST, certain governments have Developing countries such as India and Ethiopia taken unilateral action to capitalise upon their have also sought to establish themselves in indigenous advantages in space technologies, the global space industry. The Indian Space leading to the prospect of increased tensions and Research Organization is currently undertaking inequality between developed versus developing the development of inexpensive rocket vehicles states, and their access to space and natural and mass deployment of nanosats, 40 to resources on celestial bodies. This was illustrated by the 2015 United States Space Act, 44 which saw the US government recognise the rights of 36 The Tauri Group, ‘Start-up Space – Rising Investment in private US entities to extract, possess, and sell Commercial Space Ventures’ on Bryce Space and Technology natural resources from celestial bodies. 45 Given (January 2016)
the intensification of commercial ventures in However, China’s aspirations in space do not space by US space companies like SpaceX and appear overly peaceful, given its development of Blue Origin, the US appears to be leveraging its Anti-Satellite (ASAT) weapons, including missiles, advantages and expertise in space to redefine the co-orbital systems, and cyberweapons. 52 Most international legal order through an assault upon troublesome is its reckless disregard for the its settled principles – including that of states’ OST and internationally settled legal principles - rights to scientific exploration in outer space, driven by its practical considerations of regional and the prevention of unilateral commercial security and influence, and its desire to develop exploitation of space resources. 46 While this capabilities to facilitate asymmetric warfare action is not technically prohibited by the OST, against a superior foe where required. 53 This the actions of the US threaten to devolve the was highlighted in its destruction of a redundant international legal framework of outer space weather satellite in January 2007 using an into an anarchic free-for-all. 47 Luxembourg has ASAT missile, creating 3,000 pieces of orbital similarly passed its own domestic legislation, debris which has continuously posed a threat to which provides private entities with the rights to other nations’ access to space ever since. 54 space resources extracted from celestial bodies. 48 Australia’s space environment Additionally, China’s National Space Administration has sought to intensify space Australia’s strategic focus remains upon the exploration as a means of bolstering national soft- sophisticated utilisation of space through power prestige and reputation, and developing international and commercial partnerships. military hard-power capabilities. China achieved Australia is primarily an import-based space a significant milestone in launching a human into economy, being a sophisticated “second- orbit in October 2003, being only the third state hand” user of space rather than a producer 55 after the Soviet Union and US to independently or active contributor. This has seen achieve such a feat, 49 and harbours ambitions Australia focus its research and development to establish its own independent space station initiatives upon the inexpensive, and less in low Earth orbit by 2019. 50 This reinforces the intensive, aspects of space activities. contention that while human spaceflight is the Accordingly, Australian universities and research least scientifically beneficial use of human and organisations are increasingly involved in various fiscal resources by national governments, the aspects of space research and development, geopolitical benefits are enormous.51 China uses leading the world in development of scramjet these achievements as propaganda to effectively technology, radio astronomy, computer sciences, quell internal dissent, promote national pride and and CubeSats. Australia further participates in unity, and bolster its international legitimacy. space missions (i.e. eLISA), possesses deep- space tracking facilities, and possesses the most productive geodetic observatory in the world. 56 57
46 Gbenga Oduntan, ‘Who owns space? US asteroid-mining act is dangerous and potentially illegal’ on The Conversation (25 52 Bill Gertz, ‘U.S. military satellites in crisis as foreign weapons November 2015)
These technologies have proven instrumental in 80 per cent for commercial activities, and fulfilling and supporting the more niche aspects 20 per cent for government activities. 63 of human exploration, and utilisation of resources in outer space by more capable partner nations. Resolute action and competent leadership, in the form of a robust space agency and unified policy, However, Australia’s continued emphasis on is necessary to adequately develop Australia’s “second-hand” space activities has proven more independent and indigenous capabilities in space. detrimental than initially thought, serving to delay This has been highlighted by Australia’s consistent the emergence of indigenous capabilities and dependence on satellite data being supplied by stunting economic growth and development. As other countries; 64 65 being reliant upon Japan for mentioned, the Australian government spends meteorological data, and upon China for bushfire roughly $3 billion AUD per annum on space tracking. 66 This has dire implications should services and related activities (i.e. S&T research, terrestrial geopolitics motivate such foreign GNSS), 58 59 which totals only 0.8 per cent of the governments to exploit Australia’s access to such global space industry. The key areas of funding space capabilities as a bargaining or negotiating pertain to national security, telecommunications point during periods of natural disasters. and broadcasting, international development assistance, environmental monitoring, and Additionally, Australia’s existing space space scientific and industrial research and infrastructure has been outsourced to foreign development. 60 However, the Australian space entities, with the National Broadband Network 67 68 industry is dominated by defence agencies and Optus satellites having been built and and defence industry entities, with minimal launched by foreign entities. This could prove fatal share for civilian commercial activities. As 72 should such technologies possess covert built-in per cent of space industry companies have backdoors and vulnerabilities within their software the Australian Defence Force as a customer, or hardware, allowing foreign entities or non- defence remains the major industry sector state actors to hijack or disable such satellites for companies, followed by mining (67 per at will. Continued reliance on other nations for cent), and the federal government (59 per access to space and space technologies not only cent). 61 Naturally, the Australian government damages national prestige, but also endangers announced a $500 million investment in June Australia’s livelihood and economy in being 2017 towards improving Australia’s space-based subservient and susceptible to the whims of intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance partner nations and the diplomatic climate. capabilities – primarily to support the military A heavily militarised space industry and program and border protection. 62 Conversely, the bears comparatively little benefit for a nation’s global space industry is proportioned as economy, given minimal opportunities for the
63 Andrew Dempster, ‘Let’s talk about the space industry in Australia’s election campaign’ on The Conversation (28 June 2016)
development of spin-off technologies to feed the following return amounts per £1 of public back into the economy. 69 70 This is owed to the investment into space science and innovation: 75 overriding need for secrecy and confidentiality surrounding such space technologies employed 1. Earth Observation - £2-£4 (direct), £4-£12 by the defence industry by the government, (spillover). often in the name of national security and 2. Telecoms - £6-£7 (direct), £6-£14 (spillover). preserving industrial secrets for covert use. Indeed, such technologies developed 3. Navigation - £4-£5 (direct/partial), £4-£10 by the military do not often feed back into (spillover). the civilian economy for decades. 71 72 Within this context, spillover returns on investment Economic viability of an Australian space agency encompass the development of spillover technologies, or resultant consumer goods and The 1985 Madigan Report, commissioned by services developed as a result outside the space the then Minister for Science, recommended the industry. Thus, over time, the amount of returns establishment of an Australian space agency with on investments into space technologies accrues. a budget of $100 million AUD over five years; an amount reiterated by the then-existing Australian Potential payoffs of an Australian space agency, 73 Space Office. This was perceived as necessary and directed investments in space based projects, to obtain the desired level of Australian industry are illustrated within the ASRPs proposed Garada participation in space manufacturing. A proposed Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Formation Flying budget of $100 million could involve $20 million Project – a space engineering research project for staff and related overhead costs, $50 million with international collaboration. While the for public/private technology projects, $15 million estimated total cost of the program was $800 on collaborative space technology with partners, million AUD, a complete return upon its investment 74 and $15 million for launch site development. amount was highlighted within the benefits of its operational capabilities. 76 Firstly, Garada’s The question arises whether potential payoffs ability to improve efficiency of non-irrigated from an indigenous space agency would be agriculture would have independently covered economically beneficial for Australia. This is the investment cost. Where Australia has $28.3 commonly validated by the example of the UK billion of agricultural projection from non-irrigated space agency, where an assessment of the areas, the program could self-finance in improving returns from public space investments indicated e f fi c i e n c y o f a g r i c u l t u r e b y 0 . 3 5 p e r c e n t . Further, Garada’s ability to improve irrigated agriculture infrastructure would have independently covered investment costs. Between 2008 and 2009, $300 million was spend on 69 Mike Wall, ‘X-37B: The Air Force’s Mysterious Space Plane’ on irrigation equipment, with a total equipment Space.com (2 June 2017)
in the Murray Darling Basin (MDB) amounts to generations; 80 given the potential development of an $11 billion loss in agricultural production. The a Kessler syndrome situation – a scenario where program was capable of self-finance by reducing the density of space debris in low earth orbit MDB environmental flows by one per cent. is high enough that collisions between objects could result in a cascade, with the amount of Australia’s risk of being left behind on earth space debris objects exponentially increasing. 81 While acknowledging the dominance of the great Summary space powers (i.e. USA, China, Russia) Australia must provide for its own defence. Australia as As revealed, the policy reasons supporting a middle power must be capable of influencing Australia’s creation of a space agency are aspects of the international space framework and numerous and varied, but may be condensed refining its details in ways that will suit its regional into three key reasons. First is economic gain, interests. 77 Australia’s geopolitical standing as there exists a significant opportunity for and national security interests can only be increased market share through guidance safeguarded and advanced with the establishment of the domestic space industry under an of a governmental space agency and subsequent established governmental space agency. 82 development of a proactive space policy. Second is national security, where the The propensity of states to breach internationally government could benefit from consolidating settled principles in the pursuit of self-interest and defining Australia’s strategic space undermine the pre-existing legal framework that interests within a singular unified agency.83 underlies the international space environment. This would coordinate national decision-making This is evident within the desire of states and security, and facilitate communication to prioritise the development of the Space and cooperation with other states’ agencies 2.0 industry through recognising the right of in promoting Australia’s interests. commercial entities within their jurisdictions to pursue the extraction and ownership of resources Last is international prestige, as a space agency in outer space, thus deriding the OST. Notably, would play a pivotal role in upholding Australia’s the deficiencies of the 2015 United States Space image as an ideal/model international citizen 84 Act 78 resided within its failure to implement and middle power. An established space a mechanism for avoiding and resolving agency would facilitate the enforcement of disputes pertaining to space mining, and its international agreements domestically, uphold recognition of a “fist-to-grab” methodology which internationally recognised principles, and recognises the rights of a US company over that ensure active participation within international of another state. This illustrates the legislative multilateral discussions and rule-making. instrument as a means of solely incentivising US companies, while ignoring any potential wider political and legal conflicts that may arise.79 This was followed by the increasing militarisation of outer space by states through the development 80 Alan Philps, ‘What is more scary than the militarization of space?’ on Chatham House (22 February 2016)
Australia may advance the liberal rules-based Ultimately, the success of an Australian space international order evident within international agency may be qualified upon its creation, its agreements such as the OST, and encourage measure of authority, its mandate to dictate multilateral discussions as to future possible space policy and national guidelines, its technical amendments to the agreement. Australia already competence, allocation of a five-year budget, and possesses the credentials for emphasising this signing of ten-year international agreements. contention as a party to the 1984 Moon Treaty, 85 While a review of the Space Activities Act 88 was advocating the banning of all exploration and uses announced by the Department of Innovation and of celestial bodies without the approval or benefit Industry in October 2015, it remains to be seen of other states under the “common heritage whether the government will implement concrete of mankind” principle of international law. 86 87 amendments that will cement the creation of a Australia may thus refine its middle-power status, space agency within a legislative instrument. 89 and boost its diplomatic capabilities, through the formation of a governmental space agency. Without resolute governmental leadership and guidance, Australia risks being left behind on the earth, while other states take to the stars.
85 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, adopted 18 December 1979, 1363 UNTS 21 (entered into force 11 July 1984). 86 Carol R. Buxton, ‘Property in Outer Space: The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle vs. the First in Time, First in Right, Rule of 88 Space Activities Act, above n9. Property’ (2004) 69 Journal of Air Law and Commerce 691-692. 89 Australian Government, ‘Reform of the Space Activities Act 1998’ 87 Edward Guntrip, ‘The Common Heritage of Mankind: An Adequate on Department of Industry, Innovation and Science (2017) Regime for Managing the Deep Seabed?’ (2003) 4(2) Melbourne
GLOBAL VOICES
A non-profit organisation seeking to promote understanding and participation in international diplomacy by young Australians.
We do this through regular events and research and development opportunities in Australia, and the coordination of youth delegations to important diplomatic forums abroad.
Our mission is to provide opportunities to young australians to research, discuss and contribute to foreign policy both at home and abroad.
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www.globalvoices.org.au 15 DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4 The Ugly Truth About Fake News: Fragility of Liberal Democracies in the Internet Age
Article by Zia Khan
Zia is currently completing a Bachelor of Laws and Bachelor of International Studies. His areas of research interest include the European Union, online disinformation campaigns and populist politics. DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4 16
Introduction production and dissemination of false information and facts under a “veneer of authenticity”3 and Recent seismic political events driven by a range objectivity. The principal purpose of “fake news” is of populist forces have made “fake news” an to promote a favoured individual, organisation or increasingly prominent topic of public discussion. ideology, and to “discredit” all others.4 Though “fake news” is not a new phenomenon, its heightened prevalence in the era of the It is important to here note that the phrase “fake Internet and its dissemination via coordinated news” has also been utilised by leaders to unjustly disinformation campaigns by external actors attack reputable media organisations perceived demonstrates its ability to undermine the as being overly critical – most prominently by sovereignty of democratic states. In present-day, US President Donald Trump.5 Although this is “fake news” is becoming increasingly effective undoubtedly a cause for concern, the focus of in undermining the quality of public discourse the discussion in this article is the “fake news” and electoral decision-making within liberal which is being produced by foreign individuals democracies. This poses a conundrum for liberal and organisations to achieve a specific political democratic governments seeking to address objective in another nation. these threats through the enactment of policies potentially at odds with fundamental freedoms Contemporary Significance of Fake News enjoyed within their political systems, particularly What is fundamentally unique about “fake news” concerning freedom of the press and individual in its current form, is the comparative ease with speech and expression. which it is created and distributed, and thus the 6 Undoubtedly, the modern day manifestation of high likelihood of it becoming viral. The Internet “fake news” poses one of the greatest threats and social media have enabled individuals to liberal democracies ever seen. The potentially and organisations to bypass the cumbersome destructive effects of such disinformation tactics is processes and logistical restrictions of printing, 7 well illustrated in Germany’s infamous “Lisa case”, transportation and physical dissemination. which saw items of “fake news” prompt hundreds This issue is becoming extremely problematic, as of anti-immigration protestors to rally outside the an increasing number of adults receive their news German Chancellery office. In order to prevent the from social media. A 2017 Pew Research Poll found frequent recurrence of such events, it is critical that two-thirds of American adults receive their that liberal democracies take urgent action to news, with varying regularity, from social media.8 comprehensively defend from “fake news”. These figures are also reflected in Australia, Defining “Fake News” with 52.2% of Australians using social media (in addition to other outlets) as a source of news, “Fake news” has in the past encompassed a broad with 18% considering it their main source.9 At the range of items. Among these include satirical and same time, “fake news” has become increasingly parodied news entertainment such as The Onion and The Daily Show, neither of which are the focus of current public scrutiny regarding “fake news”.1 3 Tandoc, Edson et. al. (2017), “Defining Fake News” in Digital “Fake news” should also be differentiated from Journalism, Vol. 5, No. 10, 1, p .7. unintentional “misinformation”, which refers to 4 Ibid, p. 2. incorrect information unintentionally created and 5 Koziol, Michael (2017) ‘Fake News’? Malcolm Turnbull should, distributed.2 and does, know better, http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/ political-news/fake-news-malcolm-turnbull-should-and-does-know- better-20170627-gwz7sk.html [date of visit 8 December 2017]. The “fake news” causing such a panic in democracies across the international community, 6 Bhaskaran, Harikrishnan, et. al. (2017), Contextualising Fake News in Post-Truth Era: Journalism Education in India, Vol. 27, No. and of focus in this essay, is the deliberate 1, 41, p. 42. 7 Harding, Phil (2017), ‘Remember that Facts are sacred’ in The British Journalism Review, Vol. 28, No. 1, 17, p. 17. 1 Tandoc, Edson et. al. (2017), “Defining Fake News” in Digital 8 Shearer, Elisa and Gottfried, Jeffrey (2017), News Use Journalism, Vol. 5, No. 10, 1, p .7. Across Social Media Platforms 2017, http://www.journalism. org/2017/09/07/news-use-across-social-media-platforms-2017/ 2 Francine, Jaomiasa (2016), ‘European Union in the age [Date of visit 20 November 2017]. of misleading communications: Insight on disinformation and propaganda’ in Romanian Journal of Journalism and 9 News & Media Research Centre (2016), Digital News Report: Communication, Volume 11, No. 4, 36, p. 39. Australia 2016, Canberra, p. 15. 17 DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4
pervasive through social media, with approximately people is estimated to be only 51% authentic.17 41.8% of visits to “fake news” sites in the United Another notorious example concerns a network of States in 2016 originating from social media.10 This over 13,000 botnet accounts used to spread false is in direct contrast to the source of visits to the top and hyper-partisan information in the immediate 690 US news websites, which only received a share lead-up to the referendum on the United Kingdom’s of approximately 10.1% of visits originating from continued membership of the European Union.18 social media, with 48.7% of visits coming via direct These examples further serve to demonstrate browsing of the websites of those news outlets.11 the ease of dissemination of contemporary This, as well as the ever-increasing use of social incarnations of “fake news”, and why its spread media as a news source, ensures that social media must be effectively countered. outlets are conducive to facilitating the spread of “fake news”.12 The Heightened Vulnerability of Liberal Democracies Individuals can often reach an equivalent or higher readership compared to major news outlets without Liberal democracies are especially vulnerable the arbiter of third parties, as barriers to entry in to the negative consequences of “fake news”. the media industry have dropped precipitously.13 Ironically, it is the same freedom afforded by the Silverman’s analysis in the aftermath of the 2016 Internet to ordinary citizens of thriving democracies, US Presidential election demonstrates this, with which has in turn helped facilitate the damage and 19 the top-performing fake election news stories on harm experienced by these democracies. Facebook generating more engagement than the A state’s ability to govern itself and conduct its top stories from major news outlets in the three own affairs without foreign interference is a central months leading up to polling day.14 feature of state sovereignty.20 In this context, a The era of social media has also facilitated state’s sovereignty can be compromised through a “bandwagon effect”, where the perceived successful disinformation campaigns by other legitimacy of a news item or individual is enhanced countries, which are eager to exploit the openness by the amount of likes, comments, shares and of the Internet and the press freedoms featured followers attached.15 The use of automated bots within liberal democracies to achieve certain insidiously amplifies messages to create the political outcomes. Such action can consequently illusion of something being more popular than it obfuscate the internal political debate of a actually is, thus adding a veneer of credibility.16 nation, which in turn can affect the composition A notable example of this is US President Donald of a government following a general election. The Trump, whose Twitter following of over 30 million harm caused to liberal democracies through this interference ultimately undermines the basis of the electoral process, as the effective functioning of democracy depends on the ability of voters to base their political judgements on real facts.21 10 Allcott, Hunt and Gentzkow, Matthew (2017), ‘Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election’ in Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 31, No. 2, 211, p. 222. 11 Ibid. 12 Allcott, Hunt and Gentzkow, Matthew (2017), ‘Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election’ in Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 31, No. 2, 211, p. 215. 17 Bort, Ryan (2017), Nearly Half of Donald Trump’s Twitter 13 Ibid, p. 214. Followers are Fake Accounts and Bots, http://www.newsweek. 14 Silverman, Craig (2016) This Analysis Shows How Viral Fake com/donald-trump-twitter-followers-fake-617873 [date of visit 27 Election News Stories Outperformed Real News On Facebook, November, 2017]. https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/viral-fake-election- 18 Bastos, Marcos and Mercea, Dan (2017), ‘The Brexit Botnet and news-outperformed-real-news-on-facebook?utm_term¼. User-Generated Hyperpartisan News’, Social Science Computer lg3jNV6k0#.hr0DxG49r cited in Spohr, Dominic (2017) “Fake Review, Vo. 20, No. 10, p. 1. news and ideological polarization: Filter bubbles and selective exposure on social media” in Business Information Review, Vol. 19 Persily, Nathaniel (2017), ‘Can Democracy Survive the Internet?’ 34, No. 3, 150, 155. Journal of Democracy, Vol. 28, No. 2, 61, p. 71. 15 Thorson, Emily (2008), ‘Changing Patterns of News Consumption 20 Conversi, Daniele (2016), ‘Sovereignty in a Changing World: From and Participation’, Information, Communication and Society, Vol. Westphalia to Food Sovereignty’ Globalizations, Vol. 13, No. 4, 11, No. 4, 473, p. 481. 484, p. 485. 16 Tandoc, Edson et. al. (2017), “Defining Fake News” in Digital 21 Luckhurst, Tim (2017), “Give me the press barons any day” in Journalism, Vol. 5, No. 10, 1, p. 8. The British Journalism Review, Vol. 28, No. 2, 31. DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4 18
The Influence of Fake News – The Case of ‘Lisa’ its vulnerabilities.27 This case highlighted how an external news agency or individual can exploit the The havoc wreaked by “fake news” has been most freedom of the press afforded to it by a democracy, notoriously demonstrated through Russian-driven in order to spread malicious lies and sow discord disinformation campaigns seeking to sow divisions within a liberal democratic state.28 within states. This has been demonstrated by the use of “fake news” to create discord in Germany Even more significant was that the fake stories around the country’s controversial and divisive concerning “Lisa” were able to transcend mere immigration issue.22 online commentary and spur hundreds of ordinary citizens into physical action in the form of a Germany has been the subject of an increased raucous protest – such is the power of “fake news” proliferation of “fake news” concerning its liberal in the context of a highly controversial subject.29 immigration policy. This was effectively illustrated in The danger posed by “fake news” cannot be the infamous “Lisa case” in January of 2016, when underestimated: if the proliferation of online “fake a 13-year-old girl from Berlin’s Russian-German news” stories can manipulate individuals to take community fabricated a story of being sexually protest, it is just as likely that such tactics can be 23 assaulted by three Middle Eastern migrants. utilised to manipulate individuals to engage in Despite statements by the Berlin State Prosecutor’s violent acts.30 Office and the local police affirming the allegations as false, Russian state-controlled news stations, The spreading of the “Lisa” story also served including Channel One and Sputnik, ran news an ulterior purpose for the Russian state and reports presenting Lisa’s story as true, whilst also demonstrated the susceptibility of liberal accusing the police of a cover up. Russian Foreign democracies to disinformation tactics employed by Minister Sergei Lavrov also questioned the official external actors. The head of Germany’s domestic police statements.24 security agency Hans-Georg Maassen noted that the Kremlin utilises disinformation tactics in order The aim of these “fake news” reports was to influence public opinion, as well as any incidental to inflame pre-existing tensions surrounding decision-making processes influenced by the public Chancellor Merkel’s “open border immigration opinion.31 This includes the electoral process, 25 policy.” Despite constant police statements to where such falsehoods can be utilised to achieve a the contrary and fact-checking from numerous specific political outcome. False stories, especially mainstream media outlets in Germany, the false in relation to the sensitive topic of immigration, story quickly gained traction through social media have tended to benefit the anti-immigration via reposting from humans as well as automated Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) party in Germany, bots. All of this culminated in approximately 700 who have a decidedly pro-Russian foreign policy people protesting the non-existent matter, as well as Germany’s immigration policy, outside of Angela Merkel’s Chancellery office.26
The “Lisa case” clearly illustrates the far-reaching consequences of “fake news” within a liberal democracy and its ability to seamlessly exploit 27 Wood, Patrick (2017) Fake news, hacking threat to democracy now on ‘unseen scale’, report says, http://www.abc.net.au/ news/2017-05-29/fake-news,-hacking-threat-to-democracy-now- on-unseen-scale/8567834 [date of visit 10 December 2017]. 28 Rutenberg, Jim (2017) RT, Sputnik and Russia’s New Theory of War, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/13/magazine/ 22 Juhasz, A. and. Szicherle, P (2017) The political effects of rt-sputnik-and-russias-new-theory-of-war.html [date of visit 19 migration-related fake news, disinformation and conspiracy November 2017]. theories in Europe, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Budapest, p. 4. 29 McGuiness, Damien (2016) Russia steps into Berlin ‘rape’ storm 23 Ibid, p. 20. claiming German cover-up, http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs- 24 Ibid. eu-35413134 [date of visit 19 November 2017]. 25 Rutenberg, Jim (2017) RT, Sputnik and Russia’s New Theory 30 Wright, Lucas (2016) The Dangerous Side of Fake News: of War, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/13/magazine/ Rumors That Inspire Violence, https://dangerousspeech. rt-sputnik-and-russias-new-theory-of-war.html [date of visit 19 org/2016122the-dangerous-side-of-fake-news-rumors-that- November 2017]. inspire-violence/ [date of visit 10 December 2017]. 26 McGuiness, Damien (2016) Russia steps into Berlin ‘rape’ storm 31 Juhasz, A. and. Szicherle, P (2017) The political effects of claiming German cover-up, http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs- migration-related fake news, disinformation and conspiracy eu-35413134 [date of visit 19 November 2017]. theories in Europe, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Budapest, p. 21. 19 DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4
platform.32 The “Lisa case” undoubtedly had an tactics utilised by external forces have a corrosive impact on the electoral success of AfD, who won power upon a population’s ability to discern false an unprecedented 14% of the popular vote in the information from true information and to discern regional elections in Berlin in September 2016, what might be right from wrong.38 Austin warns with most of the party’s support coming from the that debate within liberal democracies will be Russian-speaking neighbourhoods in Berlin’s negatively affected by continued dissemination of East.33 “fake news”, with citizens becoming increasingly unable to determine reality from falsehoods – These developments demonstrate a clear threat to consequently magnifying voter apathy.39 some of the core tenets of liberal democracy. This utilisation of “fake news” within liberal democracies Confronting Fake News deliberately obfuscates political debate and informed electoral decision making at the ballot The clear and present danger posed by “fake news” box.34 If democratically elected governments within towards liberal democracies has highlighted the liberal democracies are supposed to represent the urgent need for solutions to effectively counter will of the majority, and that majority is influenced this threat. Sussex, as cited in Zappone, argues by a campaign of disinformation by a foreign actor, that this will involve a re-evaluation of the way in 40 it is likely to bring into question the authenticity which liberal democracies perceive the Internet. of the public’s voice, with fears that their views He argues that liberal democracies perceive the are more akin to the will of the external actor.35 Internet as being governed by peacetime norms Additionally, as seen with Germany and the AfD, which is problematic, as states which use the certain “fake news” stories can drum up support Internet in a subversive manner (including Russia for political parties who promote policies that are and China) see the internet as a place without 41 antithetical to core liberal democratic principles – norms , and are therefore involved in information 42 including the restriction of religious freedom as well wars. as the removal of rights and protections for minority The types of solutions that are now being seriously groups.36 considered by governments, experts and scholars Furthermore, such disinformation also represents alike range from educational to regulatory in a threat to the social stability necessary within all their respective natures. On the educational side, liberal democracies, with “fake news” unpicking potential policies raised include encouraging the fabric of social unity.37 Austin, as noted by greater media literacy in citizen populations. This Zappone, argues that Western liberal democracies has ranged from broad education campaigns are involved in an information war, and the informing citizens of the tell-tale signs of “fake news”, to an increased emphasis upon media literacy skills for primary43, secondary and tertiary
32 Leisegang, Daniel (2017) “No country for free speech?: An old libel law and a new one aimed at social media are two threats to free expression in Germany” in Index on Censorship, Vol. 46, No. 38 Zappone, Chris (2016) Who Controls our News? Welcome to the 2, 76, p. 77. era of Russian and Chinese information war, http://www.smh. com.au/world/who-controls-our-news-welcome-to-the-era-of- 33 Shuster, Simon (2017) How Russian Voters Fuelled the Rise russian-and-chinese-information-war-20160907-grapkr.html [date of Germany’s Far-Right, http://time.com/4955503/germany- of visit 17 November 2017]. elections-2017-far-right-russia-angela-merkel/ [date of visit 25 November 2017]. 39 Ibid. 34 Gray, Richard (2017), Lies, propaganda and fake news: 40 Zappone, Chris (2016) Who Controls our News? Welcome to the A challenge for our age, http://www.bbc.com/future/ era of Russian and Chinese information war, http://www.smh. story/20170301-lies-propaganda-and-fake-news-a-grand- com.au/world/who-controls-our-news-welcome-to-the-era-of- challenge-of-our-age [date of visit 10 December 2017]. russian-and-chinese-information-war-20160907-grapkr.html [date of visit 17 November 2017]. 35 Persily, Nathaniel (2017), ‘Can Democracy Survive the Internet?’ in Journal of Democracy, Vol. 28, No. 2, 61, p. 70. 41 Ibid. 36 NATO Review Magazine (2016) The “Lisa case”: Germany as a 42 Deeks, Ashley et. al., (2017), Addressing Russian Influence: What target of Russian Disinformation, https://www.nato.int/docu/ can we Learn from US Cold War Counter-Propaganda Efforts, review/2016/Also-in-2016/lisa-case-germany-target-russian- https://www.lawfareblog.com/addressing-russian-influence-what- disinformation/EN/index.htm [date of visit 24 November 2017]. can-we-learn-us-cold-war-counter-propaganda-efforts [date of visit 28 October 2017]. 37 Zappone, Chris (2016), Donald Trump-Vladimir Putin: Russia’s Information War meets the US Election, http://www.smh.com.au/ 43 Brunhuber, Kim (2017) In the Trump era of fake news, more US world/us-election/trumpputin-russias-information-war-meets-the- schools focusing on media literacy, http://www.cbc.ca/news/ us-election-20160609-gpf4sm.html, [date of visit 14 November world/in-the-trump-era-of-fake-news-more-u-s-schools-focusing- 2017]. on-media-literacy-1.4275693 [date of visit 8 December 2017]. DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4 20
students.44 It is argued that such an approach and broader public.50 Google has removed some would be a better long-term strategy to prevent of the financial incentives that had existed for sites individuals from becoming susceptible to to drive up Internet traffic based on outrageous disinformation campaigns.45 clickbait headlines. Its new AdSense policy prevents certain “fake news” sites from being able Additional solutions related to education include to earn money from Google ads.51 These regulated the increased utilisation of fact-checking services, sites are those Google deems as “misrepresenting, which assist citizens who have neither the time misstating or concealing information about the nor effort to discern whether a news item is true or publisher, publisher’s content or the primary false. Examples of this include German government purpose of the site.” In addition, Facebook 46 funded fact-checkers working with Facebook and brought in changes to its Audience Network Policy the EU’s East Stratcom team designed to counter to address similar matters.52 However, these 47 disinformation coming from Russia. measures only address “fake news” driven by financial incentives, and may not necessarily deter However, these educational solutions remain those who are creating and disseminating “fake largely ineffective, as there are only limited news” for purely political or ideological motives.53 resources available to combat the vast amount of “fake news” being endlessly produced. The EU’s More substantive action has been the move by East Stratcom team has a budget of only €1 million Alphabet, Google’s parent company, to “de-rank” 48 per year between 2018 and 2020. Russian news sites RT and Sputnik – both of which have acquired a notoriety for spreading propaganda Regulation of social media companies has and false information.54 This coincided with both also been at the forefront of recent efforts by outlets being required to register as foreign agents governments to better identify and counter “fake under the 1938 Foreign Agents Registration Act news”, given how a litany of social media platforms administered by the US Department of Justice.55 have been exploited with such success.49 There is However, such actions are prone to retaliation, growing pressure for social media companies to do as demonstrated by Russia’s Ministry of Justice more to address “fake news” on their platforms. naming news outlets including Voice of America There has been some self-regulation in this and Radio Free Europe as foreign agents.56 respect, with Google and Facebook adopting The utilisation of legislative options has also been policies attempting to target “fake news” – albeit proposed as a means through which to address the only after significant pressure from the government prevalence of “fake news”. There are, quite rightly,
50 Persily, Nathaniel (2017), ‘Can Democracy Survive the Internet?’ in Journal of Democracy, Vol. 28, No. 2, 61, p. 73. 44 Rosenwald, Michael (2017) Making media literacy great again, https://www.cjr.org/special_report/media-literacy-trump-fake- 51 Wingfield, Nick et. al. (2016) Google and Facebook Take Aim at news.php [date of visit 8 December 2017]. Fake News Websites, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/15/ technology/google-will-ban-websites-that-host-fake-news-from- 45 Douglas, Jonathan (2017) Fake News: Improved critical literacy using-its-ad-service.html [date of visit 16 November 2017]. skills are key to telling fact from fiction, https://www.theguardian. com/teacher-network/2017/oct/17/fake-news-improved-critical- 52 Persily, Nathaniel (2017), ‘Can Democracy Survive the Internet?’ literacy-skills-teaching-young-people [date of visit 8 December in Journal of Democracy, Vol. 28, No. 2, 61, p. 73. 2017]. 53 Tandoc, Edson et. al. (2017), “Defining Fake News” in Digital 46 Shuster, Simon (2017) Russia has launched a fake news Journalism, Vol. 5, No. 10, 1, p .8. war on Germany. Now Germany is fighting back, http://time. 54 Hern, Alex (2017) Google plans to ‘de-rank’ Russia Today and com/4889471/germany-election-russia-fake-news-angela- Sputnik to combat misinformation, https://www.theguardian. merkel/ [date of visit 22 November 2017]. com/technology/2017/nov/21/google-de-rank-russia-today- 47 Boffey, Daniel and Rankin, Jennifer (2017) EU escalates sputnik-combat-misinformation-alphabet-chief-executive-eric- its campaign against Russian Propaganda, https://www. schmidt, [date of visit 22 November 2017]. theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/23/eu-escalates-campaign- 55 Wilson, Megan (2017) Russian news outlet Sputnik registers with russian-propaganda [date of visit 26 November 2017]. DOJ as foreign agent, http://thehill.com/business-a-lobbying/ 48 Rankin, Jennifer (2017) EU anti-propaganda unit gets €1m a year business-a-lobbying/360912-russian-news-outlet-sputnik- to counter Russian fake news, https://www.theguardian.com/ registers-with-doj-as [date of visit 8 December 2017]. world/2017/nov/25/eu-anti-propaganda-unit-gets-1m-a-year-to- 56 Lowe, Thomas (2017) Russia bans ‘foreign agent’ journalists counter-russian-fake-news [date of visit 25 November 2017]. from entering national parliament building, http://www.abc.net. 49 Allcott, Hunt and Gentzkow, Matthew (2017), ‘Social Media au/news/2017-12-08/russian-parliament-bans-foreign-agent- and Fake News in the 2016 Election’ in Journal of Economic journalists-from-building/9239114 [date of visit 8 December Perspectives, Vol. 31, No. 2, 211. 2017]. 21 DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4
concerns about the potentially detrimental effects result in states ceasing to be liberal democracies.62 of such action upon the freedom of expression Legislation within numerous liberal democracies in nations; including such legislation being used already censor and regulate various forms and by political figures to censor reputable media mediums of expression for utilitarian policy organisations as well. The passing of legislation in reasons, including for the purpose of upholding the July this year in Germany, under which lawmakers quality of discourse.63 Notable examples include could impose fines of up to €50 million upon social hate speech, defamation and broadcasting political media firms for failing to remove content such as advertisements. Rather than telling people how defamatory and hate-inducing posts within seven to think, such actions would merely reinforce the days, is one example of government regulation importance of ensuring the integrity of public targeting the spread of “fake news” on social communication.64 media (if somewhat indirectly).57 However, this law has come under criticism for violating freedom of Conclusion expression.58 The spread of fake news poses a substantial Sussex, as Zappone notes, has alternatively threat to the sovereignty and core values of liberal suggested that states may eventually need to democracies, primarily concerning the quality of “re-nationalise” their Internet to prevent foreign public discourse and its influence upon its electoral subversion of internal democratic practices through processes. This is most clearly demonstrated the spread of fake news.59 Sussex’s concept of through the disinformation campaigns sanctioned “re-nationalisation” involves greater government by the Russian government against Western liberal intervention with respect to the control and democracies, which seek to assist in the fulfilment promotion of ideas and information online within of various political aims. Nonetheless, the rise a nation.60 Thus, governments would increasingly in “fake news” has put forward a conundrum for intervene online to ward off cyber security threats liberal democracies. Either they must cede to from abroad, as well as further promoting its own some forms of censorship for the common good, values and ideas within its own backyard.61 This or seek to maintain its values as they continue would inevitably result in the restriction of the to be subverted by external actors. Ultimately, in free flow of information online, which has been a order to prevent itself from being damaged by a hallmark for liberal democracies worldwide and sea of disinformation, it is necessary for liberal therefore represents a total reversal of what the democracies to seriously consider the former. Internet has come to represent in these states.
As draconian as the aforementioned solutions may be, if disinformation campaigns continue to debase democratic discourse, then such practices may be the only effective solutions left to uphold the integrity of internal electoral processes. Adopting tougher legislative approaches would certainly not
57 Cerulus, Laurens, (2017) Germany’s anti-fake news lab yields mixed results, https://www.politico.eu/article/fake-news- germany-elections-facebook-mark-zuckerberg-correctiv/ [date of visit 20 November 2017]. 62 Magarian, Gregory (2006), “The Pragmatic Populism of Justice 58 Leisegang, Daniel (2017), “No country for free speech?: An old Stevens’ Free Speech Jurisprudence” in Fordham Law Review, libel law and a new one aimed at social media are two threats to Vol. 74, No. 4, 2201, p. 2208. free expression in Germany” in Index on Censorship, Volume 46, No. 2, 76, p. 77. 63 Diggins, John (2005), “Sidney Hook, Robert Nozick, and the Paradoxes of Freedom” in Social Philosophy & Policy, Vol. 22, No. 59 Zappone, Chris (2016) Who Controls our News? Welcome to the 1, 200, pp. 215-216. era of Russian and Chinese information war, http://www.smh. com.au/world/who-controls-our-news-welcome-to-the-era-of- 64 Hook, Sidney (1953) Heresy, Yes – Conspiracy, No, John Day russian-and-chinese-information-war-20160907-grapkr.html [date Company, New York cited in Zappone, Chris (2017) The radical of visit 17 November 2017]. right is using ‘free speech’ to help them destroy democracy, http://www.smh.com.au/world/when-free-speech-becomes-a- 60 Ibid. shield-for-planned-chaos-20171205-gzyyww.html, [date of visit 10 61 Ibid. December 2017]. DECEMBER 2017 | Vol 10 Iss 4 22 Australian Institute of International Affairs Promoting understanding of international issues
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