I
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM MAPPING FOR 0 WESTERN SAMOA:
SUMMARY PROIECT REPOTTT, AND PROPOSED NATIONAL PARKS AND RESERVES PLAN w Sam H. Pearsall and W. Arthur Whistler
March 199'1,
Prepared for the GOVERNMENT OF WESTERN SAMOA by the SOUTH PACIFIC REGIONAL ENVIRONMENT PROGRAM
and the EA$TWEST CENTER, ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY INSTITU]E Significant contributions v/ere made by the following:
L'INSTITUT FRANqAIS DE RECHERCHE POUR LIEXPLOITATTON DE LA MER
*lrlha ,EIITER {I!g!.!lE ---wip- abJf
THE NATURE CONSERVANCY
,ffin# conseryanE
THE UNTTED STATES AGENCY FOR TNTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
iiiiiii
THE I'NITED STATES NATTONAL SCIENCE FOT'NDATTON
tl 'T'TIE {'NIVERSNTY O.r' IXATIATT GEOdITAPIIY DtsPART.I+IEUB
fHE WORITD WILDIIIFE nnaD -- US o
wwn
I
r.!.1. ADDRESSES OF PRINCIPLES:
Sam Pearsall, Director South pacific Conservation Data Centers The Nature Conservancy 2825 South King Street #3302 Honolu1u, HI 96826 USA Ifor copies of the technical report]
Dr. Art Vfhistler, Ethnobotanist US National Tropical Botanical Garden c/o University of Hawaii aotany Department St. John Btdg. #ALO 3190 lilaile Way Honolulu, HI 96822 USA
Dr. Lawrence Hanilton, Research Associate East-West Center, Environment And Policy Institute L777 East-lfest Road Honolulu, HI 96848 USA
Peter Thomas, Protected Areas officer South Pacific Regional Environment Programme B. P. D5 Noumea Cedex, NEW CALEDONIA [for copies of this Publication]
IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge and express our appreciation for the kind assistance of the following individuals, without whom this work would have been either irnpossible, a lot more difficult, or at least, not as nuch fun:
Ms. Fay Alatilima (Government of Western Samoa) Hon. Vaiao Alarilina (Government of Western Samoa) Dr. Steve Brohrn (Governnent of Western Samoa) Mr. Dennis Grossman (The Nature Conservancy) Dr. Larry Hamilton (East-West Center, Environment and Po1icy fnstitute) Mr. Malaki fakopo (Government of Western Samoa) Dr. cary Johnson (United Nations GRID program) Dr. Evelyn Klinkrnann (East-West Center, Environment and Policy rnstitute) Dr. Molly Kux (United States Agency for International Development) Dr. Beverley Lear (consultant) Mr. Bruce Leighty (World Wildlife Fund -- US) Dr. Nancy Lewis (university of Hawaii, Geography Department) Dr. Lionel Loubersec (ltrnstitut Frangais de ReCherche pour lfExploitation de Ia Mer) Dr. John Mayer (university of Hawaii, Department of rndo- Pacific Lanquages) Mr. Ron McCleod (fornerly, Government of Western Samoa) Mr. Mark Muckelheide (United States peace Corps) Dr. Brian Murton (university of Hawaii, Geography Department) Dr. James osborn (united states Agency for rnternationar Developnent) Ms. Linda Pearsall Mr. Kalati Poai (Governrnent of Western Samoa) Mr. Iosefatu Reti (South Pacific Regional Environment Programme and Government of Western Samoa) Mr. Sam Sesega (Government of Western Sarooa) Mr. Siaosi Taesali (Government of Western Samoa) Mr. Vita Tanielu (university of Hawaii, Department of rndo- Pacific Lanquages) Mr. Peter Thomas (South Pacific Regional Environment Prograrnme) Mr. Magele Tuilaepa (Government of Western Sarnoa) Mr. Napoleone Vaiaso (Government of Western Sarnoa)
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
AMATAGA MA LE FAAIIUGA O MANATU AUTU . . . 1 fNTRODUCTION AND STI'{MARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 8
CHAPTER 1: INSTITTITIONAIJ BACKGROT'ND TO THE PROJECT 13 The Request from the Government of Western Samoa 13 The EAPI/SPREP Project . . 13 Help from Other Agencies . . aa 13
CHAPTER 2: BACKGROI'ND ON WESTERN SAI4OA . 15 Physical Geography . . 15 Biological Diversity T7 People and Land in Western Sarnoa aa 1B Land Tenure 20 Protected Areas in Western Samoa .a 23
CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF TNVENTORY METHODS 28 Mapping the Terrestrial Ecosystems of Western Samoa 28 Data Managrement 32
CHAPTER 4: PRIORTTY ECOSYSTEMS F'OR CONSERVATION 40 National Conservation Priorities 40 International Conservation Priorities 47
CHAPTER 5: PRIORITY SITES FOR CONSERVATION 49
CHAPTER 6; A CONSERVATION I{ETHOD O ' 57 Background . . 57 An Alternative to Consider 57 The Local- Conservation Trust . . i . 59 The Resource Conservation Concession 59 Comments and Reconnendation 60
C}IAPTER 7: CONCLUSION 61
REFERENCES CITED . . . O'' 53
v1 P ,AtsES
Page PI,ATE 1: ColorKeytothe![aps...... 22 PI,ATE 2: Distribution Maps of Savaifirs Native Eeosysterns . . r ...... 25 PLIITE 3: Distribution Uaps of f Upolurs-. Native Ecosystems . . . . ?6 PLATE 4: Map o:f Savairirs priority Ecosystem Occurirences i . . . . .,. . . . 33 PI,ATE 5: Map of |Upolu|s priority Ecosystern Occurrgncgs ...... 34 PI,ATE 6: Punataenoto Swamp Fores-t, part of Site 1 38 PI.ATE 7; Xylocarpus Mangrove, part of Site 2 . . 38 PI,ATE 8I Fanuatapu Island, part of Site 4 , . 42 PI-ATE 9: Satanapu - Sataoa Mangrove, part of Site 7 4'2
PLATE tr.O s Map of Savairirs priority Conservation sites I ...... 45 FI,A,T.E 11I Map of tUpolu's priority Co,nsgrvationSites, r...... 46
vii AI'{ATAGA MA LE FAAI I UGA O I,IANATU AUTU
(TNTRODUCTION AND SIUI4ARY OF RECOMI',TENDATTONS)
I te LggT na amataina ai se galuega faapitoa e le Malo o Samoa i Sisifo ma na fesoasoani i ai le South Pacific Regional Environ- ment progranme (SPREP, Nounea, New Caledonia), faapea le East-west Center (EWC, Honolulu, Hawaii), faatasi rna isi mau faalapotopotoga. o autu o lea galuega:
L: ia faafanuaina tulaga tamaoaiga tau vaomatua ma laufanua o Samoa i sisifo; 2i ia faia se faaituga poo fea o nei tulaga tamaoaiga tau vaomatua ma laufanua e aupito taua ina ia puipuia; ma Ie 3: ia faatuina se fuafuaga a Ie Malo e puipuia ai nofoaga aupito lelei mo tulaga tamaoaiga tau vaornatua ma laufanua aupito taua.
O lea galuega ua maeta nei, ma o kopi o ia faafanua o loo failaina i ofisa o Ie Divisions of F'orestry ma le Environment and Conservation i Apia, Samoa i Sisifo, faapea rna ofisa o le EWC ma le
SPREP.
O le lisi lea o tulaga tamaoaiga tau vaomatua ma laufanua e taua tele ina ia puipuia e faavae i le seasea mauaina ma e iai tulaga e ono afaina ai i totonu o Sarnoa i Sisifo. 1: Vaomatua Vai-Ialoa Maupurepute Fefiloi (Mixed Upland Species Swamp Forest) 2z Togo Xvlocarpus (Xylocarpus Mangrove) 3: Vaomatua Vai-laloa pandanus Turritus (Pandanus turritus Swamp Forest) 4z Vai-tuloto (Freshwater Lake) 5: Vaomatua Vai-laIoa Laugatasi Fefiloi (Mixed Lowland Species Swamp Forest) 6z Vai-laloa Herbaceous (Herbaceous Marsh) 7t Togo Rhizophora (Rhizophora Mangrove) 8: Vaomatua Metrosideros Montane (Metrosideros Montane Rain Forest) 9: Laufanua-Mutia (Native Grassland) 10: Vaomatua Tu-matafaga (Coastal Rain Forest) l-1: Vaomatua Tu-tuasivi (Ridge Rain Forest) L2z Togo Bruouiera (Bruguiera Mangrove) 13: Vaomatua Littoral (Littoral Forest) 14: Vaomatua puaoa (Cloud Forest)
o tulaga tanaoaiga tau vaomatua ma laufanua o loo i lalo sa faamaonia e aoga ma taua tere pe a faatusa i se vaaigra aofai faaaleralolagi, ona e seasea maua i nisi eleele o re kelope, po o }e foliga mai o le a mate ma mou ese atu, pe ona o le tele nafu foi o ia ituaiga tamaoaiga o loo rnaua naro sanoa i sisifo lava'
1: Vaomatua Tu-matafaga (Coastal Rain Forest) 2t Vaomatua Metrosideros Montane (Metrosideros Montane Rain Forest) 3: Vaomatua Cyathea Disclinax Montane (Cyathea niscfimax Montane Rain Forest) 4z Vaomatua Montane (Montane Rain Forest) 5: Vaomatua Eleele-Maualalo cVathea Disclimax (Cvathea Disclinax Lowland Rain Forest) 6! Vaomatua Laugatasi Maualalo (Lowland Rain Forest) 7i Vaomatua Puaoa (Cloud Forest) 8: Vaomatua Vai-laloa Maupurepute Fefiloi (Uixed Up1and Species Swamp Forest) 9z Vaomatua Tu-tuasivi (Ridge Rain Forest) 10: Vaonatua Vai-laloa Pandanus Turritus (Pandanus turritus SwamP Forest) 11: Vaomatua vai-1a10a Eleele-Maualal0 Fefil0i (Mixed Lowland Species Swamp Forest) L2z Vai-Ialoa Herbaceous (Herbaceous Marsh)
o le lisi o nofoaga aupito taua-maualuga mo Ie puipuiina saunia e faavae i mafuaaga nei: l_: ia puipuia le tulaga faaolaolaina-lautele o tanaoaiga tau vaomatua ma laufanua i tulaga maualuga faalelalolagi poo totonu lava o samoa i Sisifo.
2: ia puipuia Ie tulaga aupito tele po o se vaega o se tulaga o tamaoaiga tau vaomatua ma laufanua e tutupu i sarnoa i sisifo.
3: ia puipuia Ie tulaga tau tuaroi o nei tanaoaiga tau vaomatua ma laufanua ina ia puipuia ai o latou tuaroi fealoari taitasi.
4z ia puipuia oga-eleele ma tuafoi o ia tamaoaiga tau vaomatua ma laufanua rnai i nofoaga matafaga e tau i tuasivi o atumauga ina ia feola ai meaola ma natura o le vaomaoar d€ maise manu
felelei o Ie vaomaoa ma perai ma
5: ia puipuia rnea-tutupu i turaga tanaoaiga tau vaomatua ma laufanua taitoatasi i le itu i Matu ma le itu i Saute o motu o Savaii ma Upolu ina ia faarnautinoa ai Ie faaolaina na faaauau pea o ia tulaga tamaoaiga tau vaonatua ma laufanua nai i faalavelave e pei o afa ma isi faalavelave faanatura 1e-maralofia faapena.
o nofoaga o loo i lalo o loo lisiina e faavae i l-ona taua rno Ie puipuiina: 13 Lona - Punataemoro Forests (e aof ia ai rna le Afu o Afulilo) ' 2z Vaomatua Laugatasi i SaIarilua (SaIa' ilua Lowland Forests) 3: Vaomatua i Fusiluaga (Fusiluaga Forest) 4z Motu i aleiPata (A1eiPata Islands) 5: Vaomatua Laugatasi i FalealuPo (Fa1eaIuPo Lowland Forests) 6: Vaomatua Laugatasi i taga (Taga Lowland Forests)
7 i Vaomatua Tu-matafaga Togo i Saanapu Sataoa (saranapu - sataoa Mangrove and coastal Rain Forest) 8: Eleele tu-mauga o Savaii (Highlands of Savaii) gz EIeeIe Maualuga Ogatotonu o Upo1u (Central UPoIu UPIands) 1o: E1eele Maualuga i Sasare o UPolu (Eastern UPoIu UPIands) 11: EIeeIe Laugatasi o Gagaifoolevao ma Matautu (Gagaifoolevao and Matautu Lowland Forests) L2z Mauga o Taitorelau (Ut. Taitorelau) 13: Vaituloto i sisifo o upolu faatasi ma Lanutoro Western Upolu Montane Lakes (e aofia ai ma Vaituloto Lanoto- 'o) . 14: Eleele Laugatasi i Aropo ma Ie Lava (Atopo Lowland Ecosystems and Lava Flows) 15: Vaomatua Tu-matafaga i APoIina (Apo1ima Coastal Rain Forest) 15: Vaomatua Laugatasi i fafua (Tafua Peninsula Lowland Forests)
L7 2 Vaomatua Laugatasi i le PuPu (o Le PuPu Lowland Forests) 18: Tarnaoaiga Vaomatua/Laufanua Tu-matafaga i I.tulivai (MuIivai Coastal Ecosystems) L9: Vai-1aloa i Ie Tolotolo i Musugale (Musugale Point Herbaceous Marsh) 2Lz Vai-Ialoa i le Tolotolo i Mulinutu (Cape Mulinufu Herbaceous Marsh) 22: Vai-laloa i le Tolotolo i Malaema1u (Malaemalu Herbaceous Marsh) 232 Vaomatua i Ie Mauga o Fao (Mt, Fao Rain Forests) 242 Togo i Falelatai (Falelatai Mangrove) 25: Togo i Vaovai (Vaovai Mangrove) 26:. Vaomatua Laugatasi ma 1e Tofe i Situpapa ma Lata (Si'upapa - Lata Cliffs Lowland Rain Forest)
Mulimuli, sa faaofiina ma faatuina se manatu pe faapefea ona puipuiina, ma e aofia ai faalapotopotoga tau puipuiina faatasi ma nuru ma aiga e anaina eleele ma fanua, ina ia faia ni malitiega e pui-puia ai a ratou aia-tatau, ma re faavaeina o ni feagaiga mo le puipuiina o nei tulaga tarnaoaiga tau vaomatua ma laufanua. Ia faatuina matiliega-puipuia e sui ari tupe-atiina'e (inivesi) a faalapotopotoga puipui, ma o tupemaua mai i atiinare (inivesi) ia faaaogaina mo le atiinareina o pisinisi fou a Samoa i sisifo ma isi polokalame atiinate mo e e anaina nei vaomatua ma laueleele, e faavae i Ie faaaogaina o ia tulaga tamaoaiga i se faiga e ono puipuia ai mo Ie lumanari.
6 O l"eng1 tipott wa f,aauilgLna ltnr le faaaloalo te.trre i. I"E s4lo s genter Sadoa t EleLfo. € i J,atou na tue$,qi,nan e Ie Eas'U weist Ina "]f,ts' Sout- FAclfrii,c negd|eDal &rvirqrulert\t ProEramne, faebaqi na Le Uo'a€etre s lsL. Gaall$frrot-ollBtogro Ela EeEOaES.anl ma],as3 nai I l€ir€jl taumfl+iga" tla firafj,:af,,i.a{na Lanra i maGqu o-mq P lel1et a$Aooa sa matqq fa{a ga fa-aGinof.na al. lene$ gsluegra - I
1. Itlixed Upland Species Swamp Forest 2, XvLocarBus l{angrove 3. Pand.anus tr.lrritgs swanp Forest 4. Freshwater Lake 5. Mixed Lowland Species Swamp Forest 6. Ierbaceous ![arsh 7. Rhizophora lfangrove 8. $tetrosideros Montane Rain Fo,rest 9. Grassland (native) 10. c:odstal Rai-n x'orest 11. Ridge Rain Forest L2, Bruguiera Mangrove 13. Littoral Forest L4. Cloud Forest
The folJ-owing ecosyrstene were co:n-sidered to b of glorbal, itnportance because of, global rarity or endangered status or because of the coneentration of species, found only in Western Samoa:
- 1. Coastal Rain Forest t 2'. Metrosideros Montane Rain F,orest 3. Cyathea Dissllmax Moratane Rain Forest 4. Dtontane Raln Forest 5, Cyathea Discli.maN Lowland. Rain Foriest 6. Lowland [tain Forest 7. Cloud Forest
I 8. Mixed Upland Species Swarnp Forest 9. Ridge Rain Forest 10. Pandanus turrj.tus Swamp Forest 11. Mixed Lowland Species Swanp Forest 12. Herbaceous Marsh
rn order to preserve viable occurrences of high priority ecosystem types, a list of high priority sites for conservation hras prepared based on the folrowing goals (in priority order): l_. to conserve viabre occurrences of ecosystems that have high global or loca1 ranks (the previous lists) ,. 2. to conserve the rargest occurrence or practicar section of an occurrence of each ecosystem found in western samoa; 3. to conserve occurrences of normally linked or adjacent ecosystems in order to conserve their inter-relationships; 4. to conserve broad bands of native ecosystems extending from the coast to the interior highlands in order to provi-de wildlife corridors, especialry for forest birds and flying foxes, and to provide, if possible, uptand to coastar. hydro- logic units; and
5. to conserve occurrences of each priority ecosystem on both north and south sides of both savai'i and rupolu in order to insure against ecosystem extinction during major natural disasters such as hurricanes.
r-0 The following sites, based on the previous criteria, are listed in 'order of priority for conservation:
1. Lona Punataemoto Forests (including Afulilo Falls) 2. SaIa'ilua Lowland Forests 3. Fusiluaga Forest 4. Aleipata Islands 5. Falealupo Lowland Forests 6. Taga Lowland Forests 7. Saranapu - Sataoa Mangrove and Coastal Rain Forest 8. Highlands of Savaiti 9. Central tUpolu Uplands 10. Eastern rUpolu Uplands 11. Gagaifoolevao and Matautu Lowland Forests 1-2. Mt. Talito I elau 13. Western rUpolu Montane Lakes (including Lake Lanotolo) L4. Atopo Lowland Ecosystems and Lava Flows 15. Apolima Coastal Rain Forest 16. Tafua Peninsula Lowland Forests L7. rO Le Pupu Lowland Forests 18. Mulivai Coastal Ecosystems 19. Musugale Point Herbaceous Marsh 20. Apolinafou Herbaceous Marsh 2L. Cape Mulinufu Herbaceous Marstres 22. Malaemalu Marsh 23. Mt. Fao Rain Forests
11 24. Falelatai Mangrove 25. Vaovai Mangrove 26. Sirupapa - Lata Cliffs Lowland Rain Forest
Finally, a method for conservation is proposed that establish- es partnerships between conservation organizations and rocal owners customary of lands through the use of protective agreements I and the establishment of local conservation trusts.
This report is respectfully subnritted to the government of western sanoa by the south Pacific Regional Environment programme, the East-west center, and the many other organizations that provided assistance. The authors are gratefur to have had the opportunity to do this work.
L2 CHAPTER 11
INSTITUTIONAL BACKGROUND TO THE PROJECT
the south the Government of western samoa requested that In 1gg5, erogr.me (19861 sponsor a project to pacific Regionar Envirorr."ri -protected nature reserves in the develop a pran for a systern of plan There was an parks and protected areas country. ""i=ti"g was not Uasea on a comprehensive (Holloway and Floyd tg75)-t but if plan was to inventory of the country's native ecosystems' The new be based on such an i-nventorY ' The EAPI/SPREP Project
BeginninginLgsT,discussionswereheldbetweenSPREPandthe(EWC EAPI) on the East-West Cen€er Environm""l-""a Policy Institute possibilit' oi-Lonductinq th" propo=e&. project. B]t^october 1988' had1""t reachedr-""a-in! projict-fegan of f icially on the agreement a,ttpicel. of EAPI, with Dr' Lawrence first of January-1SSS under in" of the Hamilton, n"s"ir"n Associate, overseeing the -management project at EApI and Mr. peter'Thomas, Prjtected Areas Officer' as -project manager at SPREP' of the mair The EAPI/SPREP contract called for a definition terrestrialecosystemt'ypesforWesternsamoa'asetofmapsal showing the mappable units of native ecosystemst an( Lz2O,OOO and protected areas plan t( revision of ;;;'Ig75 naiitnar .parks (EAPI an( form a new proposal for a- natitnaf system of reserves SPREP Le88). HeIp from other Aqencies Dr.LionelLoubersaeofthelnstitutFrangaisdeRechercht pour I'Exploitation de Ia ltlt (IFREMER) provided the EAPI/SPREI project withl sPoT satefiiie irnage for tlie western two thirds o: January.1990, Pears-all, Loubersac the island of Savaiti. During d:,T6l6d6tectio: and other p"rrorlnel fron tne Station ebfyn6sienn?. papeete, -tititi, French Polynesia (the Station) preparet in of tn" western two third contrast enhanced spor ="{"iiit" ir.g"= of the island of Savairi' Theprojectwasalsointendedtoprovid.e.basicdataforby iearsall' To further thi doctoral dissertation in preparation provide end, the United States Ha-tio?raf SciencL Foundation (NSF) an additional grant via in" U"iversity of Hawaii Socia1 Scienc
lthis chaPter is cond.ensed from chapter 1 in the technical report (PearsaIl and Whistler L990). 13 Research fnstitute to support the project. The principal investi- gator of record for that grant was Dr. Brian Murton, Chairman of the University of Hawaii ceography Department, Basic support for Pearsall during the first two thirds of the SPREP project was provided by EAPf through a graduate student fellowship, again under the supervision of Dr. Hamilton. EAPI also provided a field studies grant to support travel and expenses associated with Pearsallfs visit to the Station in Papeete. In January 1988, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) entered into an agreement with the United States Agency for International Develop- ment (AID) to evaluate the possibility of building a Conservation Data Center program in the South Pacific Region. This project was successful, and in october 1989, ArD, TNc and the world wildlife Fund (v{wF) established a two year project. The first cornponent of that project was to demonstrate a pilot conservation Data Center in western samoa using the ecosystem data gathered during the EWC/SPREP project. During the last third of the Western Samoa project for SPREP, Pearsall and rnost of his expenses were supported under the ATD/TNC/WWF project.
L4 CHAPTER 2
BACKGROUND ON WESTERN SAIITOA
Phvsical Geocrraphv western sarnoa is a tropical island state with a terrestrial surface ;;-;;;roxirnatety 2,g;o kmz on tqo large and several very sma1l islands. These include the inhabited iilands of Savairi (approTi- (approxinately 1,,100_ nately 1, 820 k*2) , ^ 'Upolu -kq'.) , 1p?+lli (appr-oximately z tcm21 , ild Manono (approximately 5 km'). Apolima Iies in the aiolima'strait between Savairi to the west and tUpolu to the east. 'U.no.to is included within the reef on the western end of 'Upolu. Several additional very small, unoccuplgd islands lie withiir or on the reef systems of rUpolu and Savaiti. The most significant of these are Fanuatapu, Nimura, Nurutelet Nuf ulua (the el6ipata Islands east of tUpolu), and Nurusafere (south of tUpolu). Cn" i"ographic center of we-stern.samoa is at 13o 30t south latitude and L73o west tongitude. The north to south latitude extent is 11o - 16o south and the west to east longitude extent is 1740 3Or - LTLo west. Western Samoars Exclusive Economic Zone is approximately iir.ooo kmZ. Contiguous countries are Tokelau, American Samoa, Tonga, and Wallis ana Futuna (Bier 1980, Bunge 1984' Curry 1955' 1986 Oouglas L969, Eaton 1985, Franco et al. 1982, t"lotteler ' Run6borg 198o; USDS office of the Geographer 1985, whistler 1983a). DahI (1980, after Udvardy Lg75) places Western Samoa in the and American samoa same biogeographic-swaln's province-Island) as Waltis and Futuna i"""f"aiig in the Oceanian Realm. Udvardy (1984) includes the archipelago'in the Central Polynesia biogeographic province.2 AII of the islands are volcanic in origin, lying near thg northern terminus of the Tonga Trench at the subduction juncturg_9f the pacific and Indo-Austratian plates (Jarrard and Clague L977). There have been six major periods of vulcanism, beginning in the pliocene and continuing to the present (Kear and Wood l-959, 1"962i Trotman LgTg). The isiand of Sivai'i is still considered active, with its most recent eruptions producing lava flows between 1905 and 191-1 (Douglas 1969; Kear a-na Wood 1959 | .L962) . 'Upo1u is older, and, as tne result of weathering and erosion, generally more rugged (Curry 19551 Kear and Wood 1959 Lg62; Merlin and Juvik 1985; Wright L962, 1963). ' Maximum etevations range from 11858 m on Savaiti, 1-1100 m on tUpolu | 2OA m on Nurutele, L65 m on Apo1irna, and 5O m on Manono, to
ztt is important to note that the biogeograptric .r'provincestf of Dahl and Udvardy are not based on the same criteria or opera- tional at the same scale. 15 near sea-level on the srnallest islands (Douglas L969p Kear and Wood 1959, L962i Paine 1989). Wright (1962, ]-963) describes the soils of Western Samoa. Wright's work was extensively revised in 1989 and 1990 (ANZDEC Ltd. and DSIR Division of Land and Soil Sciences L990). That study lists 87 soil series that are classified according to the standard US soil taxonomy (USDA SoiI Survey Staff L975, l-988) and correlated with Wright and with the FAO and UNESCO classification (UN FAo and UNESCO L986). curry (l-955) defines L2 landform regions for Western Samoa. Working in rO Le pupu - pure National Park, a United Nations Development Advisory Team described 10 land systems (landforn associations) and approximately 20 landforms (Ollier et aI. L9791. The clinate is generally tropical and rnild, having wet and dry seasons. The southern and western sides of the main islands tend to receive more rainfall than the eastern and northern sides due to prevailing southwesterly trade winds and orographic effects (Kear and wood 1959, L962; wright 1963). rn Apia, on the northern coast of fupolu, rainfall averages 2,87o mrn/year with the heaviest rainfal-l in January (424 mn) and the lightest in July (96 mn) (Taylor L973). on the windward south and southeastern shores, annual raj-nfall averages between 5,OOO and 7,OOO mm (Carter 1984). At higher elevations, rainfall averages 5,OOO mm at IrOOO m elevation and 7r0oo nm above l-,200 m on savaiti (paine 1999). There are no abrupt rainfall transitions; wet and dry seasons grade into each other (Taylor 1973), Droughts are common (curry isss, L962'). The mean annuar temperature in Apia is 260 c (core et al. 1988, Curry L962). Wright (1963) provides a more comprehensive if somewhat ress current overview of western samoars clirnate. Major hurricanes are rare (Bunge L984). prior to l-990, hurricanes struck the country in 1939 and 1-966 (Skowron L?BT), but on 2 February 1990, ofa, the worst hurricane in 1"69 years hit the islands. Wind speeds in Apia were measured at 1BO km/hour, and the storm lingered in Western Samoa for most of four days and nights. The north shores of the islands were most seriously affected by strong winds from the north and storm surges as the eye of tha storm passed just west of savairi (ulafaIa 1990). wind speeds at Falealupo on the western tip of Savairi probably considerably exceeded the measured speeds in Apia. In western Samoa, environmental gradients are quite steep, with cloud forests occupying the upper erevations on savairi, montane and nid- elevation rain forests on the larger islands, and coastal and littoral forests on nost islands. The coastal ecosystems include rock and sand strand communities, isolated mangrove forests, and extensj-ve fringing reefs. Most of the coastal forests have been replaced by gardens, plantations, virrages and, in Apia, urban deveropment (cameron waz, Dougrlas L969, Thomas 1984).
L5 Bioloqical Diversitv Using a four leveI hierarchical classification, Western Samoars terrestrial ecosystems can be classified as follows:
I. TerrestriaL Environments (majority of nutrients from soil) A. Hydric 1. Coastal Depressions, Craters, and Montane Valleys €r. Swamp Forest b. Herbaceous Marsh c. Mancrrove B. Mesic 1. Coastal Plains and Tuff Cones a. Coastal Rain Forest 2. Lowlands and Foothills a. Lowland Rain Forest 3. Ridges a. Ridge Rain Forest b. Fernland 4. Mountains a. Montane Rain Forest b. Cloud Forest 5. Riparian Areas a. Riparian Woodland c. Xeric 1. Ash Plains a. Grassland 2. Recent In1and Lava Flows and Cinder Cones a. Volcanic Succession 3. Volcanic Talus a. Montane Scrub D. Littoral (Halic/Xeric) L. Rock Coasts, Sand Beaches, and Dunes a. Herbaceous Strand b. Littoral Scrub c. Littoral Shrubland d. Littoral Forest
Whistler (L992) estirnates that Western Samoa supports 775 native vascular plant species of which approximately 30t of the angiosperms are endemic, including the endernic genus Sarcopygme. There are about. 280 genera of native angiosperms (more than any other archipelago in Polynesia) (Whistler 1990, L992). In addition, there are about 25O introduced plant species. Whistler lists 47 threatened plants.3
3whistler has an article on the rare plants of Western Samoa in preparation.
L7 There are 2L butterfly species in Western Samoa (DahI 1986). western samoa has L species of swarrowtair butterfly. rt is endemic to the Samoas, and considered to be threatened (Collins and Morris 1985). only 2 endernic endodontid snaiLs evolved in Samoa. This relatively low original diversity (for Polynesia) of endodon- tid snails is probably attributable to an endemic ant that preys on them. There are 9 endemic charopid snail species and 8 endemic partulid snail species. Introduced ants have produced many Local snaiL extinctions among these groups, and endemic snail species are now restricted to high elevations (Dahl 198G, Kondo 1980, solem L976-L982). Approxirnately 15 (mostly narine) invertebrates are considered threatened in Western Samoa (Dahl 1986, Eaton 1985, Fitter 1986, IUCN cMC and fCBP 1988, fUCN/SSC Mollusc Specialist Group 1987, Lewis et al. 1988, Paine L989, solem L976-r9gz, wells 198s).
Western Samoa supports 11 species of reptiles (Brown 1957) including 7 species of lizards and 1 snake (Dah1 1986). None oi Western Samoars terrestrial reptiles is considered threatened, but all narine turtles that visit the islands are considered threatened or endangered on a global basis (Balazs 1992, Eaton 1985, Fitter 1986, Groonbridge and Wright L982, IUCN CMC and ICBP 1998). of 43 resident bird species in western samoa, eight are endemic (Pratt et al. L987). Most resident land birds have one or more subspecies endemic to Western Samoa (personal communication, David Blockstein 1989). Nine bird species are considered to be threatened (Chanbers 1985, Collar and Andrew 1988, Dahl L996, fUCN cMc and rcBP 1988, KRTA l-988, King et aI. 1981, Mountfort and Arlott 1988, Paine 1989, Pratt et al. 198?). The archipelago supports one sheath-tailed bat and two flying foxes or fruit bats. AII three are considered threatened (Buiton and Burton 1987; Dahl 1986; rucN cMc and rcBp 19gg; paine 1989; personal.communication, Merlin Tuttle 1988, 1990) . Six cetaceans (whales and porpoises) that visit Samoars waters are considered threatened (Burton and Burton L9a7, rucN cMc and rcBp 1988, Thornback et al. L978).
People and Land in Western Samoa The Sarnoan Islands were probably first settled by Austronesian speaking, proto-Polynesian people around 3,OOO BP (Bellwood 1980, Bunge 1984). Directly or indirectly, these islands $/ere (atong with Tonga) very likery the origin of polynesian voyaqes-which settled the remainder of the Polynesian region from Hawaii to the north, the Marquesas to the east, Easter Island to the southeast, New Zealand to the south, and Polynesian outliers in Melanesia and Micronesia such as Kapingarnarangi AtoII to the west (Bellwood 1980). Europeans first settled in Samoa in 1830 when the Reverend
18 John Williams of the London Missionary Society arrived from Tahiti (Holrnes L974, Runeborgi 1980). A number of histories of post-European Samoa have been written (e.q. Davidson 1967, Meleisea J.987). Important characteristics of post-nuropean Western Samoa are the rapid assimilation of Chris- Lianity into the samoan culture; the willingness and ability of Samoan people to interact flexibly with Europeans in political and economical matters; and the unwillingness of Sanoans to abandon Fara Samoa (the Samoan way) which includes traditional concepts of village life, politieal consensus, the authority of chiefs, Iand tenure, and human relationships with the environments of Samoa (Holmes L974, Meleisea L987, Ngan-Woo 1985). Western Samoan relationships with colonial administrators, beginning with the Germans in 1899 and ending with independence from New Zealand in L962, were rarely rel-axed (Bunge 1984, Davidson L967, Thomas 1984). Western Samoa was the Pacificts first island state to achieve independence from its colonial masters (Davidson L967, Meleisea LgA7r, and the tradition of providing regional leadership is well established and very strong. In traditional Samoan viltages, village affairs are controlled by a fono (council) of'aiqa (family) Matai (heads or chiefs) (Holmes L974, Meleisea 1987, Omeara 1-987). Since Samoan descent is traced through both parents, most Sarnoans can claim relationships with several Matai, but in practice, Samoans feel most closely related to the Matai of the 'aiga with tuhich they reside (Holmes L97L, L974). In theory, any Samoan can succeed a Matai to whom he or she is retated, but in practice, brothers and sons most often are elected to the title. A strong, demonstrated cornmitment to the welfare of the taiga (service) is the most critical qualification (Holmes L97L, t974). In the fono, the Matairs actions are controlled by the relative rank of his or her title, and according to whether he or she is a Tulafale (tttalking chieftt) or an Aliri ("high chief r') (Holmes L9741 . AIif i have forrnal power and higher rank. Tulafale are instigators and implementors. Decisions are made by consensus strongly influenced by deference to titular rank (Holrnes L97t, Omeara L987, Runeborg 1980). Following independence, the Matai were the only Western Samoans who could vote, be elected to the national parliament, be appointed judges to the Land and Titles Court, or hold public office (Crocombe L97L, Omeara L987r. A referendum held in 1990 resulted in universal adult suffrage, but elected public offices continue to be restricted to Matai. The Matai has the pule (authority) to allocate the use of the faigafs land (Holmes J97L, L9741 Omeara 1987). This authority includes the ability to grant rights of use, to determine labor obligations, and to receive a share of the incone or crops (Holrnes L97L, L974i omeara L987; Runeborg 1980). The Matai does not have
19 the right to alienate the land without the consensus of his raiga (Holmes 1971 , L9741 Thomas 1984,. but see omeara are heritabte with approval 198;J.--u=l-ri;;i= rAiga lands.typicalry from the Matai (i"i;;= Lg7a, rs74). plantation incruae- house lotsr gir'dens, lots, and ianily ,.=".*r"-sections"iir"g" (typically in taro gardens and sw-i-ddens) (Holme-s 1g74, Runeborg 1980). sections usually run in strips rrbrn'Itr" Farniry reserve (Holnes L97L, c6ast iiti" the mountains Merlin and. .ru'vix rgb:l . rn addition, there are village lands' These are typi"urrv-r-#ewood and medicine gathering areas, beach landings, reef- and rigoon areas, praying fields, but also incrude unused rands- wlrich-miy ue cr;in;a.and ,aiga establishment of use (Holmes iy the by 1971, omeara Thomas 19g4). when a piece of land is cleared_ for ,rgg7, Matai becomes appurtenant to a titre (Holmes r974, o_meara"="r-it Lg'g7, Runeborg i6'eol . Finarry, there are district lands claimed uv'tr"aitionir -i"ro.r, districr councils (rnade up of the ranking ua€ai of the district villages). District rands aie high rnountaii ranas used prinariry and gathering (Holmes L97L, t974). for hunting
Land Tenure During the period between first European settlernent and the establishment of samoa as a free and neutrll time in 1889, much nation for the first land was arienated i.o. the samoans by Europeans (Horrnes 197L, Meleisea 1987-). pgring ih" period rron alienation of rands was - 1Bg9 to 1899, .rbrriaaen,' arien rand claims hrere evaluated by a fact-finding trirunar ""aand, if ,r"-""=ury, samoan supreme court- A claim was by the been n"i unress it had occupied and worked for at least 10"urstantiatea years and unre=" payment (excluding firearrns and.riquoS) p.oor oi clairns were evaruited dould ue presented. Most during ini=-p=.rl6a, so when'c"rr.rry annexed western sanoa in 1899, the alstinct'1on letween customary arienated lands was rands and well estabrist"a-in"rro"" igiil lt"r":.=ea 1982). The German administration restricted rurtner arienaiior,, tracts of arable lowrands were alienated but rarge for corporate prantation by the government itself deverot;;f-f'orr"" L'TL). A Land Titres cornmission was establisfred to''resolve issues and (Meleisea L997, Runeborg 19gO). of tenure The New zearand adrninist_ra.tio1 crasses (frorn 1919) recognized three of land in the samoa Act of 1921. These were (fornerry German estate and goverrr"r,t crown Lands samoan i-anas1 , European Lands, and Lands (non-alienated 1HJrr". Lg7L, -Tiavolo The samoa Act estabrished that1.ng.=_i-- titie io- smo"n 19g4) . the crown as trustee in perpetgilv Lands was vested in be taken ri.r. 19g6). samoan Lands could for p-u-lclic puriosis (Tiivolo-rsa+1. The Land and Protection ordinance of 1934 broadened Titles manage samoan the ci"rrr;= ability to rands and re-estabrished the Land and Titres court to settle disput-es land tenure and succession titles (Cole 1996,-regarding freleis6a 1e87). to Matai
20 When Western Samoa achieved independence in L962, its new constitution classified all land as Customary, Freehold, or Public (after the New Zealand classification) . Customary Land !'tas no ionger held in trust by the government (Meleisea-L987, Runebo.rg 1985). Alienation of customary Land was forbidden with the provision that the new parliarnent could authorize and regulate licen=es and leases of Customary Land, and Customary Land could be taken for public purposes (CoIe L986). Furthermore, all land below the high-w-ater mark was decl.ared Public Land (CoIe 1986). The Land and fitles Court was retained (Meleisea L987, sesaga and Burgess 1984). The Western Samoan Trust Estates Corporation (WSTEC) was created as a public corporation to manage the old German estates lands. In 1965, the Alienation of Customary Land Act was passed by the parliament allowing the Matai to lease Customary land for economic development purposes with approval from the Ministry of Lands (Meleisea 1987, Sesaga and Burgess L984, Tiavolo 1984). The Alienation of Freehold Land Act of 1-972 strictly regulated the atienation of Freehold Lands to non-resident corporations and individuals (Tiavolo L984). fn L977, dn act was passed allowing WSTEC to sel-l certain of its lands as free-holdings for development (CoIe 1986). Table 1. Twenty Year Land Tenure Trend in Western Samoa (Cole l-986, Holmes 1971)
Land Class Public 34,7OO 44,9OO (inc1. wSTEc) Freehold L6 ,2OO 2L,300 242 ,600 227,3OO
The Land and Titles Court settles disagreements concerning succession to Matai title and pule over Iand. Court decisions are not subject to appeal. The court is heavily influenced by custorn and by the reconmendations of the local fono (Sesaga and Burgess 1984). Historically, the Court did not register Customary Lands per se, but instead registered the Matai titles (Thonas 1984). Leases of Custonary Lands could be voluntarily registered (Eaton 1985). Public and Freehold Lands were registered by metes and bounds, o[ cadastral rnaps, and by recorded deeds of transfer (Sesaga and Burgess L984, Tiavolo 1984). More recently, the Court has begun formal registration of titles to and leases of Customary Lands (Me1eisea L987, Tiavolo 1984).
2L f4angroves
Herbaceous Marshes
S','ramp Forestc
Lakes
CoastaL Rain Forcst
Lowl.and Rain Forest
Ridgc Rain Forcst l.lontane Rain Forcat
Cloud Forest
L'ol.canic guccession
Grass land
Littoral Scrub
Littoral Shrubland
Littoral Forest
P1ate L. Color Key to the Maps (Plates 2,3, 4 r5,10, 11) Modern influences are modifying the relationships between Western Samoans and the land (Holnes L974). For examPle, the cash economy is encouraging more independent use of land, and a modified form oi Iand tenure system is emerging de facto allowing Customary Lands to be treated as the private property of the individual (Oneara 1IBT). Today the Matai often assigns land-use rights to heads of households, and thereafter, exerts virtually no influence over their use of the land, permitting individualized economic effort through the growth and sale of cash crops (Holmes L97Ll L974,. Thornas 1984). Similarly, few fono now attempt to regulate the use of village and district lands cleared and brought into use through individual efforts (Holmes 1-97L, Omeara L987). Population growth is resulting in village crowding, People are leaving the coastal villages to build family dwellings in the inland garden plots which they have worked (CoIe 1986, Holmes L97Lr. It also is now conmon for the Matai to establish and manage plantations on Iand over which they exercise pule, paying wages to the raiga members who work the land (Sesaga and Burgess 1984). The govern- ment and some Matai are leasing tirnber rights to foreign timber companies, especially on Savai'i (Knibb 1984). Splitting of Matai titles and creation of new Matai titles is resulting in the splitting of 'aiga Iands (Holmes L974, Omeara 1987, Runeborg 198O' Thomas 1984). These trends are producing a category of land which is technically Customary Land but which is highly fragrmented, which is sometimes heavily irnpacted by timber removal, and which is treated as Freehold. This class of land is a source of much insecurity, and litigation, as when the Matai attempt to regain control (Omeara I9A7, Runeborg 1980, Sesaga and Burgess L984, Thonas 1984). Land disputes are now sometimes resulting in arable coastal land lying fallow (Runeborg 1980).
Protected Areas in Western Samoa In L958, the Administration of Western Samoa set, aside Robert Louis Stevensonts tornb site as the Robert Louis Stdvenson Memorial Reserve (.5 ha) and an adjoining 52 ha area as the Mt. Vaea Scenic Reserve. The Stevenson fanily home, Valima, became the Governrnent House, and later, upon independence, the residence for the head of state (Government of Western Sarnoa 1985, Trotman L979). In L974, Western Samoa passed legislation to provide for the establishment of a National Parks and Reserves System on Pubtic Lands (Eaton 1985, Government of Western Sarnoa 1-985, IUCN Conserva- tion Monitoring Centre 1985, Trotman L9791. The act required that National Parks, except for those on uninhabited islands, must include at least 600 ha. Categories for Nature Reserves, Historic Reserves, and Recreation Reserves were also established (IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre J-985b). There hlas, however, Iitt1e information on which to base the selection of new protected areas. In L975, dt the request of the Government of Western Samoar dD United Nations Developrnent Advisory Team (ttNDAT) prepared a plan
23 for 1e7s). (Holloway and Floy rn 1978, based on the_UNDAT plan t 2857 ha of public Land o the southern side of ruporu aside as ro Le pupu_pur National Park (GovernrnenC of western""r" ="t Honitoring centre sanoa 1gg5, rucN conservatio and rucN cornmission on Nationar parks an Protected Areas 1985, Trotman 1979). rn" zSoo ha ii", is size of the original rg75 reconmendation. twice th, are to conserve natural features Tltg.purposes of the par) water in an unmodirila iiate, to protec. supplies, to provide a resource for environmental education and to attract touiists (Trotma_n from .Lg7gj. 'o Le pupu_pu,e extendr mountain top to coast and incrudes the topographi< gradient of leewaid 'uporu Lg7g, ii"tr.n"rrtir" park was established on old_(o_lrier lava "i-.r, 1979). The poor soi1, fGws and cinder cones providin< so demand for the land t.= 1or (Merlin and Juvik 1985): A resurt is that the edaphic aradient Le i""rura- ,uporu is poorrl represented in the park (Trotlnan L97g) . The park theoreticarry (state is buffered in part by pubric Lands forest and catchrnent lands ana an experimental demonstratior farn) (Eaton 1985, Trotman L979). customary Lands and public allocated to adjoin about r,ands (Eaton 1995,"11]19"= 1986). """ tni-ra or lne park bound.arv qardens, nncroachments from wood cutt-ii-g; ;;iil;i squatters, and bird hunters are occasionar arong the lowland boundaries and r9?d (Eaton 19g5, rucN conservation Monit-o-ring cen-tre L985, Merlin ,rurrir. a probrem' unfortunatery, "na 1985) and continue to be 'oflhe rnajor-inland in the park have come in the lower areal the "r"roachmentssections by rand-use and land conversion pubric expansion of I adjac""l C" the iands and the o Le Pupu coast where a government radio arong installed. "t"[io, ;;=;;; rn l-978, the Mount vaea scenic Louis stevenson Reserve (52 ha) and the Robert Memoriar Reserve (.5 ha) were combined as the Tusitala Historic and Nature Reserve. The varima Botanical (12 ha) was estabtished on la-nds aajacenl Garden to the residence to and rormerty betonging of the head. o5 piaie,- a1a the Togitogiga Recre_ ation Reserve. (2.5 ha) was established adjacent to the tive h_eadguarters of io Le pupu-pure. adninistra- Deep Marine rinal1y, in Lgzg, the parolo Reserve was established oi- zz.3-ha of submerged near Apia (Eaton 1985, Lg861 reef conservation Government of westem s.ro. 19g5,. rucp Monitoring centre 1985, rucN conservation Monitoring centre and rucN conrnislion on National parks and protected 1985). of these severar srnarr reserves, Areas Tusitala Reserve onry portions of the p}"y a signif icani r-"r" in the torfiLr.rution of the terrestriar ecosysterns of iryestern samoa (Eaton western samoa 1995, covernment of 1985' rucN conservation r'tonitoii"gE"ir" r-9g5b). severar additionar propoglr_s for protected areas in western samoa have been deveroped-. Beichre and ftaerzer rcBP, reconmend (19gs), wri-ting for seven protected areas for forest Uiras in Western 24 o!01 .Ft o t{ F{ ttt FI o o+J ? >r.E 8.5; o Yl.t Eg 5; f, O.E ESS .;..* u, t-Ns [j H oor-o I r H$ s .H E 5,HE Fl uq. o, ot"tIrr 'S dsf d Io)<: t i . b?.8 f,t.Ho .:- u'-Q) fi.gH !td o a'15 a E 3'i fl ; $ iifi E s xlEt 6 rt ?*., 'i E.d U ,tE0, P -1d'-l |t tt ."{ trX16O g ..{O Fl +r trl{ o o tt ..1 g{ +J ! .Fl h g..O d o o d'tt Fl
oil o +J .d A
I t J .?
.38 qt 6. E >, 9.5 i f$r Ej
Oc{-d, o-*,1 o oo' c.l o Ur U +J i E.: \a 0 o t) b5$ H OQ o .E"E yl +J ct $[x E kF{
-a #'3 $ I a! o +)o A (l .E P oF T{ 53n o n 'gg$ A 5|q njE tr b >c o s +J5 :$ .a -rFO v{ EI H' h I tJ -{O a s h,t3. .r{ t{ AO o O ('tlr
rn o +r€ Fl A Samoa. Onty two of these duplicate the L975 UNDAT recommendations, and one of these is rO Le Pupu-Pure. Hayrs 1986 report on Bird Conservation in the Pacific Islands supports several of the L975 reconmendations. KRTA (1988) re-proposed the sites in the Holloway and Floyd L975 proposal with elaboration of a Mt. Silisili National Park plan to include both rnajor lava flows and several other sites. Chew reconmended (198?) that the Aleipata Islands should be established as a marine national park and biosphere reserve. A follow-up feasibility study r^ras prepared by Andrews and Holthus (le8e). The L974 act requires that protected areas be established on Public Lands (Eaton 1985). The act has since been amended to permit the establishment of protected areas on leased lands (Government of Western Samoa 1995). The large majority of the remaininlt, unprotected lands recommended in the 1975 report (L4,2OO ha out of 16,1-oO ha, or 88?) are Customary Lands (Eaton 1985, Government of Western Samoa L9B5). The Government of Western Samoa is reluctant to rely on leases of Customary Lands for protected areas. This reluctance is attributable in part to the fact that Customary Land tenure is complex and often contested and in part to the governmentrs respect for both customary rights and human needs for arable land, (Eaton 1985, Merlin and Juvik 1985). The future expansion of Western Samoats protected areas systern will be dependent on reinforcing customary approaches to land conservation complemented by non-acquisition-based land protection tools (e.9. dedication of Customary Lands) (Eaton l-985, L9861 Government of Western Samoa 1985; Holloway and Floyd 1975).
27 CHAPTER 34
OVERVTEW OF I}WENTORY METHODS
Mappinq the Terrestrial Ecosystems of Western Samoa A representative system of nature reserves wiII contain and sustain a biogeographical arears biological and ecological diversity. with this as a fundamental criterion, two basic choices had to be made in Western Samoa. These were: 1. What system of land unit classification would best capture the range of variation in the biota of Western Samoa?
2. How best could these land units be inventoried, described, and napped? Western Samoa is part of South Pacific Biogeographic province IX. Samoa -- WaIIis and Futuna (Dahl 19BO). This province includes 20 forest and approximately 15 non-forest terrestrial types. DahI characterizes ecosystems as vegetation formations. gaiea on this precedent, on papers by whistler and others, and on extensive personal communicatj-ons with experts such as Fosberg and Whistler from l-987 to the present, a hierarchical classification of the terrestrial ecosystems of Western Samoa was prepared (see chapter 2).
Aeriat photographs of Western Samoa were provided by SpREp and the government of Western Samoa. These photos were stereoscopical- ly inspected, and lines hrere drawn on acetate overlays iround photomorphic regions (map units or areas of uniform texture). The nap units were then traced onto 1:20rooo topographic maps provided by the government of Western Samoa. Two precautions srere taken to insure that the inventory would be sciLntifically honest: no attenpt was made to develop correspondence between the traced map units and land-cover as shown on the existing topographic maps; atth no attempt was made to classify nap units prior to visiting Lheru in the field. _ rn preparation for field verification of map units and identification of ecosystems, information rras assernble-d on the more conmon, ecosysten-buirding species in western samoa. This information was extracted from the literature and then extensively revised in the fieId.
Whistler and Pearsall spent, eight weeks in Western Samoa during Jury, August, November, and December 19g9. During that
acondensed from the technical report (Pearsa1l and Whistler 1991) .
28 time, most of the map units on Savaiti and tUpolu were visited. Characteristic species were recorded for all lowland map units and some of the more accessible upland map units on the two main islands. Most visited map units also were described and photo- graphed. The degree of and the agents of disturbance were also recorded for individual map units where appropriate. Following Hurricane ofa (February 1990), Pearsall spent two weeks in August L99O revisiting all lowland nap units and conducted remote surveillance of upland sites from passable roads. on this trip, only the level and nature of hurricane damage ltere assessed. During the 1989 field work, Pearsall and Whistler were provided with forestry housing and transportation to field sites by the Division of Forestry. During the L990, post-hurricane field work, Pearsall t"ras assisted by two staff from the Division of Environment and Conservation. Based on the field experience in July and August 1989 and on the literature, species and ecosystens correspondence tables were prepared and indicator species were selected for individual ecosystems. These tables h/ere used extensively during the second round of field work in November and December L989, and proved very useful as guides for deterrnining ecosystems. During both 1989 phases of the field work, the ecosystem classification was itself extensively revised, and ecosystem descriptions were prepared. Following completion of the 1989 field work, air photos for all map units were reevaluated based on notes and photographs from the field investigations, and using regional and topical references (Avery 1978, Carnpbell L987, Lillesand and Kiefer I979, Naval Photographic Intei'pretation Center 1950, USGS L944'). Map units were redrawn as needed, then all map units were traced onto draft velum overlays. Each map unit was labeled with basic location and classification codes as follows: Map Sheet Nunber: Map Unit Number: Ecosystem Code where Ecosyst,em Code is the map code for the ecosystem type as shown in the following list. For example 3:16:HM indicates map number three: map unit sixteen (the sixteenth map unit on map number three): Herbaceous Marsh.
29 ECOSYSTEM MAP CODE
LK SF HM 9oastal Rain Forest MG l9wrand Bain ForesL CR Ridqg Rain r&est LR Fernland RR M?nt?ne Ra jtl_ f,ores*_ FL Fore$ MR RiparianFd Woodland CF RW GL ___-.-v vqvvEtsb I ()n Ilerbaceous strand VS Littora HS LP LS LF SM
Xor none Xor none
An optional D-prefix disturbed ecosystem. to the ecosystem code indicates disturbed ro. DLF is a 1i€to'rai-ior"=t. +ilF*,A tt-"-- ,"p code f or swiddens ."gg uut -re-ss=ite -trran was aerineJ-is disturbed if serective cutrini. "p- ot-veietation ="r-"1- trari,_ oi_ it" area; ir tion but had -th";'i,lir*"Jr;; ;#rgnt during field inspec_ feral rivestock"ii6"lla'-r'":r donestil influence f"=p."i.irv pig=i--;;r; !h...5".j-'ir or on ecosystem proce_ssesi not_1l5casional);=ig,rtiiJiitiv present (an patches were ttittt"it'"d-'b-y. rr"r"ti iii"rr".ence if disclirnax fernland natches);-;;"i; pl.r,i'Jp""ies glirarr swiddens, dominant. "ii"" were present but not Alien species were forms of rare.ly present in the absence exception)'disl_urbur,""'-i."+:;r+t ru;i;; provided of other and rnost'Tdcnanicat-liFt-uibanceJ--by the sisnificant forrowed or acconpanied ttre s/ere sites dorninared bv ;il;; i.niroi,r"ii""-it-!ir."r,"in..entry species. was pervasive were not "ig.t"* ;;-;;r.-i= "=it.= nechanicar disrurbance but rather as non-native"oniia"i"a Lcosystems i;;-;;fi;" ecosystems and were not mapped. secona..v r"=1""*re-stslminagea o. iuirrdoned rands) at J'z2o' ooo nearry rarle-Lnough to map gaps yere urr-yi ai=t"rrlo opp-o="a which were i.rg-" enough to 1a." to naturai 'rDrr code typically-r:arely ;J,s -in.i"ai;;; map_.at th-_G scale) , so the i-p."ii* to-;sri. ,, secondary 30 shrubland seres following larqe-scale forest disturbances were always dominated by alien species, and thus were not mapped.
Disturbance Classification and Mappincr Summary f. Native Ecosystems - dominated by native species (rnapped) A. not disturbed (no D nrefix) B. disturbed (D prefix) - one or nore of: 1. alien plant species present but not dominant 2. clearings, selective cutting on ]ess than half the area 3. domestic or feral animals significantly present II. Non-native Ecosystems - dominated by alien species or mechani- cal disturbance (not mapped)
The set of ecosystem overlays was, at this point, based on air photo interpretation and field verification. The next step was to incorporate SPOT satellite data as a check against and enhancement of the maps. The potential of SPOT data for enhancing the accuracy of the map overlays was expected to be substantial. IFREI,IER provided a SPOT image for the western 2/3s of Savaifi. The SPOT data image was enhanced so that it could be used as an additional overlay to the maps. This process resulted in nine paper images at 1:20,OOO for comparison and incorporation with the existing maps and ecosystem overlays for Western Savaiti. These images were overlaid with the existing maps and draft overlays prepared from aerial photography and field research and corrections were made as follows: l-. Because the SPOT images produced very precise forest-non- forest edge data, coastal and lowland rain forest edges $rere corrected to the SPOT images, except, where field data indicat- ed that timber harvesting probably had reduced the forest area since the SPOT data was collected in 1985. Lava field edges also hrere corrected to the SPOT images. 2. The ecotones between montane, ridge, and lowland rain forests and cloud forests were adjusted using the SpOT data, since it was superior to the aerial photography. 3. The SPOT images were not as useful as the aerial photographs for visually differentiating coastal wetlands and littoral ecosystems from surrounding land-uses, so these edges were not corrected.
The problem with SPOT data and non-forest edges seems to have been twofold. First, relatively low vegetation density in these ecosystems pernitted soil, rock, and water reflectance values to
31 contribute heavily to the ecosystem refrectance signatures, iiillj::3 .' ",Il|i:Tff$ : r.ltt ;; ;;e tat i oi a",, i tv patches -tno"tllj: t"',.".,i.:. = ?s - .ar.e_ rbr rana-use;-:i""ir?=:::=*f individual ecosystem sj-tes ;AI;i"r:; high pixer tended to be visually lost in areas heteiog"rr"iiy. Fortunatery,, these of most freguently visitea' Data Manaqement The forlowingr conventions are used through this report: Ecosystern: a type; a taxonomic entityr. always called often but not an ecosystein'typei i.e.-" the Lowtand Rain i:""=V=tL-. i= -p"r_ ticular type orTT:a ecosystem. 32 I oo +, -{ bco t o.9 T E:3 m t ,"s ff i3tso@ s o I & g;fi.9 t oN6 m o () s sil c o : 3.H I }{ Il 8a ()a x o m@ o o'-l t r{ rl E a hrn o +J BE t o c\a ul b9 o .C o *'8' -l I FI i +, r.6 Orl -l}. ro k o d x?a I }{ fl,r, c O. a=tO Ul f't .Fl - .- .c 3 qel I l rl U'E it =t,{ro C' ud() I UI -lEcrld o {{ trXt{ o *tOh urhp.O 5 I rlP. -tk g.O oqto = I { o +, .c d I A I t I uro .f1 +t dco o j T -J rr{ O { -.t o wP o* * Frdq,Ed8 g@ o.EE .4 o @ ('@ $g"r -lX()'H@ @ tu cr* 5^ a[+ o -$u (, m@ c) g +tt o Fi Fi o 68'xEa* e, . 6\t @ >i o d9 @ E-l o () *'g 7-4 +tAt h (d,6 +t O+{ +l aOfu !+ o ioo' tti'l |5!.c f{ f;W U|' A -(Fd Frt v t{@ *{ el dD >'O o Fd O. 660$@" -1td-il EE +{ @ o rlOfuCXt{ Di[* lI 4 -l Qr() t E F8 6! $ +t rO r-li & a fncluded Ecosystem: Ecosystems that are closely related to another ecosystem type but that are too small to map separately are considered to be included. Ecosystem Occurrence: an ecosystem in a place; a geographic entity; a geographic incidence of an ecosystem typel sizes in Western Samoa range from 2 Eo 8r0OO ha. Map Unit: a subdivision of a rnap indicating part or all of an ecosystem occurrence, possibly with included ecosystems; a photomorphic region of a nap; sizes range from 2 to L,000 ha. Site: the unit of land and/or waters selected for management planning (in this case' for conservation); may include all or parts of more than one ecosystem occur- rence and more than one ecosystem type. Note that many ecosyste:n occurrences occupy more than one map, and thus are comprised of more than one map unit. AII ecosystem occurrences are tomprised of one or more contiguous map units. Treating map units as separate data entities allows the base map sheets io Ue used as coarse cells for evaluation of distributionr' and it consequently allows rarity of ecosystem types -to be evaluated partiatly on the basis of distribution, thus reducing the problem of-considering ecosysten types with very large but very few occurrences to be rare (e.g. the Cloud Forest of Savairi). Map Unit. occurrence, and Site Data The data stored for each map unit includes: Map unit number: map number followed by map unit number, in series, beginninE at 1 for eaclr nap sheet, e.g. 3:16 for the sixteenth mapped unit on map three. Island: island where the occurrence is; larger island if the island of occurrence is on or inside the reef of a larger island Ecosvstem maD code: see discussion above 35 Ecosystem: ecosystem namer e.9. Lowland Rain Forest Species: of species common or significant theJ-t=t occurence for Comments: level and factors of disturbance, status, etc. reserve Occurrence name: nearest village or najor landform name plus dominant ec-osystern name, €.9. Falea_ Iupo Lowland Rain Forest Associated map units: a list of all map units that, together with this one, Cornprise the occurrence """Jy=|", Of a damacre: comments rn addition to the -pranspaper naps and the data bases generated this project, there are by cornputerized to incruae the data-in-tn" two tlpes of data systernL. These wilr facilitai. ease with which the data can Le re.=_.rre.d, used, updated, other data for complex analysis. -' and combined with The first of these systems will be The Nature conservancyrs system for managing . BCD is a tabular (in this data abouffiiorogical diversity case, their o."ui""nces, and sites for their manaqement' BcD-e^coiysterns), also supports comprex inrormation about tenure and managed areas. BCD js land Revelationr runs an appricaai;"-data of Advanced | -c-onmercial, quasi-rerationar nase system supports variable length tieras ana tnurtipi":""tri?i"ra=. that western samoa conservition Data center is in=tiii;a,-in" wtren a to be entered in the system will tir=t data EAPI/SPREp project u" tne ecosystem data from this Loadinq the ecosystern data ability to-dynamicarry-maintain in a BCD system will result in the tne ecosysten data as nehr is done' rt will aliow type and research and animar-s occurence data for rare prants to be added to-tne data rase. rt wirr;i;" arrow powerful searches, sorts, ang anaryses very use planning, or trt" datitofi use in land- environmental impacti-u=="=.rents, and the establish- rnent of public policy- Finally, the ncD systern will tracking of the ser.eclion, aesi'gn, arl0w dynamic nature reserves, in effect "=Glrishn;;1,-';;a *.rr"g"renr of included _auto-rna,ting *lL nature reserves proposar in thii report- EstablishnLnt of a cDc in western uv TNc lnd thus consrirutes phas" samoa r-mprovementsl:_r:-:r:l!i on the reserves or,"-of the proposed this report. system proloiar th;tupi".., later in 36 The second type of system targeted for installation of the data wiII be the ARC/fNFO geographic information system (GIS) developed by Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI). ARC/INFo is the GIS used by the UNEP GRfD system and by EAPI, and is under evaluation by TNC. ARC/fNFO systems where we hope to see the Western Samoan ecosysten data installed include: 1. the ARC/INFO system installed in Western Samoa during the recent project sponsored by the Asian Development Bank (ANZDEC and DSIR 1990); 2. the SpREp ARC/INFO based regional geographic information system, a regional component of the United Nations Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) Grid network and a regional repository of digitized resources data for the SPREP tropical Pacific island mernber countriesl and 3. the EAPI ARC/INFO systern in Honolulu, for the purposes of continuing to provide new data and assistance with data management and interpretation to the systems in Western Samoa and at SPREP. Once the rnapped ecosystem occurrence data are loaded in ARc/INFo, the following infornation can be measured and utilized to develop another revision of the reserves system proposed in this report: Geoqraphic Information Svstem Data Map Unit Area: Occurrence Area: aggregated from map units Site Area: aggregated from map units Map Unit Perimeter: length, not including map edges occurrence Perirneter: aggregated from map units Site Perimeter: aggregated frorn map units Map Unit Threatened Edqe: length of edges shared with non- native ecosystem occurrences Occurrence Threatened Edge: aggregated from t.p ,tilitt Site Threatened Edqe: aggregated from rnap units Map Unit Vulnerable Edqe: length of edges shared witn dis- turbed native ecosystem occurrences 37 Plate 6. Punataemo r o Swarnp Forest, Plate Z. Xvlocarpus Mangrove, part of Site 2 occurrence Vulnerable Edge: aggregated from maP units Site Vulnerable Edqe: aggregated from maP units Site Roundness: calculated from site area and site perimeter At this writing- (3lgL') the GEI'{S Grid Asia Pacific Regional office in Bangkok, Thailand has digitized the western samoa ecosystem data to be loaded in the regiona-I gE{S ARC/fNFO syst-ern at SpREp. Copies will also be installed at EAPI-Grid to enable the neasurements and-analyses listed above and in Western Samoa for long term purposes. ThuJ, at this writing, there is every reason to 6elieve thlt a phase two irnproved proposal for a Western Samoa reserves systern wiff be developLd, with support from' among others' EAPI, SPREP, TNC, and' the uN GEI'{S Grid Program' As part of another -soiLsproject sponsored by the Asian Development Bank, the base maps and rnaps of Western Samoa were redrawn, and iand-use, Iand tenure, and tana capability maps were developed. Alt of these data were loaded into the Western Samoan ABC/INFO Using both ARc/INFO and the data from the ADB project to d-evelop=y=t"r. a sup-erior phase three revision of the proposed reserves system might include: 1. expansion of the proposed system to include riparian corri- dors; z. adjustrnent or optimization to avoid displa.c_ing agriculture and polential agriCulture from productive soilsl 3, optirnization of land tenure impacLs (e-g. maximization of coincidence with government land) " 4. establishment of buffers and ecosystem recovery lands; and 5. analyses of the desirability and feasibility of corridors. The data from the ADB project are now in hand at both SPREP and EAPI, so a phase threL ffinat, superior) revision of the reserves system as proposed in this report can be developed. 39 CHAPTER 4 PRTORTTY ECOSYSTEMS FOR CONSERVATION In this.-section, Western Samoars according to .their naiiona_r- pli:t-ltf"to. ecosystems are listed nrgnest oriority listed first-and conslrvation, with the priority is uasla the'rowest prioriCy listed rast. western ruotn ;i;"- and nurnrer ii samoa) , aisiriu"[i6".'i;;"d;'rnits""-r"rttv-iJ -w"=t"rn map units in threat (to tne. typ" i""wJ=tIi" samoa) and threats to i;;;, based or-l=ressments, the inaii'iouir occurrences in western of it t few cases., the revei 5 suro.,. Note that r-s used to distinguish rellt#ely:r .6, ;;;; ";;*ron or species dominant option ecosystem tvpes. Hbte also-that frorn rerativery rare priorirv te-q. Fernlanas-ana;;;";;if-ror"=L!1""-o=yJt"m tvpl='tnJi are very 10w - or that are conmon t'- ;;;;'"" o u s ft :""iHt :1 ": r"" ",.,""1oitS"J "' = trands a nd n ipar i an The Nature conservancy typically conservation on the basis or-'rar-i't-f,-T*a::u.rEiorr,*Inaranks ecosystems for ji:T,o"" rive, wirh one i"iig threatr oD iJ;""t; !: tl: hishesr prioriry. A i L i i-J."1:-E'li;:ij1 ecosystem?,,r = rrdenonstraUiy*,:?"1,' ;'n"r"'j is sec.ure locally.: tll:lf ?l#llli*gli ranking process is L"pl"l'""a in rofl-i"ti'r-ir,'iJi.sar.lI (L986) ' TNc R-anks i":lL- rotrowing-ri=t er al. ;;"; ".#i _.r" prefixed with the i:::i',.in"!" r ii."i" i ? nr s ba s ed on "l3u i::i: r:ltl "" "' 1. Mt""d u"l""d samoars most f?i"+ (s1) This is western rare ecosvstem="rr"@=yJi"*. as rt is ii=o a very rupolu. there--l;; are 9l1V tni"" occurrences, br .these, a-re ais€.rrr"J'by all on .alien species- and ii 3i; ?u l" r. ti o,,'' r Ji o o nr'l;. i : il:, X J:ffil " * d i ns "ri "; ";ii: 2. Xvl0carpus Mangroye ecosystem. (s1) This is western samoa,s There G dnrv one occur..n"", rarest to nap. rt is rouna-.='ur, and it is too smar.r coastal Rain r.orest _"p ili! .i""rrra"J"l=o"y=t",14.i. -;;"_o"".,=r"."" occurrence in considered to be irmnEailtely -tnleatlnea, is not coastal nain roresrs urri--t-o-.rtinuing 5:ffi:::":: wiri-".rentua11y rhrearen rhe 40 pandanus turritus swarnp Forest (s1) - There are sLx occurrenc- tern Samoa' TheY are tll located along the easteln crest of the island of tupolu, and all are moderately to severely threatened by land-use conversion in their vicinities. 4. Freshwater Lake (S2) There are only eight occurrences for @vi"iaIthoughsomeHerbaceousMarshesmayhave open water on a-seasonaf bJsis). T\+o are on Savairi and six .i" on fUpolu. AII can be considered threatened by t!" prospect oi logging and other land-use conversions in their vicinities. so:rne rniy have been disturbed by the introduction of alien species of fish- 5. Mixed Lowland Species Swamp Foreqt (52) - There are many Mixed f,owfana SpeciGi Swamp Forests in Western Samoa. However, virtually all are &isturbed with only. five._undisturbed occurrences recorded. Of these, only one is on the island of savaiti. AII are severely threatenea uy land-use conversion and pigs. 6. Herbaceous Marsh (S2) Like Mixed Lowland Species Swamp Forests, there are many Herbaceous Marshes in Western Samoa' However, only l-4 occurrences (eight on Savairi and six on fupolu)' were- relatively undisturbed before hurricane ofa. only three were entirely spared by tle storn. All occurrences .r.-quite small, and ail ire severely threatened by land-use conversion and Pigs. 7. Rhizophora Manqrove (S2) - There are a great many occurrences @rove in Western Samoa. Most of these are included. ecosysterils (not nappable) along the edges of Brucrui- era Mangtroves-. Some of thiie ttincluded occurrencesil are in gooa-"t condition, and relatively secure. 11I of the occurrences this ecosystern that are Grge enough to map are severely disturbed exiept for a single site on rUpolu. 41f mappable sites are severLfy threatenea Uy adjacent and on-site land-use conversion. sonL are also thleatened by rubbish disposal' adjacent coral rnining, and pollution. 8. Metrosideros Montane Rain Forest (S2) - This is another very one very sma1l occurrence in tbe highlands of tupolu. rnat occurrence, however, is not threatened. 9. Grassland (S2) This is another very rare ecosystem, Yilh only one very snall occurrence in t'he high-lands of Savaiti' That occurrence, however, is not threatened' 4T Plate 8. Fanuatapu fsland, P1ate 9. Satanapu - Sataoa Mangrove, part of Site 7 E t: 10. Coastal Rain Forest (S3) - This ecosystem is severely threat- ened by conversion except on Apolirna fsland and the Alei-pata Islands where it is relatively secure. There ate L2 separat,e undisturbed occurrences on seven maps, but most of these are quite smal1. l,L. Ridqe Rain Forest (s3) - Ridge Rain Forest is one of Western Samoars most common ecosystems. There are, however, only four undisturbed occurrences, all on tUpolu. These four occurrenc- es tend to be protected by their steep nature and their remoteness. Even sor considering the extent of damage to other occurrences for this ecosystem, all remainingi occurrenc- es must be considered threatened. ]-2. Bruquiera Manqrove (53) Western Samoa retains only 1l- undisturbed sites for the Bruquiera Mangrove ecosystem. Fortunately, some of these on the south coast of rUpolu are fairly large. only one undisturbed occurrence persists on Savaiti. Threats incLude adjacent land-use conversion and fill. 13. Littoral Forest (S3) Littoral Forest is not rare, in the sense that there are L6 undisturbed sites remaining in Western Samoa (11 on Savai'i and five on tUpolu). However, all occurrences are quite sma1l, and all can be considered to be threatened by local land-use conversion. L4. Cloud Forest (53) - There are only seven map units distributed over only three maps for this ecosystem. AII of the map units are, however, contiguous, and together comprise a single occurrence in the highlands of Savaiti. The ecosystem is not 1ocaIly threatened. 15. Littoral Scrub (S4) Littoral Scrub is not uncommon as a narrow margin along Littoral Forests. Occurrences large enough to map are quite rare, with only two in Western Samoa. These are both on rUpolurs south shore, and were once connect- ed as a single occurrence. Threat is quite low, as this ecosystem occupies iron-bound coasts where land-use conversion is rarely an issue. The fUpolu occurrences are in ro Le Pupu Pure National Park. 43 16. )";*itlorar shruhl_and affi -or i.s- suite common !!.-Tu.gi"= other"l?t always as snalr .r" jl tr' or"ou"t.tlil-l{ ;;;.#,1.';i:il:::T:;ii:rx .*:lTr'"ff'tilg nargins"na"'=to.v of non-nati.r* -un-i/or^ *onry occurrences =,r"JI=Jiirr.r_ .r"u=.-- six severelv r",r".::g rv ir"..il'.''" shrubland species Lnd inEr -ofl.'rrrJ'nardi_ness oc-r,ittoral to lowei 'il; ",uiiitv^ il recoronize disturbed :::$=;il"" "on""rv1utiln priority ror this L7. urscrrmaxDisclima Lowran (s4). The cyatheacvathea on steep threeg;;;;.3;;9..;;,;j"^;!-i_."iffi"':l:-::l:o lands "r="t"r="..ii"i:t!]lu"i"i:"1:=,!*parchesLn the,f" ::Tli"-l-a1Lowran-d isol";; parchesu{-;rres occurrences are Larqe: Rain r"rllt ^.q surroundi;;-f,owlana- p^i-- '-:1^1qh to map separatelr,rately fron;;.-ol*1l ;:H:ill *, ? *"_T 19"u_ *l# rl?llll thl ^ -No f; :ff ::i?*.";u?,i:*._t.;it.,"'."l",=J*=r*|.:::,conversioD,. j,I:{l:_...".d.by It::yesting.Iand_use o""rrr"n""" " directly .parti""i"rfi'tll"olI 6onve.*.;..,,. --, 1r" tnr"at_"_r,liiil,, _ not*i';5#.ff adaptabte l:"1;';il;=:"i:j3':":$:::t"'"11?1'""="".1;'#'i: to-tu,irui""#] ^*__. ^ L8. Disclirnax (S4 ). The cvathea distributed j's common is_ isot"l;; occurrences steep lu'd."Tt the Montane patches "n l---^u - ln Rain E-nr^^+ ^-o # "' " ::::?, 3 iE" r s-^l' I; : ?" i ?,::' Rainro-r-e-#"JJ"?H".::Hi"ff;ff!:: =' *t ::: :iii ""f;t f ::"..5"."T$"j;te,,Montane 19. Lowtand .,::l *ot ecosystetn,^_wittrTi, F.oresr -Ii is one of ::Ipl_i=i.g io occurren"", savai'i i.n units on ,upogn and :7 map compris- r::g_tt.o""'r.-."nces a i s e the con s.".*,i t i o,, ;Xil i.rl?lT:i "iit= :.s severety threatln;i-;-{_-pJrji. -iiiv"=ting .tand_use conversion' secona, tirni.i +iE;:H::;rii*rffand ln coastal wnLrEE"y aorninatei^patchei t".,a "r:.: .." ,ort tlr5^eatened, - to occur ff i="'::::;:.:f ,.li=*"."8{;i"*'":**lii=irr:i:+Hi"Illis:Jo coastal ;:ffi"*"ii,lnFl"::ji*;i:;,,"T:,lli areas or 20. li:ff i::::i:r Volcanic Succession is one of ",":l*_ ; :#:ff :1"., Xl i?"1 J""""IT- " =.H$.1- *ff:. *J}. iiff". "li; 2r' Montane &ain Forest (ful Montane.Rain :til;:;:'"rffi*ai+:i#i. Forest is western None o Tap ;ii,' tnereia;l;:ir"i;:::::ffof t ":m:",r1"",", i:ii.,".:H:=%tnf ii"ffi::i:Si:::"* 44 u q a ? U U t F c c c \ll . rlF o{+ ( c o .Fl ( .lJ ? df !.(5( 0) 6l 8itr; Ul Itol A;t{l o rd Ot.d qt o g (0 El oa F{ I Ut U\O ."1 U tn ol qog EF ga g, a^ axa1ll ,< rrks'3 2 H'i -O.;+) O! C).ii OCrIX -N ii R td rr U!?l a -'PE o H(O +) (!co .r1 (D OOtl qJ o.2P o u 3 ilE nx > u k L.t .F4 a) 9ol'. a *-t O P O'-1 o Ot{ U +, a{ d.O u o+J r. O'-l t{ o Eotlt l{ 3'igl A 63d a !a0)rl >rO Fl O o 3 O{ 6i U)H A AFA tU.-l +J s{ trx(d o. '-l OO Ut ! '-l P{ "'ld d k p.c E O d'.{ .{ F{ o 1) o F4 A International Conservation Priorities on the basis of ecosysten type, many of Western Samoars ecosystem types are fairly common on a global basis. For example, aLl three Mangrove types, Mixed Lowland Species Swarnp Forests, Herbaceous Marshes, all Iittoral ecosystems, and the one Grassland, while relatively rare in Western Samoa, would be considered globally conrmon. On the other hand, some of Western Samoars more common ecosystem Lypes (e.g. Montane Rain Forests) are considered relatively rare on a global basis. At the global scale, virtually all wetlands, especially Mangroves, and all Rain and Cloud Forests are considered to be threatened. Western Samoars more common ecosystems assume further global importance when species of plants and animals are considered. For example, the Montane Rain Forest has the largest number of species of aI1 of Western Samoars ecosystems, while the lowland wetlands and littoral ecosystems have the least. There are many species found in Western Samoa that are unique to a given island, to Western Samoa, or to the Samoan Archipelago. Most of these species are found in the Montane Rain Forests and the Cloud Forests, but many are also found in the Lowland and Ridge Rain Forests and the upland swamps. The najority of Western Samoars undescribed species are to be found in the Rain Forests, Cloud Forests, and Upland Swamp Forests. In contrast, some of Sanoars rarest and/or most endangered ecosystems are cornprised of few but relatively widely spread species. Examples include the lowland wetlands and the littoral ecosystems. The following list includes estirnated global priori- ties for conservation of Western Samoars ecosystems based first on concentration of significant species (island and archipelago endemics and undescribed species) and then on global rarity, distribution, and threat to the ecosystem type. The Nature Conservancyrs ranking system is used again in this case, but with a rrcfr prefix to indicate global ranks) 5Note that ordinarily the TNC ranks are based on rarity, distribution, and threat and do not include priorities for concentration of sigrnificant species. The global ranks provided here thus do not conform exactly with TNC guidelines. 47 Ecosvstems and Global Conservation Ranks 1. Coastal Rain Forest (cZ) 2. Metrosideros Montane Rain Forest (G2) 3. Cvathea Disclimax Montane Rain Forest (G2) 4. Montane nain Forest (G2) 5. Cyathea Disclirnax Lowland Rain Forest (e}l 6. Lowland Rain Forest (eZ) 7. Cloud Forest (cZ) 8. Mixed Upland Species Swamp Forest (c2) 9. Ridge Rain Forest (c3) 10. PAndanus turritus Swamp Forest (c3) 11. Mixed Lowland Species Swarnp Forest (G3) L2. Herbaceous Marsh (c3) 13. Brucruiera Mangrove (c4) 14. Xvlocarpus Mangrove (G4) 15. Freshwater Lake (c4) 16. Rhizophora Mangrove (c4) L7. Volcanic Succession (G5) 18. Littoral Forest (c5) L9. Littoral. Scrub (G5) 20. Littoral Shrubland (c5) 2L. Grassland (cS) -The 4aps shown in plates 4 and 5 are annotated to illustrate the locations (or the centers of) ecosystem occurrences for all ecosysten types with ranks of s2 or G2 or higher. These are the occurrences of western samoa-rs highest priority (elenents) of ecological diversity. components 48 t/ CHAPTER 5 PRIORITY SITES FOR CONSERVATION In this chapter, sites are recommended for conservation on the basis of five odjectives. These are, in order of priority: 1. to conserve viable occurrences of ecosystems that have high global and national ranks, developed in the previous chapter' Lncluding aI1 possible occurrences of G2 and S1 and S2 ecosystems; 2. to conserve the largest occurrence or practical section of an occurrence of each ecosystem occurring in Western Samoa in order to achieve a viaLle, representative protected areas systemr' 3. to conserve adjacent occurrences of normally adjacent ecosys- tems in order to conserve their ecotone(s); 4. to conserve broad bands of native ecosystems extending f5on the coast to the interior highlands in order to provide wildlife corridors, especially for forest birds and flying foxes, and to conservl examples of hydrologically Iinked ecosystemsl and 5. to conserve occurrences of each priority ecosystem (G2,. G3, 51, SZ, s3) on both north and souih sides of both Savairi and tUpolu'in order to insure against ecosystem extinction during rnajor natural disasters. Site numbers (t through 261 are given to use with the maPs on plates 10 and 11. Site naires are based on the nearest village or i-ratural feature, and are more-or-less arbitrary. Western Samoan users of these materials are encouraged to rename these sites to better conform to custom. Map unit numbers are given in brackets in the descriptions for people using the large 1:20'000 map overlays or th6 reduced rnaps in the technical report- Others can ignore the numbers in brackets. Sites are listed in order of priority: 1. Lona - punataemoro Forests This site includes the Lona Montane @ and the western end of the North- east rUpolu Ridge Rain Forest 124.31 above.Fagaloa Bay. It also intludes the Punataemoro Swamp Forest 124.L3). This Mixed Upland Species Swamp Forest iJ in excellent condition, and it includ-es large Corridors of riparian forest, and Afulilo FaIIs. As fir as can be determined, the site has never been explored by ecologists or botanists. Nestled between the niage Rain Forest and the Swamp Forest is the punataemoro Lowllnd Rain Forest 124.L2). The Lona - Punataem- 49 mofo Forests site is the highest priority site in western samoa because it includes the only undisturbed occurrence for western samoats.highest priority ecosystem, and it is .r, opportunity to incrude an_ interesting- corridor from swanp Forest through Lowland and Ridge Rain Fbrests to Montane Raiir Forests. The site is not threatened by rand conversion except on the southern edge of the swamp rorelt, but it is ihreatened by _ a proposed hydroelectric dLvelopnent. ofa damage rrras moderate except on the steepest where land slips normally naintain disclimax communitiel..!r.dges, rapid. Recovery should be 9a1atilua Lowland Foreqts - The lowland southwestern forests of Salarilua in savai'i incrude coastar Rain Forests lLA.L, 14.31, Lowrand Rain Forest [14.4], Littoral Forests []-4.1, L4.21, Herbaceous strand lL4.zl0 ind the onry occurrence for western sanoats rarest ecosystem, the xvrolcarnus Mangrove Iincruded in 14.].1. There was virtuarly no damage from Hurricane ofa, but there is every indicatioi-t tnat irre r,owrana Rain Forest i-s being converted r.lpidly, reducing ,oi-orrly the slte itself , but al-Jo its proxirnity to ifre coastward extension of the Highlands of savai'i site lsite number g). 3. Fusiluaga Forest - This site includes the disturbed Fusiluaga Yi"g9 Upland species. swamp Forest lz4.sl and portions of the Fusiluaga Lowland Rain Foiests [24.]-0, 24.L41. rt lies berow the Punataemoro swamp Forest in centrar rupolu and is fed by Afulilo Falrs and stream. Even.though it i; aistuinea, it is a hig! priority site given that it in6tudes the second rargest exampre of western samoars highest priority ofa damage was rninor. ""o=y=tlrn. 4. 4,lgipata rsrands This discontinuous site includes four islands off the eastern end of 'uporu with it p"ilinl occur- rences of coastal Rain Forest and Littoral Forest. None of the isrands is entirely undisturbgd, but undisturbed exampres of ecosysterns occur on arr four islands. The potential for eco-tourism is very small, but the site is not threatened., and it represents an excerlent opportuniiy ior a coastar ecosys- tems reserve. ofa-damage was nbt assesSed. This site has been proposed as a national park, and is more thoroughly described in pubrications by Andiews and Horthus (l-989), chew (1987), and Whistler (1983a). Occurrences include: Fanuatapu Island CoastaL Rain Forest t2g.6l Fanuatapu Island Littorat Forest t2A.il Fanuatapu Island Littoral Shrubland 1ZS.a3 Namufa fsland Coastal Rain Forest 1Ze.S3 Nurutere rsrand coastal Rain Foresis [2g.10, zg.L2] Nurutele fsland Littoral Forest lZS.ril Nurutele fsland Lowland Rain forest t28.161 Nu r.ulua f - sland Lowland Rain Forest 1ie . f f 1 50 Nurulua Island Littoral Forest [ 28. ]-4 J Nu'u1ua Island Coastal Rain Forest [ 28 . ]'5l 5. Falealupo Lowland Forests - This site on the western end of ffies one of Western Samoa I s best Lowland Rain Forest occurrences [1.f] and some of the larger occurrences of Coastal Rain Forest t1.21 and Littoral Forest [1.3]. Ofa damage was moderate and the site is weII recovered. Most or aII of the sj-te is already included in the Fa1ea1upo Reserve. 6. Taqa Lowland Forests - This site on the south coast of Savaiti consists of an excellent Lowland Rain Forest occurrence [14.5] and Western Samoars largest occurrence for Coastal Rain Forest lL4.6l including patches of Littoral Scrub and Shrubland and bordeied by tleibaceous Strand. These forests are high1y threatened by land conversion and the possibility of commer- cial logging. l,tany blow holes and pocket beaches are included along the coast giving this site high potential for eco- tourism and day-recreation development. The impacts of Ofa were minimal 7. Satanapu - Sataoa Mangrove and Coastal Rain Forest This swift and beauti-ful estuary on south central 'Upolu is bordered by Western Samoars finest Bruquiera Mangrove l2I.2O' 25.21 and one of its nicest Coastal Rain Forests [25.1]. The potential for eco-tourism is considerable. Ofa deposited a fair amount of sand in the estuary mouth, but the ecosystems are in good condition. 8. Hiqhlands of Savai'i - This site is d,ominated by the Savai'i Cloud Forest 17.3,8.4,11.3, LL.4,11.6, L2.31 and is the largest recommended site in Western Samoa. Along the crest of the island, this site includes a maze of craters, some of which are not rnapped on the topographic sheets. Sorne of these craters have small and unmapped wetlands in them. A band of the Main Savai'i Montane Rain Forest [parts of 6,2, 7.L, 7.8, 7.9, 7.L6, 8.3, 9.L, l-O.1, LL.2, L2.2, 13.11 is included in the site. This band of Montane Rain Forest should be sufficient to connect and buffer the very significant occurrences listed above and sufficient to serve as a reserve for the Montane Rain Forest Ecosystem on Savaiti. A band of the South Savai'i Lowland Rain Forest [part of 14.10] extend- ing towards the Taga Forests is also included as offering the best (albeit discontinuous) opportunity for a highlands to coast corridor on Savairi. The upland forests on the northern exposures of this site were severely defoliated by Hurricane Ofa, but refoliation is very probable, and there are virtually no weeds intruding into the uplands of Savaiti. I 51 This site has. frequently see especiarrv r-porti been recommended for reserve status. bv rt-ii;il] , and Frovd jl3lil:Je", KRrA irgea). rrre sire incrudes-Ho-rlowav tri" folrowins Vanutausala cvathea Discrimax croud Forest t7.6r; Mr' Afi High Elevation elevation lava f10w^ (116,0] supporting high volcanic succepsion ra.e z.rct .rr'J=rrrrounding an island of Montane ) .7.21 Rain rori=i 16.10 , i Mt. Afi crater (1760) supporting high Succession lZ.L7l; elevation Vor.canic Mr. Mata fo le ofi_ Lava.flow elevation Volcanic (!pg2) supporting high Succe"=ion-'-tl . tZl ; Mt' Mu lava f 10w .(-19-? supporting-sF- high erevation Volcanic Succession l-l .tsi; Mt' silisiri cinder._"gr"= supportingr high Volcanic Succession [7.7]; --rr' erevation Mt. Silisili Herbaceous Marsh [ 7 . 10 ] ,. ro Mt. Mata le Afi Grassland [7.11]; Lake Mafane ILZ.S); Mt. Maugaloa Herbaceous Marsh 112.6l; and Alia '1J"-_Gaoa cvathea Disclirnax Montane [ 11.5 , 72 .4] . Rain Forest 9. central ruporu uprands The isrand of fupolu more heaviry poputatea than is order and resurt, the israna of savaifi. As a the upland forests of ,"ooil disconlinuousry distributed- There- i=,- f;; example,'rJ_ singre.are Rain Forest on the isrina.- surpii=i'giy, centrar Montane Iy large ur'rq essentiuiiy there is a rerative_ forest in the conrinuouJ iegion of undisturbed interior o-f central 'upoi' extending from the north shore to near the south shore. near rmpacts from Hurricane ofa inc.uded severe uprands and manv rand.srifl-in-ch;;i;;; defoliation i_n the the former casd is vir-"-arry - gorges. Recovery in landslip= in tne ratter case, ;:l:r-rnduced rt"ip 1o""it.ir,. rnaintiln the cyarhea discrima_ This site is doni.nated by Montane Rain Forest following ecosystem o""riri"nces: and includes the 52 the Mt. Le Pure Montane Rain Forest L22.8, 23.9)i the Mt. Le Pure Herbaceous Marsh 122.91i Lake Le Pure 122.2L)i the Mt. Fito Montane Rain Forest t22.I6, 23.LO, 25.8, 26.L1 with large areas of Cyathea disclimax areas and Riparian Woodlands; the Mt. Poutavai nidge Rain Forest [23.18] the Fa1efa River Lowland Rain Forest [23.11]; the somewhat disturbed inland Lowland Rain Forests of rO Le Pupu Pure National Park [25.L8, 26.3]; and Mataloa Stream (East Branch) Lowland Rain Forest 123.J-4, 23. 15 , 26.91 . l-0. Eastern tUpolu Uplands A long, broad ridge extends from central tUpolu toward the southeast. The ridge itself is dominated by Disturbed Lowland Rain Forest 127.4). The central and least disturbed portion is reconmended for inclusion in this site. A corridor should connect to the Sinoi Stream Cyathea Disclimax Lowland Rain Forest. The Lor^rland Rain Forests on this site were severely defoliated by ofa, but full recovery is probable. Even if the rain forests are extensively invaded by weeds and/or converted to gardens, buffers should be maintained around the upland wetlands. Along the crest of the ridge are some of Western Samoars highest priority ecosystem occurrences. These include: Mt. Savairi Pandanus turritus Swamp Forest 127.7) including a snall, probably internittent, Iake with a narrow margin of Herbaceous Marsh; Lake olomagra 127.81 including a narrow margin of Herba- ceous Marsh and Lake Olomaga Pandanus turritus Swanp Forest 127.91; Lake Lanoto lz7.L0l including a narrow margin of Herba- ceous Marsh and Lake Lanoto Pandanus turritus Swamp Forest l27.ILJi Mt. Tiatala Pandanus turritus Swamp Forest 127.L6)i Mt. Olomauga Pandanus turritus Swamp Forest [27.L7)i 53 Mt- seuga pandanus turritus swamp Forest 127.1,gr; and Mt. Latalua Herbaceous Marsh lZ7.Lg). 1L. Gagaifoolevao and Matautu Lowland Forests - This discontinuous site on the southwest c@udes the Gagaifoore- yao swamp Forest [21.8] and tha two Matautu srurff Forests 121.9, 2]-. 101. These cornprise an interesting -irnprex of forested wetlands incruding tnocarpus stands on peat soils with no understory (v^er-y trnusuar); Ervthrina,=itu.ated Hiuisius, and Pan-da-nus swampsr' and patches of Herbaceous Marsh, East of the Matautu swamp Foresis lies the remnant of the Matautu Lowrand Rain Forest t21.r.11. This site is uoraeieo by the rrReturn to paradise Beachfr to the west margi-n and an interrupted of coconut prantations to the east. There is an ancient road that connects through to salamumu. rne potential for ecotouri:r-_i= very high. r'here is a small (<1 ha) pond with duckweed (!+mna plrpuiirral in western irnpacts were minimEf- rrare samoa). ofa 12. 4l:- Tqlitotelau This site on western ,upo1u includes Metrosideros Montane Rain Forest part rupolu on the crater rirn t21.r-61 and of the western Montane Rain Forest [].g.15 and part of 21.171. cerbera odarrum (rare), ltetros:_aeiol coiiina (rare ol1 tupolu), and syzvgium neurocarv: (r-are) chrysoglossum are found here. -ornatum, a iare orcnia found at this site, has been collected only once. ofa caused moderate but recovery is likely. defoliation, 13. There are three significant lakes lzz.Lgt 22..L9, zz.zo1 on this site on western iuporu of which the largest, Lake L"anototo, has been recommended for reserve status on several previous occasions. Lake Lanoataata and Lake Lanoanea are thieatened by rana conversion to the northwest. part of the western rulolu Montane Rain around the lakes is included in Forest the the iite [part ot 22.rL] as is contiguous Leafe River Montane Rain Forest l2z.L5r with its cyathea disclirnaxes and niparian wooarana=. L4. - ".'," lvwrqrrLr pL:esysrems arlo FLows This complex ecosystem occurrences extends =Lava of rrom-Etre nblthh coast of savaiSavairiecrvq,I ri' I *lu..otl o"f;f"li,=.I."r,1^-',:.:, (1760) _ll_" _interior. ri l= d-;;;;;; . byyI thel-rl,E Tf L1va. Flow_s arso known .=-tn" A'opo r,ava Ftows t2'7, 3:1, 3.2, 7-4, 7.sl where the ecosystems are volcanic succession on young pahoehoe materiars. colntiguorr= es included in the tite include o""rr=renc_ the the Asau coastar Rain Forest 12.41 , Asau Littoral fgre-1t -ofa'damage[2.5], and the olat Aropo village Littorar shrubland Lz.6). was slight. 54 15. Apolima Coastal Rain Forest This site is comprised of a single map unit lL|.9l on the steep western, southern' and eastern seaward slopes of Apolina fsland. It is one of the better remaining Coastal Rain Forests in Western Samoa. Ofa impacts are not known. 16. Tafua Peninsula Lowland Forests - This discontinuous site on the Tafua Peninsula of southeastern Savaiti is protected through a 5o year, informal reserve agreement negotiated between the village and the Swedish Society for the Conserva- tion of Nature. It includes Lowland Rain Forest 1L6.2, L6.5, L6.6, L6.7) and Littoral Forests, Shrublands, Scrubs, and Herbaceous Strands []-6.3, 1-6.41. Some of the Lowland Rain Forest was highly disturbed before Hurri-cane Ofa [16.5 and the roadside margins of L6.2 and 15.71. The forests of the entire peninsula were severely reduced by Ofa, with up to 5o? of the trees blown down in places and with virtually total defolia- tion of the remainder. Following the storm, about 2Ot of the Lowland Rain Forest burned [the northern portion of L6.2]- Weeds (especially Mikania nicrantha and Merremia peltata) have invaded nearly l-00 meters into the forest from the road margins, especially along the burned portions. The majority of the site should recover. L7. to Le Pupu Lowland Forests This site includes the coastal Lowland Rain Forests 125.L7, 26.41 and Littoral Scrub 125.t6, 26.51 of rO Le Pupu Pu'e National Park on the south coast of 'Upolu. Ofa produced moderate defoliation in the Lowland Rain Forest, but recovery is proceeding rapidly. The Littoral Scrub was not affected. l_8. Mulivai Coastal Ecosysterns The site L25.7I of the former Hide-away Hotel on the south coast of tUpolu, this small site includes not only Littoral Forest but a narrow Bruguiera Mangrbve along the inlet, patches of Herbaceous Marsh on the inland side and by the road, narrow bands of Littoral Shrub- land and very nice Herbaceous Strand on the seaward side. This site was not irnpacted by Ofa and has high day-recreation potential. 19. Musucrale Point Herbaceous Marsh This site [17.10] on the western end of tUpolu is one of Western Samoars best Herba- ceous Marshes. ofa did not affect this site. 20. Apolimafou Herbaceous Marsh - This site lL7.2l on the western end of tUpolu is one of Western Samoars best Herbaceous Marshes. This ecosystem is in excellent to good condition except along the rnain road. ofa did not affect this site. 55 2L. One of Western largest and best tteiEaE6us Marihes before Samoars [1.6] on the western ofa, this site places end of savairi ,i._ ,"lrerery darnaged in by the storm. rt is r."or.L"a.a for conservation because of its. gogd prospects for recovery (much of Eleocharis survived thL storm and the areas), its reseed dtre remaining size, and its rerative isoiation."., -ana A new hotel is planned for 1T1-adjoining- this negative should be carefully lvoided. =iie, impacts 22. MaLaemalu Marsh - This Herbaceous Marsh t26.zl.l is in excer_ lent condition and is unusual in shore of rUpolu. that it o""rr., on the south 23. Mt. Fa-o Rain Forests site Mt Fao is a rerativery inaccessibre r24'6, 24.21 nortn of nay tr, ruporu with Ridge and Montane Rain Forbsts_Fagaroa These"u"t"rr, were affected by ofa, but recovery i= proUJie. moderately 24. FaIelatai Manqrove This occurs Bruguiera-inlet Mangrove site t17.81 rUpolu.along a scenic tidal on the western shore Ofa did not affect this site. oi 25' vaovai Mangrove - This Bruquiera Mangrove occurs a tidat channer on the south coast-of ,upolu-;J-i=--;-;;;E[26.1a] ar_onq shape. No damage from Ofa was noted. 26. This site occupies a narro_w strip arong the south east coast of rtrnolrr ; if, . I i I ;i r._ ti ;;iGi ;;;#T"f x*r" li="l rl'c coastal::::: ',: o f L i tt ora r r"r" " i ::Tj -"::I:Lf=, li'g-"_= . =t-iio'iiit lIIffi ffi i$j dDd d-i=; :I^*, *il!o=via,. |rrus1- il;-;ildil?:=T;'lf:= -o i u e aut iE-r ;;f :;;;;", .' Lr.t-cl : :: "F::- :l "f,^?this site,^111 and the ;;i: rT ;i;uIq high.l?:*d"r"ge potentiai ror day-recreation is 56 CHAPTBR 6 A CONSERVATION METHOD Backqround Conversion of land (including shallow waters) is the primary threat to Western Samoars ecologibal diversity. Conversion includes conversion from native ecosystems to dist,urbed or non-native ecosystems including managed or abandoned land. This is accom- plished by local intensification of land-use, poll.ution, and other manipulation of land. Conversion is driven primarily by the demand for iood and money. Conversion of large areas of land occurs when resource developers (e.g. tirnber cornpanies) purchase access to resources. In -theory this does not involve alienation of the customary land, but the converted land nay be inaccessible to the customary owners for long periods and it is often of no use to the customary owners when access is re-established- Land conversions often have unacceptable side effects (e.9. esthetic disruption, pollution, soil erosion) in addition to the disturbance or eradication of local ecosystems. There are widespread perceptions that the purchasers of resource concessions cheat on their reporting of resources extracted and their payments of royalties. The majority of economie benefits from resource concessions are exported, dt least from the loca1 area and often from the country. Under the circumstances, it is not surprising that the taiga and Matai of Western Samoa increasingly perceive conversion (especially large-scale conversion) as the unwise expenditure of capital resources that should be held in invested status. Another way of putting this is that those who control and benefit from the fana wduld fike to avoid large-scale conversion ahd accompanying damages, if alternative ways of making noney from the land can be found. The recent establishment of nature reserves and the growing interest in nature tourisrn at Falealupo and Tafua is evidence of this trend. An Alternative to Consider One alternative approach to conservation could be based on the use of the resources concession, an established and accepted instrunent in the South Pacific region where it is used by tirnber companies to acquire tirnber rights. A government or private conservation orginization could acquire resource concessions for fixed periods of time (e.g. 50 years) with the understandj-ng.that it would not exercise extraction rights under the concessions. These Resource Conservation Concessions would function exactly like 57 lSii5$"o""ff ".TJtr':i.""rH"J""XTr..Ilti"i'=rnore-or-ressthernethod However, conservation it is suggested that acquisition concessions-=[eaav should ,roi--i" paid -ritn of resource cash but rather by a frow i",. lunp sums of This stream or be-n6rils,'oyer of u"r,"rit= i"'in" randowners. concessions, the terln or the *=-o-r."e could be equal in rriru. to the.lrrp conservation conclusivelv 'l*".=sum, and should be :::5#*i# tf;"t:::ffi:*e ro rhe rhe value or The proposal for sum investrnent achi-eving this end that the jointlv should ue'-praced i"'. r,"car_is original rurnp run bv trr" r""ai iana cons"i.'.iron Trust to be tion. The corpus ";;;;; irra.tn. organj_za_ invested, - of the trust line-originSr"or,-=-"i.r-.rion lump and the-l""ti" frorn' irr. investment sum) shourd be avai.lable to the f""iilandowning-clmnunj.t_y- shourd be made would restrict the The ideat approach ment based "*p"tlit,r"" oi'trri='-i.,"ome to economic on the =n"iuin.ure usl .or=.JrJJ-."=ources.deverop- Exanples "rrin. of ways to invest the incorne on -'. from the trust in order n om i c i t i n s n i p s- *.'i"t L" t""-" rh e r e s o "=ffi T#i; * " " " ur c e l-' supporting in a forest res-erve, the sustainable. and/or .propagating of harvesting reforestation. prdgram==""Jr-i1,'g-J of ,,.tr-v"-*iJi""t trees for ecosvstem leading toward soil restoration,- and/or 6onmerciar -t-irJu";Tffi:li:l: Research wourd be needea r'"-a"t;;ri;;-;;=iiiiLr" capitar equipnent purcn3="=, harvesrs. and private market'aevelopr"r,i-"J,riai;;J;."paratior, i'a governnent J_ncome. il-;;il;i Iro,n rhe rrust 2' supporting in a forest reserve the sustainable harvesting ".to"""tj."t foiest proa,r"[=-. The and ffitt;":= =.*-" "*p"r,="" wourd 3 ' supporting- for a rnarine revolving fund reserve the establishment ror 10w or no interlst toans -ioJio".r of a fishers_ e a r ch wo : :. $"; i::, i = u I d n e e o e a i o manasemenrwoura;;;quiiea.--r_,ru."L1;-1.;:i::]t;."..?;.:I:":H1,"1" r$j:ll: :; l: _be ri;h -;;-;" ;;:"i"Ji?.riil. :;i:-'"ii :li:"* "lt?-";t".=, 4' buirdingr or refurbishing 10car infrastructure drainsr or. sewers where such such as roads, in question rron, -fo,"or,=t.r"tion !"lipr", ;"r.r; protect the :;;""r"es "rt=i'#ir porrution; 5B 5. establishing eco-tourism facilities where income from the facilities presurnably would support their rnaintenance and also provide local income. The Local Conservation Trust Each Local Conservation Trust should consist of: 1. an internationally diversified, professionally managed investment portfolio; 2. a local board made up of the Matai who have pule over the Iands under the LCT; and 3. a contract between the local board and the conservation organization specifying : a. who will decide how to spend the income from the trust; b. that the 'aiga(s) and land(s) represented by the local board would be the sole beneficiaries of the income from the trust; c. that the corpus of the trust would be inviolate and unavailable for expenditures, Ioans, ot collateral for Ioans I d. what, if dDyr portion of the income from the trust is to be used to pay a local land steward or caretaker, generally hired from the 'aiga controlling the land covered by the resource conservation concession; and defining: e. certain services that the conservation organization would provide to the local board (e.9. staff assistance); f. procedures for resolving disputes within the local board and between the local board and the conservation organi- zationi and g. procedures for canceling and/or renegotiating the trust contract. The Resource Conservation Concession Resource Conservation Concessions (RCCs) would be held and enforced by the conservation orgranization in exchange for the establishment of Local Conservation Trusts (LCTs). It would be a non-use concession functioning exactly like a conservat,ion easement 59 except that it would normalry. expire after a period of years (it would otherwis_e violate prohibitions against p"im.n"ntly alienating customary land). such a concession should ltipufate exactly ttre linits on resource uses. There should be a str'onq- preference for allowing most or all customary uses of the conserv"-d re=ources (but excluding or.regulating custolnary uses that rare species). The concession must be carefutly worded"na.t'rg"i so tlhat it ates preclude economic?1fy viable sustainable uses that nigtrt "6tbe initiated with assistince from the income from the Local tion Trust. Conserva- 9!n"T provisions should cover conditions and procedures for cancerration and renewal of the concession, piocedures for resorving disputes, and a guaranteed opportunity ro?- tne conserva- tion organization to renegotiate tne cbncession'and-re-finance the trust in the event that a new, outside offer for an extraction concession or other ecologically destructive development is received and favorably considered Ly the land owners. otherwj-se, of course, the concession would be canceled and some or all of the corpus of the trust would revert to the investors. Comments and Recommendation This proposal describes one possible mechanism whereby the customary lands of western samoi could be protected without arienating them, whire at the same tine pr"?1ai"g for their management, protection, and enforcement of th-e terms of conserva- tion agrreements. It also provides for demonstration of the economic advantages of conserving and using sustainabl_e leveIs. ""t"iir resources at . This proposal incrudes, and in fact is founded on, the basic ?rincipre of local institution building. without effective 1ocal institution !ui]_ding, it wirr f air . "rf it the local institutions built in ttre proc€ss, especially =rr""""d=,the locar conserva- tion trusts, ildy prove to be its "nos€ vatua6re products. rate' one strength of this proposal At any is its alllna"tr""^western on the existing network of land rnanagenent entities in Samoars fara samoa approach to managernent of customary rands. This proposar is, on the face of ilr very eomprex. rn fact, it probably is a nore simpre approach tiran ,nLny 6tn"r" tried less deveroped countries (6.g. atut-ror-nature in =-,*"p"1 . Finally,. this proposal assumes a so.lid background ca1- of ecologi- assessment and conservation data collection a-nd *irr.g"rnent. rt is essential that the cons,ervation l.ogr.r described here be impremented on the best possi_bre. sites] tfat is, tnlse--ana having the most biotogical and/or- ecological signif ic..,t" the prospects for long terrn viability. best 60 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION Western Samoa is a land blessed witn ri-ch and diverse ecosystems. Some of the worldrs rarest and most threatened and thus, most precious species and ecosystems are found here. As a result of its insularity and its rugged topography, much of Western Samoars natural environment is relatively undegraded by hurnan action. Over half of the island of Savairi and approximately 3OZ of the island of rUpolu support relatively undisturbed native ecosystems. The opportunity to protect this environment has not yet disappeared as it has in some other less fortunate countries. On the other hand, especi-a1ly in the lowlands, Western Samoans are converting their last remaining examples of native ecosystems to agricultural lands and weedy wastelands at an extraordinary rate. Tirnber concessions, borrow pits, haphazard solid waste disposal, the excessive use of agricultural fertilizers and pesticides, and the routine conversion of land to other kinds of productive use are alI contributing to this process. There are several reasons why Western Sarnoans should begin to take very seriously the conservation of their-remaining ecosystems. For example, ecologfical lessons to be learned from hurricane Ofa included the following: 1-. native forests fared much better than non-native forests; 2. undisturbed native forests fared much better than disturbed native forests; 3. larger occurrences of native ecosystems suffered much less than smaller occurrences of native ecosystemsl and 4. native ecosystems rnust be conserved in many places, because any single occurrence can be eradicated by a natural disaster. one can only wonder about what will happen to fara Samoa when the natural environments of Western Samoa are gone, or so severely reduced that they must be locked up in strict nature reserves. The culture of Western Samoa grevr up in the natural environment of Western Samoa, and is unlikely to thrive on its native soil without its native canopy. Economic sustainability is dependent on sustaining the natural environment. The developnent of a quality tourism industry in Western Samoa is dependent on the maintenance of a quality environment. Otherwise, the tourist industry wiII decline, ot it will become the sort of tourism that the majority of Western Samoans wilt strongly dislike. Indiscriminate timber harvesting 61 $ri11 result in- of no more forests-resutt and no more timber. native wildlife in ih; over_harvesting components of western"u"- sarnoa's natural-heritage..disappearance of these rt is fair to their say that of western native curture jnJ-Jt .al._l-trah_rightsnaturar e-nvironm;;;"1; samoans are "ir " - destroy the i i; ; p o r e n r i i i:ff r ff. ?.'l li*:;r]*i, i i v t o s r e a r th e "' "i'f*"=: But the picture is not bleak. we. have outrined in this il35ill; 3:l#:" in order ro prorect $i3l3l3 ?:,1=:,i. ffi: Prompt and creative acti.on birthrights can save the day in WGsternta-moa. of future l,{estern Samoans can be protected. The western sarnoa is famous Pacific region. for its leadersh_ip role in the regron' western samoa led thelndependdnce south and it had the first system-oi nati.;;i-;;;= .o.,r"r"rrt in the areas in the south pa"iilc. wester' ana protecred islanders to hold i"aa"*tr.ip. su*our,= were also the first conference, pi"ific- ;;;iiilr,= in the louth pacific Regional !h" souttt--p.Jqt.r. ci^riJJior,, and Environm"tti western the south pacific curture as one of the-w-Jild's r.=i-"i"mp1essamoa tras conserved its u'"o"odate .r il", tradition and ;:iff1".!:r=oJ#J:carlv- inlernati";;i econornic and rf western samoa and_ its pe.opre undertake conservation of their native ecosyst6r= the systematic demorrstrate rheir al.y wi11, once again, have r""j""-=ir,ip_-i"-i;;-;;gigr.T:1, rn undertaken slch .pJ"L'i"rr, fact, few nations nity for western samoa" =v=tlratic€o set.an =o trri!-i= ., opportu- "'*irpr"=i;frpi"=t"''i-J.io-", of globar significance. f,l: S:inrf"" #T**i".":i;;, o."" asain, 62 REFERENCES CITED This list of references covers both the project report and the technical report (Pearsall and whistler 1991, infra). 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