RESEARCH ON TRAIN STATION ARCHITECTURE DESIGN

METHOD BASED ON CLIMATE RESPONSE

A DARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF ARCHITECTURE

April 2021

By An Guo

DArch Committee: Martin Despang Willian Chapman Nathan Toothman

Keywords: Climate response, Train station architecture, Design method

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to express the most profound appreciation to my committee for their continued support and encouragement. Many thanks to my committee chair, Professor Martin Despang, who met me on time every week and brought me countless academic surprises. Under his guidance, I was exposed to international frontier research and rich professional practice, broadening my horizon. My study and practice of climate-responsive architecture have gone from initial ignorance to a deeper understanding. From him, I feel the image of an excellent architect, professor, and scholar, who has endless enthusiasm for professional fields and new challenges. His constant guidance and support gave me the confidence and perseverance to finish the thesis.

Thanks to my committee members, Professor William Chapman and Nathan Toothman, who gave me many inspiring comments.

I offer my sincere appreciation for the opportunity provided by the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa School of Architecture and Tongji University College of Architecture and Urban Planning to join the Global Track dual degree program. Thanks to Professor Clark Llewellyn, Professor Yiru Huang, Vanessa Works. Although the COVID-19 epidemic changed many of our plans, we have successfully weathered the difficulties.

Finally, I would like to thank my family for supporting my ideas, respecting my choices, and letting me fly, from the time I left home at the age of 11 to the time I am about to finish my education. During the writing period, my father helped me analyze the crux of the paper from the perspective of a Chinese teacher, and my mother always reminded me to pay attention to the deadline. I would also like to thank my girlfriend and her family for their selfless care in my life and emotions, making me feel at home here in Shanghai. I

ABSTRACT

Climate is called "the only nature that has not been artificially created". With the acceleration of globalization, the convergence of buildings in different regions is increasingly apparent. When we retrospect to the regionality of buildings, the local climate with which the buildings are born becomes a crucial environmental clue.

This paper explores the potential of architecture response to local climate from the dimensions of design strategy and integrated design. It takes the train station as an example to analyze the methods of climate-responsive design. The thesis is mainly divided into six chapters:

The first chapter puts forward the research background and problems, comprehensively analyzes the development and research status of climate-responsive architecture, clarifies the research objectives, and constructs the framework.

Based on historical theory and practical cases, the second chapter analyzes the evolution of climate-responsive concepts and practices from three periods: traditional architecture, modern architecture, and contemporary architecture.

The third chapter discusses the principle of climate-responsive architecture design, analyzes human comfort and energy demand, and energy transformation in climate from the perspective of energy, and then puts forward climate-responsive design strategy based on architectural system (structure, skin, equipment). Finally, it puts forward that integrated design is the key to strategy application.

The fourth chapter analyzes the case of the train station and summarizes its regularity based on climate response. Firstly, the four periods of railway station building development

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are briefly summarized. Then the global climate is simplified into four climatic regions: hot-humid, hot-dry, temperate and cold. Finally, the corresponding design strategies of different climate zones are analyzed.

The fifth chapter takes Chongming Train Station as an example to analyze how to apply climate-responsive design strategy and integrated design method in practice to realize the combination of architectural performance and aesthetics.

Chapter six concludes and puts forward the prospect.

Climate-responsive design is based on the principle of energy flow. It analyzes the stable regional physical conditions, such as wind, sunshine, and air temperature, with scientific methods and realizes it through appropriate design strategies and highly integrated design. Nowadays, with increasing attention to sustainability and energy, climate-responsive design provides a new perspective and development trend for contemporary architecture.

Key Words: Climate Response; Train Station Architecture; Design Method

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CONTENT ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... I ABSTRACT ...... II CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Research background and problems ...... 1 1.1.1 Contemporary architecture is often disconnected from its climatic environment ...... 1 1.1.2 Mismatch and abuse of green building technology ...... 4 1.1.3 Train station consumes a massive amount of energy ...... 6 1.2 Research purposes ...... 7 1.3 Definition of related concepts and research scope ...... 8 1.3.1 Two Important Concepts ...... 8 1.3.2 Scope of research ...... 9 1.4 Literature review ...... 12 1.5 Research significance ...... 18 1.6 Research method ...... 20 1.7 Research framework ...... 22 CHAPTER 2 HISTORY OF CLIMATE-RESPONSIVE ARCHITECTURE ...... 23 2.1 Traditional architecture response to climate ...... 24 2.2 Climate rejection and climate response of architecture in the modernist period ...... 32 2.2.1 Climate rejection ...... 32 2.2.2 Climate response ...... 34 2.2.3 Vladimir Ossipoff's practice of Hawaiian modern architecture ...... 41 2.3 Contemporary Architecture Embracing Climate ...... 53 2.3.1 The Rise of Environmental Awareness and Sustainability ...... 54 2.3.2 Reflection on the single visual thinking in architecture ...... 54 2.3.3 Climate has become an important topic in contemporary architecture ...... 55 CHAPTER 3 PRINCIPLES OF CLIMATE-RESPONSIVE DESIGN IN ARCHITECTURE ...... 61 3.1 Interaction of climate, body and architecture ...... 61 3.2 Human Comfort and Energy Demand ...... 64 3.2.1 The complexity of indoor environmental quality ...... 64 3.2.2 The Importance of Thermal Comfort ...... 67 3.2.3 The energy needed to maintain comfort ...... 70 3.3 Energy Transformation in Climate ...... 71 3.4 Building as the intermediary of energy ...... 80 3.4.1 Structure ...... 81 3.4.2 Skin ...... 82 3.4.3 Equipment ...... 84 3.5 Design strategy and integrated design of climate-responsive architecture ...... 85 3.5.1 Climate determines design strategy ...... 86

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3.5.2 The intervention of design strategies -Integrated Design ...... 92 CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS OF DESIGN STRATEGY AND INTEGRATED DESIGN OF TRAIN STATION ARCHITECTURE BASED ON CLIMATE RESPONSE ...... 94 4.1 Four periods of train station architecture in history ...... 94 4.2 Global climate zoning ...... 96 4.3 Train station response to hot-humid climate ...... 99 4.3.1 West Kowloon train station ...... 103 4.3.2 Changhua Station ...... 107 4.3.3 Guangzhou South train station ...... 110 4.3.4 Stadium MRT station & Bras Basah MRT station ...... 114 4.4 Train station response to hot-arid climate ...... 117 4.4.1 Haramain train station ...... 121 4.4.2 Sderot train station ...... 123 4.4.3 Dubai metro station ...... 125 4.4.4 Doha metro station ...... 127 4.4.5 The King Abdullah Financial District (KAFD) Metro Station ...... 129 4.5 Train station response to cold climate ...... 131 4.5.1 Lhasa train station ...... 134 4.5.2 Harbin west station ...... 138 4.5.3 Northern Europe train station ...... 139 4.6 Train station response to temperate climate ...... 141 4.6.1 Horrem station ...... 145 4.6.2 Stuttgart station ...... 149 4.6.3 Rotterdam central station ...... 152 4.6.4 Hague central station ...... 154 4.6.5 Canary Wharf train Station ...... 156 4.6.6 Montpellier Train Station ...... 158 4.6.7 Vienna central station ...... 160 4.6.8 Logrono high speed train station ...... 161 4.6.9 Casa-Port Train Station ...... 162 4.6.10 Kenitra train station ...... 165 4.7 Summary ...... 167 CHAPTER 5 DESIGN OF CHONGMING TRAIN STATION IN SHANGHAI ...... 171 5.1 Project background ...... 171 5.1.1 Site selection ...... 171 5.1.2 Railway planning ...... 173 5.1.3 Urban planning ...... 174 5.1.4 Geography and nature analysis ...... 177 5.1.5 Cultural analysis ...... 180 5.1.6 Climatic analysis ...... 182 5.1.7 Design task ...... 183

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5.2 Climate-responsive design strategy ...... 184 5.2.1 Low-carbon wooden structure ...... 184 5.2.2 Be part of the wetland ...... 190 5.2.3 Natural light with gradient ...... 195 5.2.4 A breathable building ...... 199 5.2.5 A place with climate educational significance ...... 201 5.3 Integrated design ...... 210 5.4 Design drawings ...... 212 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND PROSPECTS ...... 221 6.1 Conclusions ...... 221 6.2 Future Prospects ...... 223 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 225 SOURCE OF FIGURES AND TABLES ...... 227

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research background and problems

1.1.1 Contemporary architecture is often disconnected from its climatic environment

Globalization has brought about frequent material and cultural exchanges. The popularity of transportation technology has shortened the distance between different social groups, and the traditional geographical boundaries have been continuously expanded. As the material embodiment of human civilization, architecture is constantly changing in the tide of globalization.

In globalization and modernization, construction activities have broken through the limitations of materials and manpower, and economy, efficiency, and speed have become the mainstream of urban development. The buildings of the same model appear in cold zone, temperate zone, and tropical zone, and the concept of climate is quickly forgotten. The spread of modern building industry technology and the concentrated mass production of building materials blur the boundary differences between climatic zones. The same building systems and components can be found everywhere, whether suitable for local conditions, including climate.

Building-related activities are an essential part of global energy consumption. Apart from short-term and high-intensity energy consumption during construction, long-term operation and use of space after completion of construction will bring more energy consumption. The invention of the air conditioner in the 20th century tried to create a relatively stable indoor temperature condition for people. Still, it isolated the internal space from the external environment and brought colossal energy consumption. This kind of

1 isolation is characterized by the "man-made weather" brought by air conditioning and the ever-strengthening closed building, which Kiel Moe called "the building as a refrigerator".1 When environmental problems are highlighted, and energy crisis appears, people begin to re-examine the relationship between architecture and environment.

Figure 1-1 Glass high-rise buildings in tropical Figure 1-2 External air conditioner of enclosed desert areas building

In the past decades, environmental sustainability has been a controversial topic in architecture. When sustainability is the decisive factor, architects often worry that design will become too technocratic. In other words, sustainability is often regarded as a kind of interference for architects to realize their aesthetic demands. From the way we perceive and experience architecture, architecture pays more and more attention to visual appearance while ignoring other senses. This vision-centered approach ignores climate factors, which are the basis of sustainable architectural design.

With the establishment of modernism, visual elements have become more and more important in architectural design. Le Corbusier interpreted architecture as "an accurate and

1 Li Linxue. "Formal Rules of Environmental Regulation of Thermodynamic Architectural Prototype." Time Architecture 2018 03 (2018): 36-41. 2 magical combination game of lower-body blocks in the sun. 2" Architecture has become a tool for creating and dividing space. In this way, the globalization of architecture can be realized without considering climate factors.

The leading idea of the modernist movement was criticized in the exhibition "Architecture without Architects" in New York Museum of Contemporary Art, and American theorist Bernard Rudolfsky expressed his concern about the international architectural style pursued by modernism. He pointed out that local architecture is often deeply rooted in local culture and climate, while modern architecture seems to have lost these qualities. Because there is no other choice for vernacular architecture, it is necessary to solve all problems in design, including climatic conditions. Architectural design has become a regulating mechanism between local climate and comfortable indoor environment, taking on different forms in different climatic regions.

The Venice Architecture Biennale 2014, planned by Rem Rem Koolhaas, critically examines modernism from nationality. He thinks that contemporary architecture is regarded as a kind of "modernity with national characteristics",3 because it agrees with regional characteristics but does not surpass modernist thinking. The Biennale installation dramatically shows the ceiling covered with equipment and pipelines under the dome and space where people live below it, representing the comparison of global and regional characteristics and represents the lost connection between architecture and climate design. Architecture has been simplified as a kind of skin, unable to adjust to the climate and energy.

2 Corbusier, Le. Towards a new architecture. Courier Corporation, 2013. 3 Koolhaas, Rem, Stephan Trüby, Mohsen Mostafavi, Irma Boom, Tom Avermaete, Office for Metropolitan Architecture. AMO, and Harvard University. Graduate School of Design. Elements: A Series of 15 Books Accompanying the Exhibition Elements of Architecture at the 2014 Venice Architecture Biennale. Wall. Marsilio, 2014. 3

Figure 1-3 Ceiling installation designed by OMA in the 14th Venice architecture biennale

Although the climate is constantly changing, the climate in each region has its stable performance under the framework of global climate zoning. Climate-responsive design respects the objective laws of regional climate and responds positively in design. It is often considered a scientific and technical design approach, which is inseparable from sustainable development and energy-saving buildings. However, the climate itself is an integral part of local characteristics. The global climate is rich and diverse, and the microclimates formed in different regions due to altitude and natural conditions are also different. The attention and response to climate are conducive to forming the uniqueness and locality of the building itself.

Architecture is not a shackle between human beings and nature, but a medium between space and environment, and forms a system to cooperate. As the fundamental element of the environment, climate is an essential topic in the energy agenda of architecture.

1.1.2 Mismatch and abuse of green building technology

Contemporary architecture and the culture it reflects have contributed to the emerging 4

green process in the past half-century. Nowadays, green building, low-energy building, zero-energy building, eco-city, and other words frequently appear in architecture and other fields. This is inseparable from the global mainstream countries and organizations vigorously advocating green economy, sustainable development, and building low-carbon cities. Since the development of green building in the 1960s, its meaning has been expanding and evolving, from rationalism, performance-based measures aiming at specific environmental problems to more inclusive ecological and systematic processes running through contemporary culture.

Figure 1-4 Too many green technologies piled on a simple building

However, when the concept of green building is transformed and applied, its core carrier is often presented in technology because technology is the most intuitive, regular, and easy to popularize and copy. We can often see that the breathing curtain wall appears in cold zone, temperate zone, and tropical zone, glass curtain wall buildings appear in the Middle East desert with dry and hot climate, and solar panels are installed in areas with 5

low solar radiation. Once a building ignores green technology's application scope and preconditions, it is easy to deviate from the essence and track of green building and even cause greater energy consumption and environmental quality decline. What's more, green building technology is regarded as a gimmick of style and propaganda, becoming a plaything of capital.

1.1.3 Train station consumes a massive amount of energy

The rapid development of the economy, science, and technology worldwide has brought new vitality to the railway passenger transport industry. People are increasingly pursuing the convenience, rapidity, and comfort of travel. Countries are also rising a new wave of railway construction, and the construction of train stations has entered a new stage. With the rapid development of the economy, science and technology, and large-scale railway construction in developing countries, the number of train stations has also shown a fast-growing trend in recent years. While the number of train buildings has increased, the global energy crisis and environmental protection problems have become increasingly prominent. The rapid development of railways has also brought new challenges to sustainable development. A large number of train stations will inevitably bring colossal energy consumption. How to ensure that railway construction can meet people's needs and minimize energy consumption and environmental damage has become an increasingly concerning issue.

In today's space design of the train station waiting hall, the waiting space often has a considerable space height, which belongs to a large space building. When cooling, heating and lighting are carried out, it is bound to cause a waste of energy, which leads to the energy-saving problem of the train station. In China, the total energy consumed by buildings exceeds 27% of the total national energy consumption, and the building energy consumption is still increasing at an annual rate of 1%. Moreover, the energy consumption of large space buildings is relatively high. Compared with ordinary residential buildings,

6 its energy consumption is 14 times more than that of residential buildings.

The train station is a traffic building with ample space. Its space design and energy- saving design are contradictory, resulting in excessive energy consumption, which can not meet the energy-saving demand under the situation of energy crisis and significant environmental problems. Simultaneously, during the waiting process, passengers put forward higher requirements for the comfort of the waiting environment and the requirements for speed and convenience. Passengers in the waiting state will have specific requirements for the physical environment, such as temperature, humidity and light in the waiting hall. Therefore, saving energy consumption based on ensuring passengers' comfort is the focus of research in train stations today.

Figure 1-5 The high internal space of Nanjing South Train Station consumes a lot of energy

1.2 Research purposes

This paper aims to explore the potential of architecture response to local climate from

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the dimensions of design strategy and integrated design and then provide a new design method for contemporary train station architectural design. Specific objectives are as follows:

1) Historical clue: By combing the historical context, this paper discusses the climate- responsive design in traditional architecture and modern architecture. It then analyzes the trend of contemporary architecture and points out that Climate has become an important topic in contemporary architecture.

2) Theoretical basis: Analyze the relationship between the human body and climate from the perspective of energy, put forward the design strategy of climate response based on building system (structure, skin, equipment), and finally put forward that integrated design is the key of strategy intervention in buildings.

3) Case study: Based on global climate zoning, it analyzes how climate characteristics determine design strategies. It then analyzes the design strategy and integrated design of the train station cases in detail.

4) Practical application: Apply the climate-responsive design strategies and integrated design in practical projects.

1.3 Definition of related concepts and research scope

1.3.1 Two Important Concepts

■ Climate response

The response is to respond appropriately to a specific stimulus. Climate is a stimulating factor in climate-responsive design. The building is open to a certain extent, forming an intermediary between indoor and outdoor environments, allowing energy

8 exchange between the two environments. Climate-responsive buildings can respond to the changes of the internal environment and external climate conditions and occupants' behavior. The primary purpose of climate-responsive design is not to minimize the energy demand of buildings, but to create a comfortable and healthy building and give full play to the potential of climate resources in the building environment.

■ Train station

In this paper, the train station refers to the passenger station, the traffic distribution point with dense crowds. It includes not only train stations in the traditional sense, but also subway stations. The train station is a unique traffic building. Compared with the airport, it is closer to the city center and integrates with other city functions. Compared with the bus station, the train station needs to reserve space for the train track, the technical and space requirements are more complex, and people flow more frequently. With the rapid development of transportation technology, all kinds of transportation merge in the same place and form a convenient transfer. Trains have become the first choice for people to commute because of their high efficiency and convenience. The function of train stations has changed from single transportation to a complex with multiple formats, which has become a spiritual landmark of the city.

1.3.2 Scope of research

This paper mainly studies the architectural climate-responsive design from the perspective of design strategy and integrated design.

An essential feature of contemporary architecture is the use of energy and mechanical equipment. Architecture has changed from pure material construction to an integrated system organization, which is also necessary for people to obtain higher comfort. There are two extremes in today's architectural thought. One is to maximize energy use to organize the building system, obtain a stable indoor environment, and improve energy use efficiency. 9

In this case, buildings tend to show a high degree of closure and an artificial environment. The other is to exclude mechanical equipment and maximize passive strategies to improve building performance and reduce building energy consumption. However, most of the completed buildings are a mixture of the two. The building's interior contains an artificial energy system from the perspective of energy and the traditional architectural interface system that captures and isolates the external climate energy. Architects are often familiar with the former but unfamiliar with the latter, and construction is an irreversible process. The separation and inefficient organization of the external interface system and internal energy system will quickly lead to the loss of building performance, confusion of internal space, and increased construction cost.

The pyramid hierarchy shown in Figure 1-6 explains the relationships between different design levels according to the architect's and engineer's expertise. At the bottom level is the prototype, which can be achieved through the building's geometry, with orientation, shape, size and proportion were taken into account and no technology involved. Secondly, passive design strategies and energy-saving technologies can be realized through the organization of building systems, using climate resources or active energy to cool, heat and ventilate, etc., involving the combination of building structure and mechanical equipment. Comprehensive performance and green power are also outside the scope of this study, as they tend to be purely engineering issues. This study studies only two levels between design and technology -- passive design strategies and energy-saving technologies, with a clear focus on the potential impact of climate issues on purely building technology decisions.

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Figure 1-6 Category schematic of architecture and engineering

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1.4 Literature review

Architecture begins with providing a "shelter" to protect human beings from enemy and wild animals, and reducing the impact of the adverse physical environment on physical health. Later, durability, sturdiness, beauty and culture became the driving force of building development. According to this sequence, in the long development process of architectural environment and history, protection from climate has always been one of the most critical factors for architecture. From Aristotle to Montesquieu, many scholars believe that climate has a significant impact on human physiology and psychology. In the first century BC, Vitruvius wrote, "If our design of the housing is correct, we must pay attention to the country and climate where they were built from the beginning. One house style seems to be suitable for building in Egypt, another for building in Spain, another for building in Pontus, another for building in Rome, and so on, and there are other unique lands and countries. This is because one part of the earth is located directly below the sun, the other part is far away from the sun, and the other part is located in between. The design of houses should also conform to the characteristics of the country and the diversity of climate4.

In the existing traditional buildings and historical sites, we can see many urban layouts, architectural organizations and material structures that respond to the climate. In ancient times, people feared nature, and the location and construction of settlements were closely related to the natural environment, without the concept of climate adaptation. The spread of modern technology has brought about fundamental changes in building environment. Similar designs, materials and building methods have led to ubiquitous building forms, which have nothing to do with the local climate and increase energy demand.

Modern architecture in Le Corbusier has experienced three different periods: the

4 Pollio, Vitruvius. Vitruvius, the ten books on architecture. Harvard university press, 1914. 12

purist stage in the 1920s; The transitional stage of the 1930s; As well as the "low-tech" stage from 1945 to 1965, which were inspired by the traditional climate-responsive architecture.

The term "Bioclimatic design" was put forward by Victor Olgyay in his research paper "Bioclimatic Approach to Architecture" in 1953. In 1962, Olgyay systematically explored the impact of climate on human habitation for the first time. In his book Design with Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architectural Regionalism, he put forward: "The architectural model familiar to western civilization does not consider the potential problems and solutions in other regions and climatic zones. With the acceleration of population movement and information transmission, we need a new architectural principle and method, which can combine the past strategy of building residential space, new technology and its impact on climate and environment5. " Bio-climate design is defined as a building that responds to the climate environment and brings comfort to occupants through appropriate design decisions. Olgyay combines the elements of climatology, human physiology and architectural physics, and vigorously advocates the regionality of architecture, keeping the design consistent with the environment.

"The process of building a house in balance with climate can be divided into four steps, and the last one is architectural expression. The architectural expression must be based on the study of variables in climate, biology and technology. The first step is to investigate the climatic factors in a given place, each of which has different influences and raises different questions. Because people are the basic yardstick of architecture, and design meets people's needs, the second step is to evaluate every climate impact from the physiological point of view. Third, technical solutions must be applied to every climate comfort problem. These solutions should be combined in the building's integrity according to their importance in

5 Olgyay, Victor. Design with climate: bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism-new and expanded edition. Princeton university press, 2015. 13

the final stage. The order of interaction of these variables is climate, biology, technology and architecture6. "

In the 1970s, Reyner Banham put forward a new architectural paradigm responding to climate based on "the theory of architectural environment", combining meteorology, geo-economics and demography. In his book The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment, he emphasized the technological development and achievements of modern architecture in environmental regulation, which has been neglected under the technical view of materials and structures. He called architecture "the machine of environmental regulation", and considered that human architectural development is a history of environmental regulation7.

In 1971, Design Combined with Nature, published by Ian McHarg emphasized the importance of synergy between nature and the artificial environment. Otto Koenigsberger's most important contribution is his historical research on climate-responsive design methods and passive design principles in his book Tropical Housing and Architecture Manual: Part I, first published in 1973. This classic publication shows the traditional energy-saving methods of architectural design and construction., which significantly contributed and had a significant influence.

Hassan Fathy published Natural Energy and Vernacular Architecture in 1986. It discussed principles and examples concerning hot arid climates, making an in-depth study of traditional buildings' climate strategies in hot and dry areas as solar chimneys, wind wells, cool corridors, and sunshade measures.

Kenneth King Mun Yeang regards architecture as an intermediary between the system and the outdoor and indoor environment. He pointed out that the open system has great

6 Olgyay, Victor. Design with climate: bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism-new and expanded edition. Princeton university press, 2015. 7 Banham, Reyner. Architecture of the Well-tempered Environment. University of Chicago Press, 1984. 14 potential. The building itself is an open interface that can isolate undesirable environmental factors and introduce suitable environmental factors simultaneously8.

In 1998, Baruch Givoni published the book Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design. It analyzed the influence of human thermal comfort factors and architectural and structural design features (including layout, window orientation, shading and ventilation conditions) on indoor climate. It explored the influence of architectural climatology on urban planning and indoor climate9.

From the end of the 20th century to the beginning of the 21st century, with the rise of green ecology and sustainable architecture, climate design has become an important direction in architectural research. In the 21st century, more theoretical research works have been published to discuss passive strategy and active strategy, which is an essential step in developing ecological architecture. On the one hand, the internal energy consumption is reduced by shaping the climate adaptability of the building; On the other hand, additional energy is created through the coordinated utilization of renewable energy. They are complementary and inseparable communities in architectural design.

Luis Fernandez Galiano's book Fire And Memory On Architecture And Energy, published in 2000, made an in-depth study on the origin of mechanical heating and cooling system in the 20th century, and made a preliminary discussion on the attempt of the mechanical system interface10.

Gerhard Hausladen’s book Climate Design, Solutions for Buildings That Can Do More With Less Technology in 2004, not only makes profound research on the environmental factors that affect human comfort11 . Such as vision (sight, illumination

8 Yeang, Ken. Designing with nature: the ecological basis for architectural design. McGraw-Hill, 1995. 9 Givoni, Baruch. Climate considerations in building and urban design. John Wiley & Sons, 1998. 10 Fernández, Guillén, and Luis Fernández-Galiano. Fire and memory: On architecture and energy. Mit Press, 2000. 11 Hausladen, Gerhard, Michael Saldanha, Petra Liedl, and Christina Sager. ClimateDesign. Birkhäuser, 2005. 15 distribution, glare control), hearing (noise control), smell (healthy air), touch (temperature, humidity), etc. At the same time, the elements of the building facade system are also discussed. More importantly, the book summarizes the standard climate simulation tools at present.

Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Methods For Architects, written by Norbert Lechner in 2008, is also a book with important theoretical guiding significance. This book comprehensively discusses the ecological building elements in many aspects, such as environment and climate, human comfort, heating, refrigeration and lighting12. It not only studies and analyzes its physical basis and influencing factors in detail but also provides a large number of samples of ecological design strategies and architectural practices

Neeraj Bhatia and Jurgen Mayer H. began to pay attention to the influence of climate on architectural form, especially architectural interface form, in their book Arium Weather+Architecture, which was edited in Germany in 2010. The book puts forward a viewpoint: from airtight building to atmospheric building. In the traditional architectural view, the architectural interface is only used for shielding: on the one hand, it protects the building from the fluctuation of external climate; on the other hand, it creates a "suitable" indoor microclimate through strict airtight control 13 . In a new relationship between architecture and climate, the interface of architecture needs to open up the once tight barriers to explore various possibilities of the external climate. Starting from the relationship between climate and human culture, this book discusses the influence of climate on science, health, politics, facilities, tourism, etc. It explores a contemporary architectural form that can respond to various climatic conditions.

In his book Thermally Active Surfaces in Architecture, published in the United States,

12 Lechner, Norbert. Heating, cooling, lighting: Sustainable design methods for architects. John wiley & sons, 2014. 13 Bhatia, Neeraj, and Jurgen H. Mayer, eds. -arium: Weather+ Architecture. Hatje Cantz, 2010. 16

Kiel Moe pays attention to the adaptation of architecture to climate and puts forward the concept of Active Interface14. This interface integrates traditional mechanical systems and new energy systems. It disperses the traditional air conditioning system from the middle of the building to the building interface through new systems such as liquid circulation system and photovoltaic panel building integration system, which makes the building interface take on more functions, dramatically improves the thermal environment performance of the building, and reduces the initial investment and operation cost of the building. Besides, Alison Kwok took the architectural interface as the first chapter in his book The green studio handbook: Environmental strategies for schematic design published in 2018, before the ecological design of heating, cooling and lighting systems15.

In Design Primer for Hot Climates, Allan Konya emphasized the importance of tropical research and discussed the environmental and architectural technical conditions in hot climate16.

The architect Jon Kristinsson proposed the Integrated design and the physical design approach of ecological architecture. He regards residents and local environment as design parameters, and thinks that it is impossible to design a truly sustainable building without knowledge of physics17.

Steven Szokolay put forward an objective design method based on physical principles in Introduction to Architectural Science: The Basis of Sustainable Design, and advocated exploring the potential of natural energy in creating comfortable buildings. He thinks that the architect's task has four aspects: to understand the local environment (such as the building site and climate), to establish a comfortable range, to use buildings as much as

14 Moe, Kiel. Thermally active surfaces in architecture. Princeton Architectural Press, 2010. 15 Kwok, Alison G., and Walter Grondzik. The green studio handbook: Environmental strategies for schematic design. Routledge, 2018. 16 Konya, Allan. Design primer for hot climates. Elsevier, 2013. 17 Kristinsson, Jón, and Andy van den Dobbelsteen. Integrated sustainable design. Delftdigitalpress, 2012. 17

possible to meet the comfort, and finally to supplement it with active systems18.

Based on researchers' relevant conclusions and research methods at home and abroad, the following conclusions can be drawn: the research on climate-responsive architecture has constantly been breaking through, providing solid theoretical basis and data support for ecological architecture, sustainable architecture, zero-energy buildings, etc. The climate-responsive design method has also appeared in many pioneer architects' works and has been constantly practiced, verified and transformed. Under the background of increasingly essential concepts such as ecological green, climate-responsive architecture is becoming scientific and theoretical. Still, its theory and practice are relatively out of touch at present.

1.5 Research significance

The idea of using climate to shape architecture has been inspired by contemporary avant-garde architectural practices, such as UN Studio, Foster+ Partners and BIG. These firms actively engage in theoretical research and verify their findings in practice.

The paper puts forward the following hypothesis: "The response to local climate can stimulate the creation of unique architecture".

About 25% of the world's energy is consumed in buildings. To reduce society's dependence on fossil fuels, we need to design a building environment with energy balance. Every year, millions of new buildings need to accommodate the world's growing population, which will require a lot of raw materials and energy. Climate adaptation is a way for the sustainable development of buildings.

By studying the influence of local climate on architecture, architects can better

18 Szokolay, Steven V. Introduction to architectural science: the basis of sustainable design. Routledge, 2014. 18

understand climate design. Ralf Knowles once said, "Some things people are used to are produced because our behavior matches the rhythm of nature19", and he also said, "But some things may never be known". Climate-responsive design follows specific rules and can enhance the experience of architecture. By studying the relationship between climate thinking and architectural thinking, climate factors can be incorporated into design decisions. Instead of compromising with the environment, buildings should adapt to the environment and have better environmental performance.

Based on the goal of climate adaptation, this paper will also discuss how to realize the synergy among different technologies, how to introduce technologies into buildings reasonably, and associate them with the regional expression of buildings, with the ultimate goal of building a more sustainable building environment.

Architecture is essentially creating space, and its relationship with climate and environment reflects the combination of human and habitat. At present, there is some imbalance between the building environment and the natural environment. Because of the energy surplus for a long time, our society and buildings have become dependent on external energy. Heating, cooling and ventilation are separated from the building field, and become problems handled by equipment systems, usually hidden in basements, ceilings and roofs. With enough mechanical equipment, any building can become habitable, whether it adapts to the surrounding environment or not. However, with the separation of climate factors, architects ignore climate and comfort issues, and environmental regulation has become the responsibility of experts in climate design. However, they usually only participate in the later stage of the design process, which often becomes a remedy for buildings' "unsuitable" environment.

Nowadays, architecture has lost control of climate design. Sustainable architecture

19 Knowles R L. The solar envelope: its meaning for energy and buildings[J]. Energy and buildings, 2003, 35(1): 15- 25. 19 usually uses ready-made "sustainable" and "implanted" solutions to solve the climate problems caused by the architecture itself. The real challenge is to create a comfortable and balanced living environment by using appropriate technology and maximizing the performance of technology.

1.6 Research method

The research methods mainly include literature research, interdisciplinary research, and theoretical practice methods.

Literature research mainly studies the previous research methods, theories, and paths of climate-responsive architecture at home and abroad through literature search and reading, focusing on the architectural design strategies adapted to climate. Combing the design strategy of climate adaptability from the historical dimension, and exploring its development trend and evolution characteristics. On the other hand, from the perspective of building energy, the theories of building climatology, building thermal comfort, and energy visualization are studied, focusing on the adaptation between energy flow and building space design and use.

Interdisciplinary research mainly focuses on studying theories, research methods, and techniques of climatology and architectural physics. Besides relying on meteorological climate charts, the mainstream research method applied to architecture is linked with human thermal comfort theory. The effectiveness evaluation of architectural climate adaptation strategy is also based on thermal comfort theory. The application of theory in design and practice is to output data or images through computer simulation technology to interface with designers, This study mainly uses Ladybug Tools, Meteonorm and other simulation analysis platforms.

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The theoretical practice method mainly applies theoretical strategies to practical projects, tests the formed viewpoints, gains new experience and design methods, and studies the subject in depth.

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1.7 Research framework

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CHAPTER 2 HISTORY OF CLIMATE-RESPONSIVE AR CHITECTURE

Since ancient times, climate factors have always been the key to building construction. The response of buildings to climate factors is consciously manifested in building and using. Many successful climate architecture works have been created by the ingenuity of people worldwide in combination with the local climate conditions.

In ancient times, climate directly affected human life, urban form and building design. Human beings create buildings according to different climatic characteristics. Planning and designing a city is precisely to resist adverse natural climate, obtain pleasant living environment and meet people's comfortable requirements. During this period, there was a harmonious relationship between man and nature. In the industrial age, due to the development of science and technology, human beings have been able to get rid of the constraints of climate through technology. Architecture and climate are gradually separated, and architecture is reduced to a combination of architectural elements.

Today, benefiting from the development of the contemporary economy and science and technology, human beings can use mechanical air-conditioning to improve the living and working environment, which is the gospel brought by science and technology. On the other hand, mechanical air conditioning spoils modern people. In some places, people ignore the local economic strength, the specific climate environment (even in pleasant climate areas), abuse mechanical air conditioning, and completely ignore the building's own climate regulation ability. This kind of buildings with high energy consumption deviating from the climate environment has caused substantial economic and energy costs to human beings, and weakened the local characteristics of buildings to a great extent. Many buildings are in different climate environments. Still, their forms are similar. Glass 23

buildings in cold areas were blindly introduced into hot and humid climate areas, which was incompatible with the original climate, resulting in a massive waste of energy.

In recent years, more and more architects have realized that climate is a practical and stable influencing factor in architectural design, which will not change because of scientific progress and social development. Based on paying attention to the study of climate and regional conditions, they have carried out more in-depth research and practice on the climate in their different regions, and achieved fruitful results, and built several climate- adapted architectural works with local regional characteristics.

Alvar Aalto once said, "Architecture can never be separated from natural and human elements. On the contrary, its function should be to make us closer to nature. It is the need to develop architectural design theory and the need of human beings to incorporate climate factors into the design and actively respond to the influence of climate.

2.1 Traditional architecture response to climate

"Regulating the environment and creating comfortable conditions for oneself are inherent problems of human beings20." - Victor Olgyay

When the development of human society is still in the primitive stage of ignorance, people use branches and stones to build nests for habitation to avoid the attack of wind, rain, lightning and the damage of beasts. It can be seen that most of the buildings in primitive society use the original conditions of nature. Due to the limitation of the development level of productive forces, there is usually only simple repair and transformation, and people are full of awe and worship for nature. During this period, the relationship between architecture and climate was adaptation.

20 Olgyay, Victor. Design with climate: bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism-new and expanded edition. Princeton university press, 2015. 24

Climate is an essential factor for human beings to choose their habitat and build their dwellings. It is not difficult to determine the influence of climate factors on the architecture of many primitive tribes. The Long House in Colorado, southwestern United States, was built in a substantial southward cave. The long house is open to the south and shallow to deep, closely related to the local solar altitude angle of 37 north latitude. This unique environmental responsive design meets people's needs in different seasons (Figure 2-1). Taking the summer solstice as an example, the sun rises from 30 north to east and appears in the south direction at noon. At this time, the height angle of the sun is 78, and the sun will not wholly penetrate the cave opening to the south; On the contrary, on the winter solstice, the sun rises 30 degrees south of the east and appears due south at noon. At this time, the height angle of the sun is 30 degrees, and the sunlight can always project into the cave from rising to falling. The long house was built around 1100 AD, and its unique orientation and shape show that people living in this area in ancient times have already had a specific understanding of the sun's movement track. They can shape the architectural form through it, to obtain the indoor comfort of the building all year round.

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Figure 2-1 Long House, Colorado, US

Figure 2-2 Schematic diagram of sun angle of Long House in winter and summer

"Farmers build roofs. Is it a beautiful roof or an ugly roof? He doesn't know. It's just a roof. This is the roof that his father, grandfather and great-grandfather built before him21. " -Adolf Loos.

21 Frampton, Kenneth. "Ten points on an architecture of Regionalism." Architectural Regionalism: Collected Writings on Place, Identity, Modernity, and Tradition, edited by Vincent B Canizaro (1987): 374-85. 26

Compared with primitive tribes, traditional architecture is the concentrated embodiment of human habitation and construction experience for thousands of years. Since ancient times, human beings have chosen their addresses and built houses according to the environmental characteristics, resist the adverse natural climate, and meet comfort requirements. All traditional architectural solutions focus on mitigating the external climate through the form, direction, and architecture materials. The primary factor affecting traditional architecture is high efficiency. Because of the inconvenient transportation, it is of economic significance to use local materials and building technology. Due to the limited available resources, the operation cost of traditional buildings, especially the energy consumption, has to be reduced.

Traditional buildings are full of appropriate responses to climate worldwide, and each region has its famous prototype of living space. In "A Sample of Characteristic Houses Around the World" published by Jean Dollfus in 1954, he found that the architectural style is determined not by national boundaries as by climate regions. The local residence is the product of environment22.

In cold climate area, the main problem is how to reduce the heat loss of external surface, and the shape coefficient (ratio of outer surface area to internal volume) is an important parameter. Geometrically speaking, spheres or hemispheres have the highest ratio, so the most famous traditional form in polar regions is the igloo inhabited by Eskimos. The principle of hot air rising and cold air falling is also considered in the igloo. When it is built, a pit is dug in the foundation to provide space for cold air sinking, which is functionally used as storage space and access to and from the igloo, while people live and live in a higher position surrounded by hot air in the igloo. The opening on the ice roof promotes the internal air circulation, and finally forms the circulation of cold and hot air,

22 Olgyay, Victor. Design with climate: bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism-new and expanded edition. Princeton university press, 2015. 27

keeping the internal temperature relatively constant. The heat of occupants and blubber lamps can make the indoor temperature as high as 15.5 degrees Celsius, while the outdoor temperature is MINUS 40 degrees Celsius.

Figure 2-3 Schematic diagram of temperature distribution and cold and hot air circulation profile of dome igloo

In mild climate areas, most of them are characterized by hot summer and cold winter, and different topography leads to climate differences. Traditional buildings no longer need compact and low surface area forms, and the openings can be more significant to introduce sunlight into the room in winter, spring and autumn. At the same time, the openings must be shaded in summer to avoid overheating.

In the mountainous areas of southwest China, it is wet and rainy all year round, and the Diaojiao building is a prevalent architectural form. The inclined roof is helpful for drainage and natural ventilation, and the ground floor overhead can resist the erosion of moisture, and at the same time, the wind can pass through the building and enter the whole village. Hanging buildings are mixed with nature, forming distinct regional characteristics.

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Figure 2-4 Relationship between Diaojiao Building and climate

Mongolian yurt has been the main residential building of nomadic people in Central Asia for thousands of years, and it is still the main living form of Mongolian grassland. Mongolian yurts have many unique functions, which are very suitable for nomadic life. They have to move regularly for most of the year and face relatively severe climatic conditions. The yurt can provide comfort for residents in cold and warm conditions. In winter, the stove in the center of the yurt provides heat evenly, and extra felt is wrapped around the yurt structure to provide heat insulation. When summer is hot, the bottom of the yurt cover and the center of the roof are opened, because cold air flows downward while hot air flows upward, and fresh air circulates inside the yurt, taking away indoor heat. The center of the roof is not entirely open, so it will be covered with a breathable cloth to prevent sunlight from entering the yurt and rain. These characteristics mean that ger is a cool oasis in the hot open grassland in summer, while ger is a comfortable resting place in the cold winter. Mongolia's highlands and open plains are windy, and the round shape and firm fixation of yurts will deflect these winds without affecting the stability of yurts.

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Figure 2-5 The shape of the Mongolian yurt

Figure 2-6 Structure of Mongolian yurt

The most important thing for dry and hot climate areas is to buffer the external high temperature and intense solar radiation. Usually, buildings use heavy walls and roofs to absorb heat, so that the room can keep cool during the day and release heat at cold nights. The openings of windows and doors are strictly controlled to reduce direct sunlight and sand penetration. In the Sahara Desert area, dense buildings form a group, shielding each other from intense sunlight, ensuring that a single building is at least exposed to the hot summer sun and blocks the hot wind. Narrow and high streets form wind corridors, and at the same time guide cold air to flow in buildings and open areas. Because there is little

30 rainfall, people use thick rammed earth walls to prevent high outdoor temperature.

Figure 2-7 Aït Benhaddou rammed earth building cluster form

In the hot and humid climate zone, the critical problems are high humidity, intense solar radiation and heavy rain. The only non-mechanical way to reduce the discomfort caused by high humidity is to promote air flow, so traditional buildings are usually composed of very light and large opening structures, even only columns and roofs. The roof is inclined at a large angle, and the floor is higher than the ground, which is beneficial to shading and rainproof.

Figure 2-8 Temple in North India

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2.2 Climate rejection and climate response of architecture in the modernist period

Unlike most animals, human beings shape and change our environment through architecture, which provides us with greater survival possibilities and comfort in various climates. Therefore, the architectural environment of human civilization can be understood as a climate adaptation measure applying technology. It can be said that this is common sense, because the easiest way to survive in an environment is to adapt to it, not to fight against it. However, looking at our city is like a struggle with the natural environment. Voltaire said, "Common sense is not common". In modern times, it seems that we are habitually fighting against climate instead of adapting and using it.

2.2.1 Climate rejection

"Before the 19th century, architects had to use the building envelope as the main medium to weigh the external environment and internal comfort, and the industrial revolution changed all this23." -Moore

With the utilization of fossil fuels, materials, structural systems and electromechanical equipment are constantly innovating, and architects are inspired to develop new technologies. Every technological development of modern movement is based on more energy in every stage of building production and operation, such as component manufacturing, transportation, and construction, especially operation. Structural frame, elevator, large-size glass, electric lamp, air conditioning and communication system have become architects' language and tools. The structural frame makes the outer wall a skin isolated from wind and rain. The mechanical heating and cooling system replace the building's self-regulation function, and the electric lamp and mechanical ventilation allow

23 Moore, Steven A. "Technology, place, and the nonmodern thesis." Journal of Architectural Education 54, no. 3 (2001): 130-139. 32

the building to adopt a greater depth.

Because energy is abundant and cheap, buildings rely heavily on energy-consuming mechanical and electrical systems to adapt to external environmental conditions and maintain healthy and comfortable indoor conditions, thus reducing the self-reaction ability of buildings to the local climate. Since modern architecture was born in the west and then spread to other parts of the world, new buildings follow a nearly consistent path, and glass buildings spread worldwide.

Figure 2-9 Modern glass architecture has swept Figure 2-10 The appearance of the city is the world homogenized

Olgyay said that it is inefficient to adopt modern forms in a hot climate, and we must be aware of the problems caused by the wide spread of western forms. These forms evolved from the architectural forms adapted to the cold climate. When they are considered problems that have not been digested by cultural progress, they may cause serious consequences24.

In Egypt, modernism replaced unique traditional architecture with bare architecture and urbanism. The chaotic city appearance stems from the modern architectural techniques

24 Olgyay, Victor. Design with climate: bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism-new and expanded edition. Princeton university press, 2015. 33

and styles constantly introduced by architects and the government, which are neither local culture nor local climate. Hassan Fasai, an outstanding Egyptian architect and theorist, said: "In modern Egypt, there is no native style. The houses of the rich and the poor have no characteristics and no Egyptian accent (local characteristics)25. "

Before the energy crisis in the 1970s, architects didn't master any vocabulary about the impact of the environment on buildings when they did their work. This kind of influence is invisible, because the popular architectural epistemology holds that architecture is an abstract and static form, without internal organization and operation, and without the necessity of communicating with the environment, not to mention thinking about the energy needed to manufacture and transport buildings and the climate adaptation of buildings, which finally shows extremely inefficient buildings. Climate disregard in the modernist period has affected the beauty, economy and environmental protection of buildings.

2.2.2 Climate response

Walter Walter Gropius wrote: "The true regional characteristics cannot be found by inspiration or imitation, and its diversity exists in different climatic conditions26."

Early modern buildings still actively responded to the climate environment, using the building's shape, space and materials to cope with the influence of climate factors on indoor and outdoor microclimate. In modernism, there appeared a large number of outstanding architects who paid attention to regional and climatic characteristics, such as Geoffrey Bawa, an architect from Sri Lanka, and Vladimir Ossipoff, an architect from Hawaii. The combing and digging of historical clues can provide a reference and basis for the climate- responsive design of contemporary architecture.

25 Fathy, Hassan. Architecture for the poor: an experiment in rural Egypt. University of Chicago press, 2010. 26 Gropius, Walter. Scope of total architecture. London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1956. 34

Modern architecture is based on industry and depends on energy, which is fundamentally different from traditional architecture. Most people ignore the climate and directly use new architectural technology to generate architectural forms. Some architects, who live in specific regions and environments, are sensitive to the climate and adopt new technologies selectively.

Frank Lloyd Wright is a master of modernism and pays close attention to climate and environment. Based on the regional characteristics of different regions in the United States, he has made many pioneering practices. Wright's Jacobs House can be regarded as an attempt at thermal comfort design. To adapt to Madison's cold winter environment, Wright chose "Dry Wall Footing" from the foundation, avoiding the traditional thermal diffusion foundation. The traditional foundation column foot is wholly connected with the main body. The material is concrete, often located below the frost line and in direct contact with the soil, which is easy to accelerate the heat diffusion of the superstructure. The dry wall foundation adopts compacted macadam to bear the load of the upper building, and an interlayer is formed between the building and the soil to reduce the heat loss of the building. The steam pipe heating system added to the upper part of the foundation heats the house above and heats the ground below the house, reducing the freeze-thaw cycle and uplift of the foundation surface. Wright designed the house as a massive heat conductor. The central masonry fireplace formed a gathering point of massive heat flow, which was a considerable radiator in winter and a heat absorber in summer27. Wood and masonry have good thermal diffusivity, and the meandering concrete slab and masonry structure increase the diffusion area.

27 Moe, Kiel. Insulating modernism: Isolated and non-isolated thermodynamics in architecture. Birkhäuser, 2014. 35

Figure 2-11 Brick and Wood Wall Materials of Jacobs House

Figure 2-12 Energy system formed by Jacobs residential building components

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The regionalist architects represented by Charles Correa are more prominent in climate-responsive design. Corea is rooted in India. He tries to eliminate the limitation of economic level and the architectural design and construction mode of developed countries, and fully explore and utilize local resources based on inheriting national cultural traditions and starting from the local environment and economic conditions. By analyzing the local climate conditions, he put forward many conceptual models to adapt to the arid tropical climate. At last, starting from the in-depth structural research and the unique exploration of the form adapted to the climate, he created a series of architectural space and form words, including "Open space", "Tubular residence", "Summer profile", "Winter profile" and "Buffer space". Corea developed tubular residence in the 1960s in response to the high temperature in Ahmedabad. The roof slopes steeply to protect the inner space of the house from the scorching sun. The ventilation hole is located at the junction point of the roof, which makes the hot air rise in the space and escapes from the top to realize natural ventilation.

Figure 2-13 Tubular Residence

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Figure 2-14 The internal functional activities of tubular houses are organized to cope with the hot and dry climate

In Kanchanjunga Apartments, based on the hot and humid climate conditions in Mumbai, each apartment is designed with a deep balcony and spacious open garden, which provides a buffer for the influence of sunlight and monsoon rains, and at the same time creates a good vision for the apartment. Corea skillfully uses solar energy and airflow principles to create a series of living spaces and places with low energy consumption and high performance under extreme weather conditions.

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Figure 2-15 Kanchanjunga Apartments

Figure 2-16 Different spaces in Kanchanjunga Apartments respond to different climatic factors

Compared with the continental areas, the buildings in the relatively separated island areas show a certain "lag" in the process of modernization. This kind of "lag" has become an opportunity for local architects to think deeply about local climate, traditional space and modernity. Finally, the architecture shows the characteristics of climate response. Ricardo Porro pays attention to the adaptation to Cuba's tropical climate in his design, Geoffrey Bawa is rooted in Sri Lanka, and Vladimir Ossipoff rationally adopts modern architectural technology based on Hawaii's hot and humid climate.

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Figure 2-17 Cuba Figure 2-18 Sri Lanka Figure 2-19 Hawaii

Figure 2-20 Ricardo Porro Figure 2-21 Geoffrey Bawa Figure 2-22 Vladimir Ossipoff

Figure 2-23 National Art Figure 2-24 Rama Heritage Figure 2-25 Li Zheshi Museum of Cuba Hotel, Kanda Residence

Figure 2-26 Roof lighting of Figure 2-27 Self-shading of Figure 2-28 Sunshade Cuban National Art Museum Steel Company Building Components in Hawaii IBM Building

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2.2.3 Vladimir Ossipoff's practice of Hawaiian modern architecture

Vladimir Ossipoff was born in Russia, but he grew up in Asia and San Francisco Bay Area. His life experiences in different areas have cultivated his understanding of different regional climates. When he spent his childhood in Japan, he was well aware of the challenges of living in hot and humid areas. In San Francisco, Ossipoff experienced the cool summer Trade Wind brought by Pacific high pressure. Studying at the University of California, Ossipoff didn't pay much attention to Paris's Beaux-Arts, because people on the east coast of the Pacific Ocean in North America advocate a suitable space, and besides adopting neoclassicism and dressing style in memorial and landmark buildings, climate and environment are more important factors in other buildings. Early rich life experience and diversified and open education are the basis of Ossipoff's practice in Hawaii.

Because of Hawaii's unique geographical location and culture, Ossipoff and his works outside the Hawaiian Islands (including the American mainland) have long been unknown. Kenneth Frampton emphasized in the preface of "Modern Hawaii: Architecture in Vladimir Ossipoff": "Looking back on Ossipoff's career, although he was recognized as the top architect in Hawaii before and after his death, compared with his contemporaries, his contribution to architectural culture was not recognized enough28." Indeed, Ossipoff is far ahead of his contemporary architects. He is an excellent modernist architect and pays close attention to the neglected climate-responsive design in the last century. In the 1970s, he predicted that "architectural design will be energy-saving-oriented". He thought that "air conditioning is the root of all evils, and we were lured into the trap of arbitrarily overcoming the climate and environment by consuming energy and using machinery29".

28 Ossipoff, Vladimir, and Marc Treib. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff. Yale University Press, 2007. 29 “Artsy,” last modified January 8, 2019, https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-architect-brought-tropical- modernism-hawaii. 41

Ossipoff is regarded as "the master of modern architecture in Hawaii", and his works are closely related to the local island climate and traditional culture in Hawaii. As Dean Sakamoto said, "Ossipoff played a key role in Hawaii's transformation from popular territorial style to modern architecture30". During his more than 60 years, he has completed many influential residential designs, such as Liljestrand's House. Besides, he has completed a series of important works in campus buildings, office buildings, religious buildings and traffic buildings, such as Honolulu International Airport. However, "modernity" is only a technical means. Based on regional culture, he fully understands and utilizes climate, and creates a space with comfortable performance and aesthetic characteristics.

Figure 2-29 Important Works of Ossipoff

2.2.3.1 Open space response to mild climate – Lanai

Ossipoff's most significant contribution to architectural innovation may be his transformation of Lanai into a regional spatial type. Lanai originated from the native architecture of Hawaii. It was initially an independent and open wooden frame with thatched or leafy roofs. Due to the mild climate in Hawaii, the annual temperature is between 20-30 degrees Celsius. Lanai is a semi-outdoor space for local people to live and

30 Ossipoff, Vladimir, and Marc Treib. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff. Yale University Press, 2007. 42 socialize. This kind of shelter is distributed along the island's beach, especially when a dense climbing plant grows, which grows along with the supporting wooden structure and forms an ample shade space. The Hau Tree Lanai in Waikiki Beach in the early 20th century is the original Lanai space (Figure 2.30). At the beginning of the modernization of Hawaii Island, Ossipoff and his colleagues regarded Lanai as the primary space and cultural element of Hawaii. Although other architects have adopted this form more or less, Ossipoff regards this primitive Lanai form as a space shaped according to the climatic conditions on the island and organized with the most miniature structure, and applies it to architecture different expressions.

Figure 2-30 Hau Tree Lanai

In the design of Blanche Hill House (1961), Ossipoff hopes to use Lanai to make the building open to the natural environment to the greatest extent, and at the same time, adequately resist adverse climate factors. As the core of living and social space, living space occupies half of the whole residential area and takes Lanai. Private spaces with solid maintenance structure-guest rooms, kitchens and master bedrooms are placed on the windward side to shield the living room, outdoor activity space and swimming pool from cold air (Figure 2.31). Lanai faces Kahala Beach on one side and mountains on the other side, with an expansive view. Its axis is parallel to the wind direction, which reduces the possibility of frequent light rain floating indoors in the valley. Lanai is entirely open to the

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outside. The horizontal interface consists of two layers of sliding doors from the ground to the top. The wooden shutter door is conducive to natural ventilation and can protect privacy. The wooden frame glass door helps to resist rain, wind and insects. Although the floor of Lanai floats on the ground, and the double-layer maintenance structure can resist rain, Ossipoff still thinks Lanai will become fragile under the storm, so he suggests that the owner should use terrazzo to clean and dry the floor after the wind and rain.

Figure 2-31 The layout of Blanche Hill House is closely related to climate

Figure 2-32 The outdoor activity area of Blanche Hill Figure 2-33 Lanai Space of House is on the leeward side Blanche Hill House

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In the Liljestrand House, Lanai has also been well utilized in the plane of the building. In the first floor space, the cloister outside the bedroom and the balcony outside the living room form an effective transition between indoor and outdoor space and realize the interaction between space and nature. The semi-underground space on the lower floor of the bedroom is directly open to the outside world, forming a continuous activity space with the outdoor lawn.

Figure 2-34 Outdoor activity place on the leeward side of Liljestrand’s House

Figure 2-35 Lanai in Liljestrand’s House Figure 2-36 Lanai plane distribution of Liljestrand’s House

In Ossipoff's House design, Lanai is regarded as the extension of the living room facing the sea, which expands family life. The sloping roof descends along the slope to the height close to people, and avoids where trees are encountered. The low eaves play a role

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in blocking salt and fog brought by sea breeze to a certain extent.

Figure 2-37 Buffer space towards the sea in Ossipoff's House

Ossipoff's research on native architecture gives him a deep understanding of Hawaii's climate and construction culture, laying a foundation for him to use modern architectural technology for climate-responsive design. The extensive use of Lanai has finally become one of the characteristics of modern Hawaiian architecture in Ossipoff. He believes that the function is similar to that of Engawa space in Japan, but compared with Japan, Hawaii's constant climate in four seasons is more suitable for use.

2.2.3.2 Regulation and Guidance of Sunshine

Ossipoff designed the office building in Hawaii for IBM in the early 1960s. He hopes that this project can highlight IBM's high-tech status and create a Hawaiian feeling based on regional characteristics. Considering office efficiency, a simple seven-story cube forms the essential volume of the building, so the skin becomes the most crucial part of the design. Significant solar radiation and strong sunshine all year round are typical regional characteristics of Hawaii. Architects use 1360 precast concrete modules to form a complex geometric skin curtain wall to prevent the inner glass curtain wall from being directly exposed to the scorching sun. The concrete grille curtain wall is fixed two feet away from the curtain wall, forming an air layer in the middle of the skin, accelerating the flow of

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wind from the bottom to the top, and taking away the surface heat. More importantly, the horizontal plane of the transverse component of each concrete member inclines more than 45 degrees, which can be cleaned in the rain, prevent birds from nesting, and make the building self-cleaning. According to the building owner, during the past ten years of use, the grille did not need manual cleaning, and birds never built nests in the gaps of the grille. In a news article about IBM, Ossipoff wrote: "However, the most crucial point is the characteristics of the building itself. The repeated pattern of concrete grille skin system expresses IBM's characteristics as a computer company and gives the building a sense of belonging under the sun. The shadow of the grille becomes an essential part of the building, just as the structure is part of the building31. " Ossipoff takes skin shading design as a means to express climate characteristics. Architecture not only has a sense of belonging under the sun, but also belongs to the region.

31 Ossipoff, Vladimir, and Marc Treib. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff. Yale University Press, 2007. 47

Figure 2-38 Skin concrete module of IBM Figure 2-39 Facade of IBM building building

In the design of the Memorial Chapel of Punahou school, Ossipoff paid attention to the protection of strong sunlight and the reasonable guidance of natural light, and adjusted the indoor light environment while creating a sacred space atmosphere. The southeast and southwest of the building are nearly three feet thick concrete walls, which block sunlight and reduce heat transfer; The lower section of the wall is in direct contact with the lotus pond, which further reduces the surface heat. The floor height of the church is lowered below the plane of the outdoor cloister, and narrow strip windows are opened at the end of the southeast and southwest walls far from the altar to guide the light into the room properly; The bottom end of the wall is broken to form a gap, which connects the inner pool with the outer lotus pond, and the sunlight is reflected into the room through the water surface, thus creating a relatively claustrophobic environment. The leading indoor natural light pours down from the skylight at the top of the roof, creating a quiet atmosphere.

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Figure 2-40 skylight lighting of Memorial Chapel Figure 2-41 Bottom wall of Memorial Chapel of Punahou school of Punahou school

The University of Hawaii Administration Building was built after World War II to meet the educational needs, and it provided all administrators with a working space separate from the classroom. Ossipoff has carried out design work from two aspects: adapting to climate in spatial layout and avoiding strong sunshine in detail design. The building comprises several rectangular volumes with different heights, which are distributed horizontally and facing south. A three-story hollow concrete frame forms the central courtyard of a U-shaped building, which is higher than other volumes and shields it from sunlight. The grey space on the south side of the courtyard is the building's entrance, which provides a smooth transition from the external space to the grey space, the semi- open courtyard, and the internal space. Concrete grilles shield the windows with different densities and depths in the south of the building, properly guiding sunlight into the room and preventing the indoor temperature from rising due to excessive radiation.

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Figure 2-42 Elevation of University of Hawaii Figure 2-43 Sunshade Grille of University of Administration Building Hawaii Administration Building

Figure 2-44 Aerial View Rendering of University of Hawaii Administration Building

2.2.3.3 Wind guide and wind prevention

In Oahu Island, Hawaii, the words used by local people as directions are derived from regional characteristics: Mauka (mountain), Makai (sea), Ewa (west), Diamond head or Waikiki (east). For Hawaiians, geographical conditions, including sea, land and natural conditions, are more important than location. These essential geographical elements and climatic characteristics (intense light, damp heat, trade winds) together gave birth to Hawaii's regional characteristics. Although the Hawaiian Islands are small in area, due to 50 the complex terrain and altitude of volcanic islands and the influence of northeast dry trade winds brought by subtropical air pressure, the weather in different regions is different and many "microclimate" environments appear.

Liljestrand’s House is located in Manoa Valley in the suburb of Honolulu, overlooking Honolulu and enjoying the beautiful mountains. The complex and changeable microclimate and rich vegetation environment have brought challenges to architects. Ossipoff makes full use of the terrain elevation difference, and controls the wind by raising the ground floor and controlling the opening size of the facade. Facing the sea, the larger windows open to receive dry and warm air from the sea. On the side near the mountain, low adjustable wooden louvers resist the strong damp cold wind from the mountain. Simultaneously, according to Venturi Effect, a pressure difference is formed between the small opening shutter on the windward side and the large opening on the leeward side of the building, which promotes the natural circulation of air inside the house. Simultaneously, the shutter can further adjust the opening size to control the indoor air flow rate. In terms of functional layout, the architect arranged the activity room on the overhead floor, and arranged outdoor activity spaces such as swimming pool and lawn on the leeward side, making it an extension of indoor space, fully considering the needs of outdoor activities for relatively mild climatic conditions.

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Figure 2-45 Relationship between Liljestrand’s House and Site

Figure 2-46 Schematic diagram of ventilation profile of Liljestrand’s House

In the profile design of Memorial Chapel of Punahou school, Ossipoff also considered the guidance of wind. As the temperature in Hawaii is relatively average throughout the year, natural ventilation is mainly considered. Seen from the profile, the opening of the roof and the opening of the bottom space form a stack effect. The indoor warm air rises due to its low density, and the high wind speed on the roof accelerates the wind pulling process. The rising hot air reduces the pressure on the bottom of the building. Cold air is sucked through the opened doors and windows or other openings to keep the indoor

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comfortable temperature and ventilation.

Figure 2-47 Memorial Chapel of Punahou school

2.3 Contemporary Architecture Embracing Climate

"Buildings are non-isolated and transient dissipative structures 32 ." -Isolated Modernism

From the analysis of historical causes, it can be seen that when the climate is used reasonably, the local architecture has a unique form. After the industrial revolution, the use of energy is helpful to the construction of modern buildings. When buildings rely on energy-intensive technologies, building forms do not have to respond to the environment to maintain a comfortable indoor environment.

32 Moe, Kiel. Insulating modernism: Isolated and non-isolated thermodynamics in architecture. Birkhäuser, 2014. 53

2.3.1 The Rise of Environmental Awareness and Sustainability

The origin of climate-responsive design can be traced back to the late 1960s and early 1970s in America. At that time, the popular hippie subculture advocated establishing a substitute for the established social culture. Many scientists, engineers and architects try to run Off-grid buildings without connecting the municipal power and water power networks, and only rely on on-site solar energy. Simultaneously, the outbreak of the oil crisis caused the world to pay attention to buildings' energy performance and energy consumption. However, with the stabilization of energy prices and the development of air-conditioning technology, the interest in building according to climate design mode has weakened. In the late 1990s, with the awareness of energy shortage, total resource depletion and climate change, this problem surfaced again. Therefore, the rise of climate-responsive design in recent ten years is because people realize that the most sustainable way to design buildings is to adapt to the environment and occupants' needs as much as possible. However, climate- responsive design is generally regarded as a relatively avant-garde design paradigm, on the contrary, because climate adaptation can be seen in the earliest human settlements and buildings. Before the industrial age, the performance of buildings was mainly determined by adapting to the climate. It can be said that climate-responsive design is the oldest architectural design method.

2.3.2 Reflection on the single visual thinking in architecture

Climate is invisible and intangible, but it interacts with the human body all the time. Since modernism swept the world, architectural thinking has been dominated by vision. The focus of architectural discourse, education and practice has long been on the visual aspect. Architecture can be regarded as art through visual evaluation and appreciation. However, due to this unique focus, other senses used to experience the environment are rarely considered crucial design elements. Juhani Pallasmaa pointed out that the increasing visual focus in architecture has led to the weakening of our multi-sensory imagination, and 54

architecture has degenerated into passive visual manipulation. In his book Eyes of Skin, he advocates that all senses used to experience the environment should be considered in architectural design33.

Vision is an essential feeling for collecting information. However, space experience can depend on vision, but the body-centered design method is essential for creating a more balanced living space. The multi-sensory experience of the environment makes intangible aspects such as ventilation and acoustics become decisive factors in architectural design. Body-centered philosophy is the foundation of climate design development, and climate is one of the main factors affecting architectural expression.

2.3.3 Climate has become an important topic in contemporary architecture

Contemporary architecture is complicated, but ecology, sustainability, green and energy-saving consistently implement the mainstream architectural trend of thought, the core of which is to pay attention to climate and natural environment and reduce energy consumption from the architectural level. The renewal of technology creates more possibilities for low-energy buildings, but technology must be based on the building itself. Many radical technologists only pay attention to the performance gains brought by technology, but ignore the energy and economic costs of the technology itself. Besides, technology is easy to become a sticking strategy, without considering the harmony between the shape and organization of the building itself and the climate and environment, especially in large buildings. What green buildings need to solve is the coordination between architecture and climate. Climate is different in different regions, and the positive response to a different climate can be reflected in the architectural form.

Many architects have responded positively to climate in practice, showing the regional

33 Pallasmaa, Juhani. The eyes of the skin: architecture and the senses. John Wiley & Sons, 2012. 55 characteristics of architecture. Singapore WOHA Office pays attention to the comprehensive effects of climate, culture and society, changes the closed and complete form of high-rise buildings, adjusts the microclimate utilizing aerial courtyard, vertical greening, shading skin and porous interface, and creates a series of high-rise buildings with tropical high-density city characteristics, such as Oasia Hotel and Sky Ville. In the design of Tjibaou Cultural Centre, Renzo Piano abstracted the local traditional seaside shacks and created a towering outer wooden screen. A buffer cavity is formed between the wooden screen and the building behind it. According to the change of the external wind environment, the opening at the bottom of the cavity and the other end of the building is controlled. The wind pulling effect is reasonably utilized to maintain the indoor natural ventilation.

Figure 2-48 Oasia Hotel Figure 2-49 Sky Ville Figure 2-50 Tjibaou Cultural Centre

In China, Cui Kai put forward the idea of local design, and "based on the fertile soil of natural and cultural resources34". The Haikou Citizen Visitor Center, designed by him, takes the local traditional arcade space as the prototype, fully considers the relationship between architectural form layout and wind direction, guides the wind into the wooden

34 Kai, Cui." Architecture in Landscape." Chinese Landscape Architecture 2019 07 (2019): 5-10. 56

roof, and creates a comfortable semi-outdoor activity space. The Humanities Museum of South China University of Technology designed by He Jingtang considers the change of solar height angle in different seasons in Guangzhou, controls the inclination angle and spacing of roof sunshade components, avoids overheating of the roof caused by the hot summer sun, and maximizes the guidance of winter sunlight to illuminate the roof to realize heating. L plus Architecture Studio, chaired by Li Linxue, has been engaged in the research and practice of thermodynamic architecture for a long time, paying attention to climate response and environmental regulation, and proposing to rethink the relationship between architectural forms and climate from the perspective of energy, holding that climate and translation will become a new discourse of contemporary architecture 35 . In the office buildings of Shanghai Chongming Sports Training Center, the architects took the local monsoon, sunshine, water system, microclimate and other environmental conditions as the main design factors, focused on the excavation of the building's ontology performance, and expressed the technical aesthetics and poetic design. Zhang Tong put forward the concept from "air conditioning" to "space conditioning" 36 , hoping to reduce air-conditioning equipment through space design and realize the adjustment of indoor environmental comfort with no and less energy consumption. He designed the Shanghai office building of Putian Information Industry in China, which effectively introduced natural ventilation and reduced air conditioning consumption through the vertical ventilation design of the atrium.

35 Linxue, Li." Knowledge, Discourse, Paraparadigms: Historical Prospect and Contemporary Frontiers of Energy and Thermodynamic Architecture." Times Architecture 2 (2015). 36 Tong, Zhang." From Air Conditioning to Space Conditioning -- Design of Intelligent Ecological Office Building for Shanghai Industrial Park of China Putian Information Industry." The 1st China Green Building Youth Forum (2013): 243-252. 57

Figure 2-51 Haikou Citizen Center Figure 2-52 Humanities Museum of South China University of Technology

Figure 2-53 Office of Shanghai Chongming Sports Figure 2-54 Shanghai Office Building of China Training Center Putian Information Industry

When a building responds to its climate, the relationship between architecture and climate is redefined. Architecture can be regarded as the intermediary between human beings and habitats, and naturally occurring elements such as sunlight and wind are effectively transformed to adjust the user's space experience37. This kind of building is usually based on comfort and uses energy resources in the climate. Finally, the shape and space presented can reflect its climate and environmental characteristics, and has a high degree of regional specificity. Therefore, climate can be regarded as the "shaper" of architecture.

Architect Ben van Berkel once said that calculating the climate potential in architecture lies in "transferring the flexibility of design among multiple disciplines

37 Rocca, Alessandro. Natural architecture. BNN, Inc., 2008. 58

through related data38". UN Studio, led by him, often uses climate analysis software to study architectural geometry in a way they call "form follows energy". Architect Bjarke Ingels believes that the combination of climatic conditions in this building can solve the lack of cultural identity. He pointed out that when the building is designed according to the local climate, the building will be different from place to place again39. However, it is not always appropriate to meet our current comfort standards only with local strategies40 . Adapting to the local climate does not mean going back to the past and recreating the local traditional architecture. Using digital technology, a new prototype can cooperate with climate and environment through the analysis and parameter generation. When a building is designed to respond to its climate environment, climate can be regarded as the building's creator, producing precise prototypes.

38 Vidler, Anthony. "Knowledge Matters: Eleven Tools to Reorient and Expand the Architectural Profession." (2017): 41-41. 39 Ingels, Bjarke. BIG; Hot to Cold: An Odyssey of Architectural Adapatation. Taschen, 2015. 40 Bilow, Marcel. International façades: CROFT-Climate Related Optimized Façade Technologies. Vol. 1. TU Delft, 2012. 59

Figure 2-55 Sunshine analysis of Mirae Asset Figure 2-56 Sunshine analysis of the campus of Tower Singapore university of science and technology and design

Figure 2-57 Wind analysis of Dutch state taxation bureau

Climate-responsive design is based on regular regional physical conditions such as wind, sunshine and temperature, and is analyzed by scientific methods and dealt with in terms of architectural layout, shape and materials. With the increasing attention to sustainability and energy, climate and the control and adjustment of architecture and environment corresponding to climate provide an irreplaceable path for contemporary architecture.

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CHAPTER 3 PRINCIPLES OF CLIMATE-RESPONSIVE DESIGN IN ARCHITECTURE

"We can keep the great benefits of the technological society in our minds, but we cannot easily keep how it may deprive us, because technology is ourselves41." -George Grant

In the whole development process of human society, architecture has provided us with a large number of activity places and indoor spaces. It has become the main living and working environment. Architecture enables human beings to settle globally and provides a way to control the indoor environment, thus improving safety, efficiency and comfort. Architecture is essentially creating space, and its existing state reflects the degree of integration between human beings and the natural environment. From simple shacks and caves in ancient society to complex architectural systems in modern times, we spend more and more time inside buildings, and rely more and more on the system composed of the microclimate closest to our body, which is the core of maintaining physical and mental health.

3.1 Interaction of climate, body and architecture

The relationship between humans and climate has gone through six stages: myth, theory, measurement, understanding, prediction and control. Human beings in primitive societies have accumulated rich experience and can start to speculate and hypothesize some weather phenomena. However, due to the lack of relevant equipment and theories for verification, these hypotheses often stay in the stage of ignorance, myth and legend,

41 George, Grant. "Technology and Empire: Perspectives on North America." Toronto, Canada: Anansi (1969). 61

wandering between right and wrong. Aristotle first put forward the concept of meteorology: "things falling from the sky", and people began to define climate phenomena by theory. During the Renaissance, the appearance of thermometers and other measuring equipment made people begin to master the knowledge of measuring weather conditions. In the 20th century, the launch of meteorological satellites further led people to predict the once unknown sky conditions.

However, people still don't know enough about the daily climate. This is because climate has its uncertain factors. In the current urban environment, artifacts such as architecture, automobiles, and commodities turn the whole city into a giant step-by-step machine. Climate seems to have become the last remaining uncertain factor in urban life. On the one hand, the accuracy of weather forecasts by meteorological professionals cannot fully meet the expectations of ordinary people. The accuracy of the three-day weather forecast will drop by nearly half. On the other hand, non-meteorological professionals, including architects, know very little about meteorological knowledge, and it is difficult to cope with different climatic conditions and make different responses. This design method is unacceptable for buildings that need to be exposed to the climate in large areas.

The relationship between human beings and climate seems to be very contradictory. On the one hand, people can see the vast energy contained in climate phenomena and want to make use of the climate; On the other hand, due to its great uncertainty, people lack confidence in the daily use of climate. Architectural design renderings are always accompanied by beautiful weather: blue sky, white clouds and twittering birds. Although in reality, such beautiful weather does not often appear. Therefore, architectural design should not ignore the climate environment in the area where the building is located, but should actively respond to it. Although the weather itself has a series of crucial words contrary to solid architecture: ephemeral, perishable, invisible, dynamic, non-material, etc., it will still have a significant impact on our daily life, including architectural design.

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Previous studies on building climate-responsive architecture have focused on the physical form, taking the strategies and technologies as the primary research object. In contrast, the main body of climate response is the users of buildings. The climate response of buildings is reflected in the process of human use of buildings. Even in a broad sense, architecture is a tool and means for people to adapt to climate. Many architectural strategies can't be achieved without regulating users' behaviors, and some life patterns of users themselves are also from the perspective of response to the climate.

Climate response of architecture is reflected in the interactive process of climate, body and architecture, which is dynamic and changes with time and space factors. Therefore, to study the climate adaptability of buildings, it is necessary to establish a dynamic relationship among the three: what kind of buildings people use and what behaviors they use to adapt to the local climate conditions. The climate-responsive architecture can be studied and has specific research value because climate, people and architecture have stable characteristics and changing factors in different time and space scales.

The stability is reflected in: climate is the statistical result of numerical distribution characteristics of climate elements such as temperature, precipitation and wind based on long-term meteorological data monitoring, which describes the average state of atmospheric physical characteristics. If climate change on a longer time scale is not considered, the climate characteristics are relatively stable for a particular region. However, people's most basic physiological needs to the surrounding environment, especially the range of survival needs, are usually relatively stable. For example, many experiments in the artificial climate room have confirmed that the set point of human physiological temperature regulation is stable. Therefore, for a specific region, the strategy of building coping with climate is stable and regular.

The variability is reflected in: firstly, compared with the need for survival, people's

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demand for the comfort of the surrounding environment is relatively flexible, that is, "the problem concerning survival must be solved, while the problem concerning comfort can be settled". Many factors, such as economic factors, technical factors, cultural factors, etc, are influenced by people's comfort needs, which are closely related to the definition of "comfort" and the experience of "comfort". Therefore, even in stable climate characteristics, the comfort demand will also change once these influencing factors change. As a tool for people to achieve comfort demand in a specific climate, architecture will also reflect inevitable variability. Secondly, even to achieve the same climate adaptation strategy, there are many possibilities for the concrete forms of architecture, especially when the technological means of architecture mastered by people change. The concrete forms of architecture adapting to climate will also change. Third, although the climate characteristics are stable on a long-term scale, the outdoor weather process is constantly changing periodically. Once a building is built, it is a relatively fixed material environment. It is difficult for a relatively fixed built environment under complex climate conditions to achieve an ideal indoor environment under various outdoor conditions. Therefore, to cope with the day and night and seasonal changes of the weather, some variable building strategies and technologies must be adopted. Even in the case of abundant mechanical environment control means, a large part of this variability still depends on the way users adjust their lives and behaviors.

3.2 Human Comfort and Energy Demand

3.2.1 The complexity of indoor environmental quality

Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ) is vital for design, and users' perception of IEQ is the result of many interrelated factors. IEQ is influenced by physical environment parameters (such as sound, light and heat) and users' physiological (such as age, metabolic rate, etc.) psychological (such as mood, stress, etc.) state. In America, there is the rich

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economic logic behind IEQ, and a suitable indoor environment is conducive to improving efficiency. It is estimated that a high level of IEQ can increase workers' productivity by 20%, and the improvement of work productivity may increase US$ 19-199 billion in GDP every year. In classrooms with an improved indoor environment, students' learning efficiency will be improved to a certain extent, especially lighting and air quality, contributing significantly to efficiency.

The recognition of the importance of IEQ is also reflected in the building certification system, such as ——LEED, DGNB and WELL, which are the environmental assessment methods of architectural research institutions, and can get extra points for providing specific indoor environmental conditions (such as adequate thermal comfort or lighting). The indoor environment in a building can be subdivided into sub-environments, which can be defined according to the relationship with the human sensory system. This pairing based on indoor environmental conditions and human senses can be divided into four indoor sub- environments (i.e., heat, light, sound and air), thus defining users' psychological and physiological responses to indoor environmental conditions. The critical influencing factors can be defined for each sub-environment and then adjusted by architectural skin interface and service system design. However, not all the influencing factors are related to architecture. Some of them are influenced by occupants' behavior (such as metabolic rate), clothes and location (such as traffic noise). Therefore, IEQ depends on the combination of indoor sub-environmental parameters and user status.

Due to various indoor and outdoor environmental factors and individual differences among users, there is no concept of "ideal" indoor environment suitable for all users and all purposes. However, IEQ is not a static phenomenon. The goal of architectural design should be to provide the variability and adaptability of indoor environment to make the occupants get the greatest possible IEQ.

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Table 3.1 analyzes the corresponding relationship between four indoor sub- environments and human body sensation, and then obtains the main physical factors affecting human body comfort. It can be seen that the influencing factors that determine IEQ show a certain degree of intersection and contradiction among different sub- environments, especially in thermal environment and light environment. Thermal comfort and light comfort are affected by solar radiation, but the comfort requirements in these two situations are often contradictory. For example, to improve the lighting comfort, solar radiation (light) should enter the building, because users favor sunlight as a visual light source. It is imperative to adjust the body's rhythm. Also, natural lighting reduces the power consumption caused by artificial lighting and has a beneficial impact on the environment. However, this may lead to overheating indoor environment in summer, thus reducing thermal comfort and increasing cooling energy consumption. Therefore, thermal environment and light environment should be considered and optimized simultaneously in climate-responsive architectural design.

There is a similar situation between thermal environment and air environment. Users tend to ventilate to improve the air exchange frequency naturally. However, this may negatively impact thermal comfort because ventilation will cause heat loss due to convection and increase energy consumption. Similarly, natural ventilation will negatively impact sound comfort because opening windows to promote ventilation will also bring unnecessary external noise to buildings.

The starting point of human comfort lies in buffering the adverse effects of the external environment on human body. As an artificial buffering mechanism, architecture needs to transform external energy and turn it into people's use. From the perspective of climate adaptation, IEQ should be realized as far as possible through the passive solution of architectural form and skin interface, and the interaction between indoor and external climatic conditions should be utilized to provide appropriate comfort for users. When

66 passive regulation effect cannot be realized or needs to be enhanced, active mechanical intervention can be used. That is to say, maintaining human comfort requires reasonable use and consumption of energy.

Indoor environmental comfort is a complex system composed of various physiological, psychological and social influences characterized by the interdependence among different indoor sub-environments. Thermal comfort is the main focus of IEQ evaluation, which does not deny the necessity of the overall measurement of IEQ. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy theory of human needs also confirms this point. He emphasized that we must first meet basic physiological needs for human beings, such as food and warmth, so that we can strive to achieve higher needs, such as safety, emotion, self-esteem, and self- realization42. Thermal comfort is significant for human survival and is one of the primary considerations in architectural design.

3.2.2 The Importance of Thermal Comfort

To feel comfortable, people must keep their body temperature within a narrow range of 36.5 1℃. Any long-term deviation from ideal core body temperature will lead to death, freezing in a cold environment or heatstroke in a hot environment. However, the building forms a thermal medium between the environment and the body, which can reasonably use the environmental heat under mild conditions, avoid the adverse thermal effects to the greatest extent in extreme cases, and even improve the thermal comfort by consuming energy (such as heating by stoves and cooling by air conditioners in buildings). Besides, the body itself can self-regulate the core body temperature through vasoconstriction, breathing, etc. When the body is overheated, sweating (i.e. evaporation) can dissipate heat, while muscle trembling can increase the body's heat production when it is cold.

Four ways of heat exchange:

42 Maslow, Abraham H. A theory of human motivation. General Press, 2019. 67

Since the goal of human body is to keep constant internal temperature by releasing excess heat to the surrounding environment, heat exchange will continue between human body and the environment. This exchange occurs in four different physical ways: conduction, convection, radiation heat transfer and evaporation. The ratio of each exchange mechanism varies according to the characteristics of the thermal environment.

Conductivity: It depends on the thermal conductivity of materials in direct contact with skin. When a specific part of the body comes into contact with cold or hot substances, this process is limited to local cooling or heating. This is of practical importance in selecting materials and surface treatments that directly contact the body, such as floor coverings, seats, and tabletop materials.

Convection: Including the heat exchange between the body and the surrounding air. This process mainly depends on the temperature difference between skin and air and the movement of air. These exchanges are not uniform physically, and are more evident in limbs (such as head, hands and feet), because these areas are more sensitive to temperature changes. These considerations are essential for design decisions, such as ceiling height and door and window opening position.

Radiation: Occurs between the human body and the surrounding inner surfaces (such as walls, ceilings and floors). Air temperature, humidity and airflow rate have little influence on the heat transfer in this process. Radiation heat transfer depends on the temperature difference between skin and surrounding surface. The radiation from the end of the body has a more significant influence on thermal comfort than other parts of the body. The resident's response to the hot ceiling is much greater than that of the hot wall, so the thermal characteristics of the ceiling and wall are critical.

Evaporation: when the ambient temperature (air temperature and surface temperature) is higher than 25℃. In this case, the human body cannot lose enough heat by convection 68

or radiation, but can only dissipate heat by evaporation, and sweating becomes the primary mechanism. When evaporation occurs, heat will be lost. Human beings usually lose about 1 liter of water every day due to sweat and breathing. The rate of evaporation depends on clothes, temperature, humidity and airflow rate. Under the conditions of wind speed of 1-

1.5m/s, humidity of 50% and ambient air temperature of 25℃, the cooling effect of evaporation on skin is equivalent to the decrease of ambient air temperature by 5.7℃.

Suppose the air temperature is lower than the skin temperature. In that case, evaporation may occur even if the relative humidity is 100%. Still, if the air temperature is higher than the skin temperature, even if the relative humidity is lower than 100%, it is impossible to achieve the cooling effect by evaporation. Therefore, when the air temperature is too high, it is impossible to dissipate heat by evaporation.

Four environmental factors of thermal comfort:

Four environmental factors affect the loss and acquisition speed of body heat and form a thermal comfort zone.

Air temperature: The air temperature will determine the speed of heat dissipation into the air, mainly through convection. Generally speaking, the comfort condition is about 16-30 degrees Celsius. Below 16 degrees Celsius, it is necessary to increase clothing or increase activity rate. Above 30 degrees Celsius, even under low-level activities, it is usually necessary to increase the air movement rate and sweat to maintain comfort.

Relative humidity: The evaporation of skin moisture is related to relative humidity. The relatively dry air can absorb the moisture in the skin, and the rapid evaporation will effectively cool the body. Generally speaking, for comfort, the relative humidity should be higher than 20% throughout the year, lower than 60% in summer and lower than 80% in winter. Relative humidity below 20% may cause discomfort, because too dry air may cause

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lip cracking, eye inflammation and sore throat. When the relative humidity exceeds 90%, it will feel colder at low temperature and sultry at high temperature. When the relative humidity reaches 100%, the air will keep all the water vapor as much as possible, and the evaporative cooling will stop.

Radiation: Direct radiation from the sun or indirect radiation from the surrounding environment will directly exchange heat with the body. In the interior of a building, when the radiation temperature (that is, the surface temperature) is higher than the comfort range, discomfort will occur. The difference between the surface temperature and the skin temperature will cause the human body to obtain heat from the warm building surface. But in winter, radiation surface can be used to enhance people's thermal comfort experience.

Airflow: Airflow has a significant impact on heat loss through convection and evaporation, showing differences in different seasons. Wind speed lower than 0.1 m/s may lead to a sultry feeling. When airflow is needed, wind speed up to 2.0 m/s is acceptable, and the wind speed of 1.0 m/s is usually considered the maximum limit of night comfort. In a low-temperature environment, higher air velocity will accelerate skin heat loss through convection, making people feel cold. Although the higher air velocity can accelerate the evaporation and heat dissipation on the skin surface in summer, if the air temperature is higher than 37 degrees Celsius, convection will be generated to heat the skin and form a heat load on the body.

3.2.3 The energy needed to maintain comfort

In a mild climate, the energy balance between building and environment is easy to achieve, because the external environment is almost the same as the environment needed by human body. However, when the building has excess energy, such as overheating or too bright caused by too intense solar radiation in summer, it is necessary to filter the energy. When the building lacks energy, if the temperature is too low, leading to severe heat loss,

70 it is necessary to supply energy actively and actively prevent energy loss.

Meeting the requirements of human comfort is closely related to the energy regulation of buildings. Among the four sub-items of indoor environment, thermal environment and light environment are the most closely related to energy. In contrast, in the commonly mentioned building energy consumption, the energy consumption of temperature control equipment used to maintain a constant thermal environment and the electrical energy consumed to maintain indoor light environment account for the most significant proportion. In this paper, the thermal environment and light environment are mainly studied. People's comfort needs are transformed into building energy needs, including heating, cooling, lighting and electric energy.

Figure 3-1 The primary energy demand for maintaining the comfort of thermal environment and light environment

3.3 Energy Transformation in Climate

Climate resources contain enormous renewable energy. Over-exploitation and the use of non-renewable energy have plunged the world into an unprecedented energy crisis. The global oil crisis in the 1970s witnessed the great confusion caused by the excessive dependence of human society on fossil energy. This forces people to turn their attention to the use of renewable energy. In all kinds of climatic phenomena in nature, there are 71

inexhaustible energy sources. If all the wind energy is used in a moderate hurricane, it can provide electricity for the whole United States for three years. A medium-sized cloud can only last for ten to fifteen minutes, but it contains 100 to 1000 tons of water. Single lightning can provide daily electricity for more than 200,000 households. As the most closely related element in our daily climate, the sun can provide us with a tremendous amount of energy. More than 1.9 x 8 10 (TWh) of solar radiation is projected on the land every year.

In comparison, the global annual energy consumption is only 1.3 x 5 10(TWh). In other words, about six hours of solar radiation can meet the global energy consumption for a whole year. Therefore, there is no doubt that the enormous energy contained in the climate needs us to make rational use and development.

The location of the building site determines the available climate resources, and the design defines how the climate resources affect the energy balance of the building. Climate resources include air, ground temperature, sun position in the sky, sky coverage, solar radiation intensity, wind speed and direction, humidity, vegetation, and water. To develop the potential of local climate, we need to understand its dynamics and laws.

Climate is the result of several dynamic processes, which continuously occur and seriously interfere with each other, including tides, evaporation, precipitation, wind, ocean currents, solar radiation, geothermal processes and biological production (such as organic materials such as plants and trees). All these natural processes originate from three physical phenomena that are considered endless on human scale: gravity, nuclear fusion of the sun and the radioactive decay of the earth's interior. Climate varies from place to place, and the dynamic process of the atmosphere strongly interacts with the earth's surface in different conditions.

Weather is the current state of the atmosphere described by different parameters, such 72 as temperature, sunshine, rainfall, cloud cover and humidity. Meteorological services worldwide continuously collect weather data, and gather the past results into long-term data sets to reveal the overall climate situation.

3.3.1.1 Solar radiation

The amount of solar radiation irradiated by the sun on the earth's surface is called global radiation, which can be decomposed into direct and diffuse components. The part that hits the earth without any hindrance is called direct radiation. After being scattered into the atmosphere due to clouds, water or dust, this part of global radiation will indirectly irradiate the earth's surface, called diffuse radiation.

The magnitude of global radiation varies with the earth's position and depends on the position of the sun in the sky. The higher the sun's position, the shorter the distance from the sun to the earth's surface and the less reflection, so the global radiation level near the equator is the highest. When far away from the equator, due to the earth's orbit around the sun and its axial inclination, the distance from global radiation to specific positions will differ in a year, resulting in seasonal climate change.

Both direct radiation and diffuse radiation are valuable energy sources. Diffusion radiation can provide natural lighting. If it is not reflected to the atmosphere, global radiation will be absorbed in heat energy.

1) Global radiation

Solar radiation passing through the atmosphere and hitting the earth's surface is called global radiation. Taking Shanghai as an example, the global radiation level is high in spring and summer and low in autumn and winter. The annual average global radiation is 1269 kWh/m2. The monthly average global radiation value reaches 140 kWh/m2 in May, July and August, and drops to nearly 60 kWh/m2 in December, January and January. Global

73 radiation varies from place to place, and the part that diffuses radiation is affected by the existence of clouds or water in the atmosphere. Therefore, most of the global radiation is diffuse radiation when the cloud amount is the largest in a year. As far as Shanghai is concerned, the monthly average diffuse radiation ratio is the lowest in July and December, close to 60%. In June, the rate of diffused radiation was the highest, which was 73% (Figure 3.5).

Figure 3-2 Annual global radiation level in Shanghai

Figure 3-3 Monthly average global radiation Figure 3-4 Ratio of monthly diffuse radiation in and diffuse radiation level in Shanghai Shanghai to global radiation

2) Solar geometry

From the observer's perspective, the sun's position can be described by two angles: azimuth angle and altitude angle. Azimuth is the angle of clockwise horizontal rotation relative to the north. Height angle is the angle of vertical rotation relative to the ground plane. For any position on the earth, the annual position of the sun can be calculated and depends on the latitude of the position. The sun change's azimuth angle and altitude angle change with the season and time of day, and the solar energy acquisition of buildings also 74 changes with function and time. In the solar trajectory map, the motion trajectory of the sun is projected on a horizontal plane, which shows the azimuth and altitude of the sun at a specific latitude at any time of the year. It can be used to judge whether solar radiation is beneficial to the indoor environment at different times.

Figure 3-5 Azimuth and Height Angle of the Sun

Figure 3-6 the path of the sun on the key date in the sky

3) Sunshine time

From an astronomical point of view, there is 50% sunlight every year anywhere on

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the earth, which will bring 4380 hours of sunshine every year, which is also called astronomical sunshine duration, that is, daytime duration. Near the equator, the astronomical sunshine duration in a day is evenly distributed (12 hours of sunshine every day in a year). It is concentrated at the poles (more extended days in half a year and longer nights in half a year). Between the equator and the poles, the daily astronomical sunshine duration varies according to its location and season, and it is usually longer in summer than in winter. The farther away from the equator, the longer the days in summer and the shorter the days in winter. Due to the influence of clouds in the sky, the astronomical sunshine duration is reduced to a certain extent, and finally, the actual ground can be observed as sunshine duration. In Shanghai, the longest day in a year lasts for 14 hours in May, June and July; The shortest day lasts for 10 hours, in November, December and January.

Figure 3-7 Shanghai sunshine duration and astronomical sunshine duration

3.3.1.2 Wind

The wind is the air movement in the atmosphere, which is restricted by the laws of physics, because inertial airflow tends to move forward even if it encounters obstacles. The air always flows from high pressure to low pressure. Under low pressure, the air pressure difference is caused by the difference in air temperature. There is a linear relationship between wind speed and pressure difference, and the wind direction mainly depends on the location of high-pressure air and low-pressure air area. In Shanghai, the southeast wind is the most popular, followed by the northwest wind, and the southwest wind appears less 76 frequently.

Figure 3-8 Shanghai annual wind rose map

The airflow in the building environment has two advantages, which can be directly used to ventilate or cool buildings and obtain energy from the wind flow with the help of wind turbines.

Natural airflow is caused by pressure difference, and its driving force may be the difference in air temperature or the difference in airflow speed around buildings. Hot pressing ventilation is based on the difference between warm air and cold air density. Warm air has a lower density and lighter weight than cold air, so it tends to float upwards. When warm indoor air can escape from the building through the high opening, fresh outdoor air will be forced to enter the building through the low opening. The greater the temperature difference, the more significant the height difference between the upper and lower openings of the building, and the more pronounced the stack effect. Wind pressure ventilation is based on the pressure difference around the building when it is impacted by wind. On the windward side, the pressure will rise, and fresh air will blow into the building through openings and cracks. On the leeward side, the pressure will decrease, which will generate

77 an outward airflow by suction.

Usually, the two driving forces will appear at the same time. Hot pressure ventilation is the main driving force of natural ventilation in winter, and wind pressure ventilation is the main driving force of natural ventilation in summer.

Under slight temperature difference and low wind speed, enough ventilation can be ensured by opening the window. However, the driving force of natural ventilation is random and sometimes difficult to control. Additional space design and building technology can be adapted to increase the pressure difference between air inlet and outlet, thus increasing ventilation capacity.

Besides indoor air quality, natural ventilation can also solve the problem of thermal comfort. In summer, because the solar radiation is too intense, it is easy to cause indoor heat accumulation. By inhaling fresh air from nearby vegetation or water, the indoor temperature can be lowered, and the increase of air velocity is also beneficial to skin evaporation and heat dissipation.

3.3.1.3 Water

Surface water has cooling potential for its direct environment. Due to the large heat capacity, the temperature rise of water under the influence of solar radiation is much slower than that of buildings. When the air flows through the surface water, the air temperature will drop due to evaporation. The evaporation of water requires energy, and this cooler air can be introduced into the room for cooling. When buildings are close to water in hot summer, the cooling effect can reach 2.5 degrees Celsius.

Besides, rainwater collection through buildings can be used as reclaimed water instead of flushing toilets, watering gardens and washing clothes. When rainwater is collected in green roofs or open pools, it can cool buildings and adjust microclimate.

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3.3.1.4 Land

Compared with the frequently changing air temperature, the soil temperature remains relatively stable. The temperature of soil or groundwater at a certain depth has the potential of heating and cooling. By analyzing the temperature change of local soil and its corresponding depth, water, air and other media can flow between the soil and the building's interior in the way of pipelines, thus realizing heat exchange and heat circulation. When the indoor temperature is high, the temperature is reduced by heat exchange, and when the indoor temperature is low, the temperature is increased by heat exchange.

In addition to using the cold source or heat source in the land, for buildings adjacent to water bodies, the exchange of cold and heat sources with water can also be considered.

Figure 3-9 Diagram of land heat exchange

3.3.1.5 Energy transformation in climate

In the previous chapter, the energy potential of climate has been studied, and a set of energy transformation matrices in climate has been derived. The intersection of energy demand and climate resources is the basic principle of climate adaptability design of buildings. Because this paper focuses on technology research, it is called technical logic. It can be seen that different elements of climate may point to the same design point. When

79 considering the design strategy, it is necessary to integrate multiple climatic elements for analysis. It is undeniable between solar radiation and wind. According to the climate laws, the design strategies of two kinds of climate elements are different, even contradictory. In Shanghai, for example, most of the residential buildings are due north and south to ensure adequate sunshine. However, if it is required to make the most of the natural ventilation in the transitional season, the southeast orientation is more appropriate. The final decision of architecture results from the coordination of various climatic factors, and it is difficult to have an optimal solution. Table 3-1 Matrix of energy demand and climate resources Energy demand Heating Cooling Daylighting Electricity Climate resources Radiation heating Natural lighting Energy savings Solar radiation Radiant heat prevents Wind Natural ventilation Energy savings Water Evaporative cooling Soil Geothermal Geothermal exchange exchange

3.4 Building as the intermediary of energy

"With the penetration of air conditioning systems into architectural design, architects who are not even prepared for the basic knowledge of thermodynamics or physiology succumb to equipment and mechanical systems; There are often exciting scenes like Pompidou Center in Paris. This generation of architects found that the existence and expression of these mechanical systems is a symbol of the rapid development and modernization of the building, rather than a more profound and deeper integration within the building43. "

43 Banham, Reyner. Architecture of the Well-tempered Environment. University of Chicago Press, 1984. 80

Contemporary architecture is a complex technical complex. If architecture is regarded as a system, including three parts: structure, skin and equipment, the combination of each part directly determines the final space and form of architecture. Design strategies in architecture are to deeply integrate with structure, skin, and equipment and finally form a complete architectural system.

3.4.1 Structure

For buildings, defying gravity and lateral load (i.e., earthquake, wind, earth pressure, etc.) are the primary considerations in design. The central structural systems are frame structures (such as columns and beams), solid structures (such as walls and slabs) and shell structures. Because of the difficulty and cost of construction, the mixing of the frame and solid structure is widespread. Also, appearance, material and construction level determine the choice of building structure type.

A solid structure is a closed volume with perforations (i.e. discontinuous openings). The frame structure minimizes the load-bearing structural elements, and the opening between them needs to be filled to provide a physical barrier. This means that when a solid structural system is used to support a building, the structure itself can also realize environmental separation (i.e., environmental separation and structural function combination). In the shell structure, the separation function of structure and environment is integrated. However, the opening is a more significant challenge because this structure is sensitive to discontinuities. Among the structures often adopted by human beings, the combination of three structural forms is prevalent.

The connection and integration of building structure and building skin is the key to form a building. In the case of brick-concrete structures, the structural and building maintenance systems are inseparable. In the case of modern curtain walls, they can be discontinuous. The load-bearing structure of the building is separated from the skin. This

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means that the type selection of the structural system depends on building skin (i.e. environmental isolation).

3.4.2 Skin

In the traditional sense, architectural skin is regarded as a way to keep the indoor environment from external influences. This understanding of skin emphasizes the importance of indoor isolation from its natural environment. The principle of maximum separation between these two environments can be explained by spacesuits, whose primary functions are to prevent decompression (that is, material exchange) and minimize heat transfer caused by radiant heating caused by solar radiation. Therefore, in the extreme environment of outer space, maximum separation is meaningful. But what about on earth? There are extreme environments similar to outer space (such as deep-sea) on the earth. However, buildings are rarely or never in this environment. The closest examples maybe those buildings built in permanent ice areas or high mountains in Antarctica and Greenland. Even under such environmental conditions, extreme separation is unnecessary because some interaction between indoor and external environment is needed (for example, providing fresh air). Strictly speaking, it is physically impossible to separate the internal building space from the external environment completely. Due to the nature of energy flow, there will always be some energy exchange. No matter how many thermal insulation measures are taken between the two environments, the imbalance is the essence of thermodynamics.

Contrary to the spacesuit mentioned above, the external climate and the needs of indoor occupants can be dynamically balanced. Skin interface can be used as a kind of environment separator, which can be adjusted instantly to adapt to the change of the external environment. The purpose of an umbrella is to prevent people from getting wet in the rain. Once the rain stops, it is no longer needed. It can be folded up unless it is used for shading. The advantage of using this isolation is that users can still breathe fresh air. If

82 someone uses spacesuits to protect themselves from the rain, the fresh air will be isolated. Therefore, responsive behavior (such as umbrella) is more suitable for the earth's climate reality and variability than extreme separation (such as spacesuit).

Figure 3-10 Maximum isolation- Figure 3-11 Responsive isolation-Umbrella Spacesuit

Building skin must selectively control the response to climatic conditions, realize the reservation of ideal climatic elements, and mitigate adverse climatic factors. Most buildings use the principle of separation and selective control to some extent, to realize the ideal environment adjustment and separation between indoor and outdoor.

Historically, the environmental adjustment in buildings was realized through a single skin interface. Buildings made of stone, brick, rammed earth or wood have environmental adjustment besides defying gravity and lateral load. However, this method is impractical for general frame structure buildings, because the coating materials such as Stone are heavy. Therefore, the skin of the multi-layer envelope appears. With the development of building technology and the requirement of building comfort, more and more complex skin interfaces have been developed, with the ultimate goal of higher performance and a more comfortable environment. However, there are also adverse effects. Due to the requirements of thermal comfort and low energy consumption, the skin has achieved heat insulation and higher airtightness, but the water vapor diffusion is affected, so there is a need for active 83

dehumidification; Transparent skin not only helps to observe and ventilate, but also transmits solar radiation and daylighting. However, indoor overheating usually occurs.

Contemporary architectural skin interface design requires a relatively strict distinction between opaque and transparent or translucent parts of the building envelope. In the opaque interface, the dominant preference of current technology tends to the maximum separation method. For transparent interfaces, the situation is just the opposite, and more lighting and air are expected to be introduced. It can be imagined that with the development of technology, the skin interface will become an responsive dynamic component, and the boundary between the transparent part and the opaque part will disappear. Also, when sensors and controllers are used for automation and remote sensing, mechanical and electrical systems are being functionally integrated with the building skin interface. Finally, the imaginary "ideal" envelope structure proposed by Mike Davis may be realized in the future, in which the advantages of transparent and opaque elements are integrated and combined with HVAC and electrical systems to form a single continuous environmental medium separator.

3.4.3 Equipment

For the diverse functional requirements and specific site requirements of contemporary buildings, people put forward higher requirements for comfort, and building equipment systems consisting of mechanical and electrical devices are essential (such as pipelines, electricity, heating, refrigeration, etc.). When the building itself is not enough to adjust the climate to meet the indoor comfort, the equipment system can actively adjust the indoor environment, providing more prosperous use functions and greater indoor occupant comfort. Most equipment systems are active systems, which need external energy input to play a role. In this respect, the equipment system of a building is quite different from the structure and skin interface system, which is essentially a passive system. However, without this system, contemporary architecture is almost impossible, because they are vital

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to our way of life and can achieve higher comfort in architecture. The equipment system is usually installed on the structure and skin, and is also affected by the architectural design and performance. If a building is not well designed, its indoor comfort can be improved to a certain extent by the HVAC system, but if it exceeds the range of equipment adjustment, it is challenging to guarantee indoor comfort. The equipment system in buildings is very complex and spans several disciplines, which usually requires multidisciplinary design thinking and methods.

3.5 Design strategy and integrated design of climate-responsive

architecture

Climate-responsive design can be regarded as a combination of the following three principles:

1. Exchange energy with climate to provide comfort

The primary purpose of climate-responsive design is to create buildings with high performance and low energy consumption. Reasonable climate control is usually beneficial to the capture of natural energy.

2. Architecture as a reaction system

A reaction is a response to a stimulus. Climate is a stimulating factor in climate- responsive design. Building space and quality can act as the medium between indoor and outdoor environments, allowing energy exchange between the two environments and acting as environmental filters. As a whole, the building system is open to a certain extent, responding to the changes of internal and external climatic conditions and occupants' behavior.

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3. Deep integration of building systems

Climate-responsive design is about the interaction between indoor and outdoor environments, and buildings should integrate external resources as a system.

Climate-responsive design mainly uses natural energy in the environment to provide passive or low-energy comfort. Because these dynamic outdoor conditions are not always synchronized with the comfort demand, buildings need to adopt passive and active strategies, such as energy distribution, buffering, recovery and storage, and combine various design strategies to form a comfortable space together.

3.5.1 Climate determines design strategy

The climate varies widely in different regions, and the comfort range of the human body is maintained in a stable range. Therefore, from a macro perspective, the logic of using design strategies varies from place to place.

From Table 3-1 Matrix of energy demand and climate resources, I could conclude mainly following 7 types of climate-responsive design logics: Radiant heating, radiation heat prevention, natural lighting, natural ventilation, energy-saving, evaporative cooling and geothermal exchange. However, when the resources in climate cannot meet the comfort requirements, equipment consumption needs to be compensated, so equipment replenishment is also a kind of design logic.

Climate-responsive design mainly focuses on the architectural performance of buildings under given environmental conditions and the comfort requirements of occupants, which passive solutions or active mechanical measures can achieve. In the early climate analysis, we can make a fundamental judgment on the technical logic. If wind and sunshine are rich in resources, energy saving can be considered; If there are colder weather in the whole year, radiation heating can be considered; For example, in hot climate areas,

86 technical measures such as natural ventilation, radiation heat prevention and evaporative cooling should be promoted; In areas with four distinct seasons and diverse climate, the above eight design logics may need to be considered.

Besides, in the early stage, we can also consider the passive and active technologies of buildings and the corresponding energy supplement. Although efforts are made to reduce the impact on the environment and the energy use of buildings, passive technology is preferred because it will directly affect the operational performance of buildings without additional energy use and provide a higher level of indoor comfort. However, it is impossible to solve all environmental problems by passive technology in the relatively wrong climate zone, and significant energy consumption and active technology are necessary. It can be seen from Figure 3-10 that energy consumption is generally high in high latitudes such as Iceland and Norway, so the Design logic should be how to improve the efficiency of active technology and improve the performance gain of passive technology through active technology.

Figure 3-12 Diagram of per capita energy consumption of some countries in the world from 1970 to 2014

Based on design strategies, responses can be made at three levels: structure, skin interface and equipment system. Many practices can be seen in existing buildings.

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Table 3-2 Main design strategies under the matrix of design logic and architectural system (not completely enumerated) Building Skin Equipment system Structure Transparent Opaque

Design logic interface interface Thermal mass Sun room Low reflectivity Radiant Roof surface heating greenhouse Double- Trombe wall glazing Variable shading Radiation Roof garden Perforated heat Thermal mass plate prevention Structural High reflectivity shading surface Natural Light shelf Skylight lighting ETFE Wind tower Natural Double- Wind shaft ventilation glazing Solar chimney Evaporative Water mist Roof pool cooling cooling Geothermal Earth coupling exchange Photovoltaics Wind Energy Energy Solar thermal

saving collector Water management Air conditioner Mechanical fan Temperature Equipment Radiant sensing control complement systems system Light sensing control system

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Table 3-3 Climate-responsive design strategies and application principle Building Design Case diagram Principle system strategy Collect solar radiation from the top floor space for space heating. This is Roof especially useful in high-density greenhouse environments, where winter sunlight does not reach the ground floor.

Heat buffering of the roof through soil Roof garden and plants reduces indoor and outdoor heat transfer.

A structural shading device above the window or a specific Angle of sunlight Structural to shade the window. It can also be a shading balcony, awning, or even the structure

itself. On the roof structure, direct window lighting, skylight form, and orientation Skylight variety can be determined according to the intensity of solar radiation and the

Structure sun's location. A wind tower is a chimney that rises above the roof and speeds up indoor Wind tower airflow.

Using the principle of wind pressure, the Wind shaft high and low point of the wind speed difference drives indoor airflow.

Solar radiation heats the air in the chimney, forcing it up and out of the Solar upper vents, where fresh air is drawn chimney into the building. Solar chimneys can be used for indoor ventilation.

Evaporative roof cooling is realized in the high-temperature area to reduce Roof pool the temperature of lower space.

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It uses the principle of long-wave Radiant radiation, the floor or wall is heated or systems cooled to conduct radiation heat transfer with the human body The transparent glass box placed outside, as part of the building's extension to the outer space, can be Sunroom heated using solar radiation during the winter months, and can also heat adjacent rooms

By changing the porosity of the Perforated material, both shading and lighting can plate be taken into account

The light guides are placed horizontally above the Windows to create shade and reflect light to the ceiling, allowing it to Light shelf penetrate deep into the room. The amount of daylight entering the room

can be controlled by turning the Angle.

Skin During the summer, the curtain wall opens at the top and bottom, creating a pressure difference and ventilation to take heat away from the surface. In Double- winter, the cavity is heated internally, glazing the curtain wall is closed to the outdoor opening, and the connection to the interior is opened to provide direct indoor heating. The material with strong heat storage capacity can buffer the change of the external environment and make the Thermal fluctuation of indoor temperature mass stable. Also, energy is stored during the day and released at night, reducing energy consumption at night.

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It consists of a layer of glass and a low reflectivity wall with a cavity in between. Trombe wall During the day, the sun warms the air in the cavity, and the heat is absorbed by the walls and radiated back into space.

Variable Shading by manually or automatically shading adjusting the direction of components.

Changing the surface color and texture Low can reduce the absorption of solar reflectivity radiation and prevent overheating of surface the room. Changing the color and texture of the High surface can enhance the absorption of reflectivity solar radiation and can heat adjacent surface rooms. Water is sprayed in the form of fog by spray equipment. Water evaporates and Water mist absorbs heat to achieve the cooling cooling effect. It is usually used for building epidermis, outdoor or semi-outdoor space.

Heating or cooling is achieved by Earth exchanging heat with deep soil or coupling water.

Equipment Crystalline silicon cells are used to Photovoltaics convert light directly into electricity

Wind energy is captured by turbines Wind Energy and converted directly into electricity

The liquid circulates through a series of heat absorption tubes heated by Solar thermal incoming and absorbed solar radiation collector and is used directly or indirectly for hot

water supply or space heating.

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Provides thermal comfort based on Air thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and conditioner heat transfer principles.

The motor is driven by electric power Mechanical and the blades rotate to speed up air fan velocity and promote evaporation and heat dissipation The utility model relates to a weak Temperature current system, which regulates the sensing dynamic components and the power of control internal air conditioners by sensing system temperature changes. A kind of weak current system, by Light sensing sensing the change of light to adjust the control lighting intensity inside the building, the system moving components of the skin, etc.

3.5.2 The intervention of design strategies -Integrated Design

Integrated design meets the increasingly complex functional and environmental requirements of contemporary architecture, which means that the form, structure, energy and system logic of architecture cooperate to achieve better architectural space and performance. Here, we mainly integrate the climate-responsive design strategies in the architectural system. Architecture is often a technology complex, and the simple superposition of multiple technologies will damage the effect of some technologies. Through integrated design, technology is integrated into architecture in form and realizes the synergy among various technologies, forming an efficient system with architecture.

With the increasing complexity of contemporary architecture, the climate-responsive design strategy will directly or indirectly affect the architectural form. By integrating strategies into the architectural system, the aesthetic quality of architecture can be promoted.

Historically, architecture developed from the comprehensive practice of art and

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technology. Art can improve people's space experience, and technology can solve practical application problems. Throughout the Renaissance, great architects were proficient in architecture and mathematicians, artists, and engineers. However, the Industrial Revolution dramatically promoted scientific knowledge and corresponding architectural technology, brought fundamental changes to architecture, and created a huge gap between art and technology.

The resulting professional boundary regards architecture as "design specialty" and defines engineering as "applied science", which divides architectural design and construction into scattered disciplines such as architects, structural, mechanical and electrical engineers and computer scientists. Each of these fields has been institutionalized with different practices, cultural attitudes and professional methods. Therefore, the architectural practice in the second half of the 20th century is quite different from that in the past, and it also exposes the limitations of professional separation.

Integrated design reaffirms the role of architects as multitaskers. Applying technical principles in architectural design, and integrating them as a means to drive innovation and creativity, we can build an efficient and sustainable architectural environment through the combination of design and technology.

Based on three building systems: structure, skin and equipment, climate-responsive design strategies can be integrated into every part of the building to varying degrees. In the process of deepening and practice, it is often necessary for multiple building systems to cooperate.

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CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS OF DESIGN STRATEGY AND INTEGRATED DESIGN OF TRAIN STATION ARCHITE CTURE BASED ON CLIMATE RESPONSE

4.1 Four periods of train station architecture in history

Since the first train station, Manchester Liverpool Road Station, came out in 1830, it has more than 190 years. After three development periods, it has now entered the fourth development period.

Figure 4-1 Manchester Liverpool Road Station Figure 4-2 Map of Manchester Liverpool Road Station

The first period was from the 1830s to 1840s. At that time, the train transportation had just started. Most of the train stations were very simple, only adding a station shed to block rain and prevent sun beside ordinary houses, and some even set up a canopy beside the railway. During this period, the station took the platform as the main body, becoming the most prominent feature different from other buildings.

The second period is from the 1850s to the early 20th century. Due to the rapid

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development of the economy and technology, this period has become an era of significant railway construction development. The design of train stations has become increasingly mature. During this period, the train station was divided into three parts: the square in front of the station, the station building and the platform. The waiting hall has become the main body of the train station, occupying the enormous building area, and its functional zoning is detailed and orderly. During this period, the station had a magnificent main station room, luxurious waiting room and platform hall with great span.

The third period was from the 1920s to the 1960s. Since the beginning of the 20th century, due to the influence of the two world wars, the economic strength of European and American countries is generally insufficient. With the invention of automobiles and airplanes, they compete with railway transportation. Because of the slow speed problems, low efficiency in transporting passengers and self-operation, the railway gradually declined. During this period, the construction of train stations was at a low tide. Due to the accelerated pace of social life and the significant influence of modernist architectural movement at the beginning of the century on the train station architecture at that time, its design began to attach importance to efficient streamlined organization, eliminating some unnecessary spaces and partitions, making the plane more compact and significantly improving the utilization rate. The architectural style of train station tends to be concise and bright, and it begins to show the characteristics of traffic architecture.

After 1950s, some developed countries represented by Japan began to develop high- speed railways. The waiting hall has gradually shrunk or even been canceled, and has been replaced by a multi-purpose hall. Most of the services that passengers need can be completed in this space.

This composite multifunctional space organization further simplifies the streamlined organization in the train station, and at the same time significantly improves the use

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efficiency of the passenger station space, and forms a significant functional feature of the traffic building.

The fourth period is from the 1970s to the present. After the 1920s, a large-scale energy crisis appeared globally, and the railway began to get the attention of all countries because of its characteristics of energy-saving, economy and safety. Due to the continuous improvement of the modes of railway passenger transportation and the mutual transfer requirements of various modes of transportation, many countries began to build train station complexes integrating various modes of transportation and various service functions. The design of train station has changed from plane thinking to three-dimensional thinking, and expanded to high altitude and underground. The boundaries among the square, station building and platform in front of the station are gradually blurred, and integrated into a vast space. On the premise of ensuring the rapid passage of traffic buildings, the station itself and its surrounding areas are comprehensively developed. The emergence of this type of train station adapts to the high-efficiency and fast-paced lifestyle in modern society and conforms to the development of urban economic structure.

4.2 Global climate zoning

Köppen-Geiger climate classification is the most widely used, which Wladimir Köppen first published, and then further improved and modified by climatologist Rudolf Geiger. Based on the data of temperature and precipitation, and corresponding to the biological communities of the earth, the system divides the climate into five main climate groups: tropical (A), arid (B), temperate (C), cold (D) and polar (E). Under each climate group, specific sub-climate is named by two or three letter codes, such as Am for tropical monsoon climate and Csa for temperate climate with hot and dry summer,Figure 4.1 shows the global distribution of climate types in Ke Ben-Geiger system (after this referred to as K-G). 96

Figure 4-3 Global distribution of climate types according to the Koppen-Geiger climate classification

Because K-G classification contains 29 climatic types, it is often used to describe specific biological communities and specific climatic characteristics, which has a certain complexity. To explore the relationship between climate and architecture, a relatively simplified climate classification is usually used. Atkinson's classification system has only four climatic types: dry and hot, damp and hot, mild and cold, which dramatically simplifies the Ke Ben-Geiger classification, while retaining the climatic characteristics of architectural design. Table 4.1 shows the relationship between this simplified classification and K-G classification.

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Table 4-1 A simplified classification method based on the Coburn-Geiger climatic classification Ke Ben-Geiger classification letter Ke Ben-Geiger identification Simplified Ke Ben-Geiger standard classification Climate Rain Temperature classification zone Tropical A Tamin ≥ 18 °C Rain forest F Pmmin ≥ 60 mm Monsoon M Not Af and pmmin ≥ 100 Hot-humid mm—Pan25 climate Grassland W Not Af and pmmin < 100 mm—Pan25 Dry B Pan < 10 × Pt Desert W Pan < 5 × Pt Hot-arid Grassland S Tan ≥ 18 °C climate Hot H Tan ≥ 18 °C Cold K Tan < 18 °C Temperate C Tamax > 10 °C and −3 ° C < tamin < 18 °c Summer drought S Psmin < 40 mm and psmin < pwmax3 Winter drought W Pwmin < pwmax10 Temperate Dry season F Not Cs or Cw Summer is hot A Tamax ≥ 22 °C Warm summer B Not a and TM10 ≥ 4 Cold in summer C Not a or b and 1 ≤ TM10 < 4 Continental D Tamax > 10 °C and tamin ≤−3 °C Summer drought S Psmin < 40 mm and psmin < pwmax3 Dry in winter W Pwmin < psmax10 No dry season F Not Ds or Dw Summer is hot A Tamax ≥ 22 °C Cold Warm summer B Not a and TM10 ≥ 4 Cold in summer C Not a, b or d Extremely cold D Not a or b and in winter tmmin≤−38 °C Polar E Tamax < 10 °C Tundra T Tamax ≥ 0 °C Frozen F Tamax < 0 °C

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earthgroundsoil In which: tamax: average temperature in the hottest month; tamin: the average temperature in the coldest month; Tan: annual average temperature; TM10: number of months with temperature above 10℃; pmmin: the month with the driest precipitation; Pan: average annual precipitation; Psmin: precipitation in the driest month in summer; pwmin: precipitation in the driest month in winter; Psmax: precipitation in the wettest month in summer; pwmax: precipitation in the wettest month in winter;

4.3 Train station response to hot-humid climate

The humid and hot climate types roughly correspond to Af (tropical rain forest), Am (tropical monsoon) and Aw (tropical grassland) K-G climate types. Generally speaking, this climate type is distributed in the region between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Cancer on the earth. The main characteristics of humid and hot climate are high temperature (TAmin > 18℃) and high humidity (that is, relative humidity (RH) is usually higher than 60%). Besides, in humid and hot climate, the annual variation of air temperature is small (δ t = 2-3℃), the daily variation is slightly large (δ t = 8-10℃), and the length of day hardly changes. High relative humidity is accompanied by cloudy weather and frequent high- intensity precipitation. Singapore is a typical representative of humid and hot climate, and Figure 4.2 shows climate statistics.

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Figure 4-4 Annual temperature and global radiation levels in Singapore

According to the characteristics of hot and humid climate, the Design logic and strategies in order of importance are as follows:

1) Prevent solar radiation heat

Overheating caused by intense solar radiation is prevented by different forms of shading, roof greening and low reflectivity surface. There are various forms of shading. Structural shading includes overhanging eaves, insulated and ventilated roofs, shading grids, etc. The shading on the skin can be achieved by changing the surface transmittance, such as adopting perforated plates, and variable shading components that control the shading direction through intelligent systems. Roof greening is essentially a kind of thermal quality skin, which will hinder indoor ventilation if used in walls. However, considering that the natural wind is primarily horizontal, roof greening can effectively delay the heat transfer from solar radiation to indoor. Finally, attention should be paid to the optical properties of materials, especially the reflectivity of opaque surfaces, which have considerable influence on the thermal performance of buildings. Therefore, a dark surface

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should be avoided, because it will absorb more solar radiation to generate heat.

2) natural ventilation

Due to atmospheric turbidity and high relative humidity, the possibility of passive radiation cooling and evaporative cooling is limited. Therefore, airflow has a positive impact on the indoor thermal environment, and the indoor wind speed can be accelerated by wind traps, wind extraction wells and solar chimneys. In hot and humid areas, large door and window openings are usually used to promote natural ventilation, while extensive horizontal shading prevents solar radiation.

3) Equipment complement

Because the hot and humid areas are prone to scorching and humid weather, it is often challenging to meet the comfort requirements of the whole year only by relying on the energy in the climate. Therefore, active equipment is needed to compensate when the weather is overheated. When the relative humidity is low, the mechanical fan can promote airflow and realize evaporation and heat dissipation. However, when the humidity is too high, it is necessary to use air conditioning. In this case, dehumidification is often more important than heat exchange. Besides, the efficiency of the equipment is essential. For example, it can be reasonably adjusted by the temperature sensing control device to save energy consumption.

4) Energy saving

Hot and humid areas are accompanied by high radiation solar energy, which can be used for photovoltaic power generation and solar heat collection. However, due to more rain, there are specific requirements for the durability of the equipment. Wind power generation depends on the wind speed determined by a specific geographical location.

5) Natural lighting

Natural lighting strategy should consider the prevention of radiant heat, and the size

101 and direction of the opening should be cautious. Table 4-2 Rank of the importance of design strategies in hot and humid climates (the darker the color, the more important)

Building Skin Equipment System Structure Transparent Opaque interface Design logic interface Variable sunshade Prevent radiant Roof greening Perforated member

heat Structural shading panel High reflectivity surface Wind catching tower Natural ventilation Wind extraction well Mechanical fan Air-conditioning system Equipment Temperature

complement sensing control system Light sensing control system Photovoltaic power generation Wind power Energy saving generation Solar thermal collector Light Natural lighting Skylight Guide Plate

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4.3.1 West Kowloon train station

Located in the north of West Kowloon Cultural District of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong West Kowloon Station is the terminal of Guangzhou- Shenzhen-Hong Kong Express Railway comprehensive transportation hubs integrating high-speed rail, subway and bus in Hong Kong. The train station will be opened to the public on September 23, 2018, and the high-speed rail network between Hong Kong and mainland China will be connected for the first time, which opens a new chapter for the profound expansion of Hong Kong tourists in the mainland market. Let the public have more convenient travel choices, meet the diversified travel needs of different customer groups, and bring a convenient and efficient new experience for every consumer to travel in Hong Kong. Mainland Chinese tourists can go directly to Hong Kong from 44 stations across the country, and the train running time from West Kowloon Station to Beijing West Train Station is 8 hours and 56 minutes.

West Kowloon Train Station in Hong Kong has an available building area of over 400,000 square meters and is one of the world's largest underground high-speed train stations. Designed by Aedas, a leading international construction company, the station quickly became a landmark for tourists to travel to many destinations in China and Hong Kong residents.

Figure 4-5 Travel time between HK and Figure 4-6 Appearance of West Kowloon Station Mainland China has been shortened 103

Semi-underground design cooling building

The lowest floor of the station is 25 meters deep underground, and the highest point is 25 meters above the ground. Thanks to the sinking design of West Kowloon Station, the temperature of the underground part of the building is stable, warm in winter and cool in summer, which saves a lot of energy for West Kowloon Station. Because of the high temperature in Hong Kong all year round, active systems are still needed to maintain a constant indoor temperature. The building is adjacent to the bay, so seawater refrigeration is adopted, which reduces energy consumption.

Figure 4-7 Semi-underground design of West Kowloon Station

Green roof belonging to the whole city

The train station's roof comprises numerous irregular arches, which seamlessly connect the roof with the urban public space. Many streamlines on the roof are easily accessible to both ordinary citizens and station passengers. The green roof accommodates hundreds of trees and shrubs, and encourages people to walk and relax, stay in the lush trees and shrubs, enjoy a brand-new landscape, and establish a new connection with the city. Visitors can walk along the whole length of the sky corridor to the observation deck, where they can enjoy the panoramic view of Victoria Harbour and its surrounding cities.

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Figure 4-8 The roof of the station melts in urban Figure 4-9 Roof path of the station space

Figure 4-10 Trail leading to the viewing platform on Figure 4-11 The roof of the station melts in the roof of the train station urban space

The green roof also reduces the influence of solar radiation on the interior space, reduces heat transfer and keeps the indoor temperature suitable. The rainwater collection system is set in the roof greening planting part, which is treated and recycled as domestic water for the station, and the climate resources are utilized.

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Figure 4-12 Sustainable landscape design Figure 4-13 Ecological integration design of the roof

Dynamic atrium with natural lighting

The inside of the station hall is like a forest, and the inclined steel columns support the huge roof that seems to be suspended in the air. The top of the station adopts a streamlined glass canopy design, which consists of more than 4,000 irregular glasses and 16,000 aluminum plates; Bring natural light into the building, so that people can see the city scenery outside even from the lower floor of the station. The lighting glass with a double-layer structure inclines along the radian of the roof, avoiding indoor overheating caused by direct sunlight, maximizing the amount of sunlight entering the atrium, and saving energy by minimizing the need for artificial lighting.

Figure 4-14 The bright hall of the train station Figure 4-15 Vertical inclined roof skylight 106

4.3.2 Changhua Station

Changhua Station is located between rice fields in Changhua County, Taiwan Province, China. In recent years, local flower farmers frequently hold competitions, which has turned the region into a vibrant horticultural industry. This background inspired architect Kris Yao and his team to design the new high-speed train station in Changhua County. From the pedestrian's point of view or the air, the station itself and its overall landscape planning have created a scene where flowers, vegetation, water, and paving bricks blend.

Figure 4-16 Relationship between Changhua Station and Surrounding Environment

A container of wind and light

Light structural aesthetics is adopted in the design of the station. Eighteen concrete columns are natural in shape, like plant stalks supporting the whole roof. The interior of the structural column is hollow. The roof is slotted to form a skylight, beneficial to indoor and outdoor space flow and introduces natural lighting. Simultaneously, considering that the south-facing solar radiation is too intense, the architect will face the skylight to the northeast. The horizontal plane of the skylight will be provided with white sunshade blinds to resist direct light. The whole cylinder has a white surface conducive to the light entering the building room through diffuse reflection, bright and soft.

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Figure 4-17 Hollow structural column introduces natural Figure 4-18 Structural light and wind indoors column model

Figure 4-19 Evenly distributed skylights Figure 4-20 Sunshade blinds on skylights

Vegetation shading

Because the building runs flat with the high-speed rail line, the west is vulnerable to the scorching sun in the evening, and the sun height angle is low at this time. Therefore, the architect planted a large amount of green vegetation in the glass curtain wall close to the west, forming a natural horizontal sunshade, which is beneficial to adjust indoor

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Figure 4-21 Green vegetation inside the glass curtain wall in the west

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4.3.3 Guangzhou South train station

Guangzhou South Train Station is located in Shibi Town, Panyu District, Guangzhou City, Guangdong Province, the center of the Pearl River Delta. The total construction cost of the new train station is $1.8 billion. Completed in 2010, the station is one of the largest train stations globally, which is about three times as large as King's Cross Station in London. It integrates different modes of transportation such as railway trunk lines, intercity railways, highways, urban roads, buses, taxis and automobiles.

Figure 4-22 The form of Guangzhou South Figure 4-23 Entrance Train Station resembles banana leaves

Natural lighting and heat protection

The Guangzhou South Train Station scale is enormous, so the architect designed a transparent corridor on the building's central axis to reduce the lack of light caused by the excessive span of the building roof. ETFE membrane material is applied to the roof of the central waiting corridor, which provides maximum natural lighting for the interior of the station and minimizes heat absorption, mainly for the following reasons:

1. Roofing materials need to be easily molded into various shapes. The 348-meter- long arched central lighting corridor needs a building material that can be quickly processed and meet its curve shape.  110

2. Roofing materials need to have excellent thermal performance. On hot summer days in South China, the sun radiates a lot of heat energy. If the materials can't stop the heat, it will inevitably increase the energy consumption of air conditioning in the space. From the point of view of energy saving, materials need to have a certain degree of heat insulation based on maintaining permeability. 

3. Roofing materials need to have good sound absorption performance. During the peak period of passenger flow, mixed people are prone to lower sound clarity and longer reverberation time in the tall waiting space, so roof materials must have good sound absorption performance. 

Figure 4-24 ETFE membrane on central Figure 4-25 Overall shape of the central roof roof

Also, in the waiting area of the station hall, skylights parallel to the track are arranged on the roof, and light enters the room through diffuse reflection components at the bottom of the skylights to prevent overheating caused by direct solar radiation. The skylight of Kimbell Art Museum, which pays tribute to Master Louis Kang, is similar in shape.

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Because the platform is directly connected with the outdoor space, there is no need to worry about the overheating greenhouse effect caused by direct sunlight. The roof adopts the skylight with direct sunlight.

Figure 4-26 Diffuse skylight on roof of waiting area Figure 4-27 Skylight of Kimbell Art Museum

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Figure 4-28 Direct skylight on platform roof

Solar photovoltaic power generation technology

Solar photovoltaic modules are installed on the train station's roof to absorb solar energy for the station's power supply. The total number of installed photovoltaic modules is 140×4 +84×8 = 1232. 125 mm×125 mm monocrystalline silicon solar cells are selected for the photovoltaic module, and the power of each photovoltaic module is 196Wp. The total installed power of the whole photovoltaic system is 241. 47 kWp, and the total installed area of photovoltaic modules is about 3480 m2.

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4.3.4 Stadium MRT station & Bras Basah MRT station

Stadium MRT station and Bras Basah MRT station are two important stops on Singapore Circle Line (CCL). They are both designed by WOHA, a famous design firm in Singapore. The stations fully consider the hot and humid climate in Singapore and create a comfortable riding environment.

Semi-underground design is adopted in Stadium MRT station. The heavy solid wall surface and sunshade components protect the central entrance, and side windows provide natural lighting for the interior and underground space of the station. Architects have created a substantial dramatic space, just like traditional train stations in Europe, which brings spacious space to the public during daily commuting. The central skylight creates a charming sunlight platform. Openings in the ground allow a downward view of the platform from the ground square. Architects design the ribbed aluminum cladding system to create a fuzzy material, which is sometimes as soft as the fabric, sometimes as hard as Stone, and sometimes as metal, and changes with the quality of light and the time of day. A single component can have four orientations, thus producing endless changes in the relationship between panels.

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Figure 4-29 Stadium MRT station natural lighting atrium Figure 4-30 Diffuse reflection of Stadium MRT station light on aluminum plate

Figure 4-31 Heat-proof skin of Stadium MRT Figure 4-32 Stadium MRT station entrance station

Bras Basah MRT station is located in the center of Singapore's historic cultural district. The building solves two contradictory needs: 1. Very deep stations need visual connection with the outside to enhance the commuter's travel experience; 2. Historic areas and parks need a station that disappears into the landscape. The architect designed the roof of the station as a glass skylight covered with water. From the park's perspective, it is a reflection pool, and from the platform of the station, it is a huge skylight. Skylight brings light and visual field into the ground, and light becomes an environmental factor in guiding people out of the station. Visual connection is also important to avoid panic in an underground

115 emergency, and commuters can easily see how to evacuate the station.

Figure 4-33 Bras Basah MRT station melted in the park and Figure 4-34 Guidance of Bras Basah historic buildings MRT station Section to Natural Light

The station does not need artificial lighting during the day, and its interior is designed as a substantial light reflector. The sloping white ceramic plate wall picks up the diffused skylight and reflects the light to the station hall through a huge gap. The water will circulate on the skylight glass, take away the heat rising to the top of the canyon, and further realize evaporative cooling when flowing through the sidewall of the skylight.

Figure 4-35 Bras Basah MRT station skylight Figure 4-36 Bras Basah MRT station's bright interior space 116

4.4 Train station response to hot-arid climate

The dry-hot climate types correspond to BWh (hot desert), BWk (cold desert), BSh (hot grassland) and BSk (cold grassland) according to K-G classification. The annual average temperature (Tan) in K-G classification is equal to or higher than 18℃ for hot climate types (i.e., BWh and BSh) and lower than the threshold for cold climate types (i.e., BWk and BSk). In dry and hot climate, the annual rainfall of all locations is relatively small, and the evaporation rate is higher than the rainfall. Most dry and hot climates are located at about 30 degrees north latitude. Because of the low relative humidity of the air, small cloud cover and high solar radiation level, the average solar radiation per hour can reach more than 1000 watt-hours/meter. High-level solar radiation brings high air temperature and significant temperature difference between day and night above 10℃.

Because the geographical position deviates from the equator, some seasonal changes usually occur in hot and dry climate areas.

Figure 4-37 Year-round temperature in Cairo and global radiation levels

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Cairo is representative of dry and hot climate (i.e,BWh according to K-G classification), and its climate characteristics are shown in Figure 4-37 .

It may be controversial that some sites classified as BWk and BSk are not hot because the temperature is relatively low in winter (such as Hami, China), which may require heating. However, they are usually grouped into the same group. Apart from the difference of annual average temperature, the influence of climate on architectural design is almost the same, such as high-level solar radiation, high diurnal temperature change, etc. On the other hand, in the case of BWk and BSk climate types, heating may be needed in winter because the temperature will be much lower than the freezing point.

According to the defined dry-hot climate characteristics, the Design logic and strategies sorted by importance are as follows:

1) Prevent solar radiation heat

Different from hot and humid areas, various sunshade measures and high reflectivity surfaces are adopted. However, the difference is that thermal mass walls are often used to buffer thermal radiation on building skins in hot and dry areas, which is beneficial to reduce indoor heat loss in cold winter of BWk and BSk. Roof greening should not be adopted in dry and hot areas because of little precipitation.

2) natural ventilation

The humidity of air is low, so accelerating airflow can accelerate evaporation and heat from the skin surface. Wind-catching towers and wind-pulling wells are usually used to accelerate indoor wind speed. The significant temperature difference between day and night in dry and hot areas makes it possible to ventilate and cool at night.

3) Equipment complement

Extreme hot weather is easy to occur in dry and hot areas, so active equipment is needed to compensate in some cases. Similar to hot and humid areas, mechanical fans and 118 air-conditioning equipment can be used to assist.

4) Energy saving

Compared with hot and humid areas, dry and hot areas are more suitable for photovoltaic power generation and solar heat collection because of less moisture in the air and more sunny days.

5) natural lighting

The natural lighting strategy should consider the prevention of radiant heat, and the size and direction of the opening should be cautious.

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Table 4-3 Rank of importance of technical strategies for regions with hot and dry climates (the darker the color, the more important) Building Skin System Structure Transparent Equipment Opaque interface Strategy logic interface Thermal mass epidermis Prevent radiant Perforated Variable sunshade Structural shading heat panel member High reflectivity surface Natural Wind catching tower

ventilation Wind extraction well Mechanical fan Air-conditioning system Equipment Temperature

complement sensing control system Light sensing control system Photovoltaic power generation Wind power Energy saving generation Solar thermal collector Light Guide Natural lighting Skylight Plate

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4.4.1 Haramain train station

Haramain high-speed railway is a significant infrastructure project in Saudi Arabia, connecting Mecca, Medina, Jeddah and the developing King Abdullah Economic City (KAEC). There are four train stations on the high-speed rail line, all of which are designed by FOSTER+PARTNERS. The building adopts a unified modular design of 27*27 meters. This module is flexible enough to reconfigure for the extension of the line, and at the same time, it can respond to the ever-changing requirements of station expansion.

Figure 4-38 Modular design of haremain train station Figure 4-39 Station plan

Climate-responsive design is an important theme running through the project. The design of the station building is based on the principle of feeling the temperature drop -- the ambient temperature gradually decreases from the outside of the station to the platform without the need for mechanical cooling, and the temperature inside the station is maintained at 28 degrees Celsius.

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Figure 4-40 The interior space of the station is bright Figure 4-41 Daylighting holes on the roof

Semi-open space is adopted for the platform, which sunshades the top surface and arranges Mashrabiyas metal panels on the side surface to reduce solar radiation without affecting lighting. Large fans and spray devices are installed on the platform to help keep cool.

Figure 4-42 Mashrabiyas panel forms rich light and shadow Figure 4-43 Mashrabiyas panel effects while shading the vertical plane appearance

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4.4.2 Sderot train station

Sderot train station is located in the south of Sderot, Israel, on the Ashkelon-Beersheba railway.

Designed by Ami cinar-Amir Mann Architects, the station was initially designed to prevent rocket attacks. The security situation in Sderot was susceptible in the past ten years, because it was close to the Gaza Strip. This unusual demand eventually led the architect to create an unusual design composed of an irregular structure that appeared from the ground. The result of this design created an excellent thermal environment for the building. The whole building is integrated into the terrain, the temperature of the bottom soil is conducive to cooling the building, and the terrain forms a sunshade for the building to a certain extent.

Figure 4-44 Landscape architectural form Figure 4-45 Architecture and environment are integrated

Figure 4-46 Relationship between building profiles

Heavy roof slabs extend to the ground, which is conducive to heat insulation. The

123 white surface reflects sunlight to the greatest extent and reduces internal radiation. The transverse grille on the side of the building forms a good sunshade component.

Figure 4-47 Entrance sunshade member Figure 4-48 Connecting channel sunshade member

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4.4.3 Dubai metro station

Dubai is located on the south coast of the Persian Gulf. It accumulated a lot of wealth from oil and gas, but now its primary sources of income are tourism, real estate and financial services. With the growth of urban population and urban expansion, the government has realized that it is necessary to establish a perfect bus system to alleviate the increasingly severe traffic congestion and improve the city's traffic conditions. Dubai Metro was opened on September 9, 2009. The most extended fully automatic railway system globally. Aedas, a global construction company, was invited to design 45 stations, two warehouses and operation control centers of the most advanced subway system.

Figure 4-49 Appearance of Dubai subway station Figure 4-50 Interior

The top of the building is made of aluminum plate, which reflects strong sunlight. According to the lighting requirements of internal functions, the bottom of the building is made of dark glass for lighting, isolating ultraviolet rays. Unlike the traditional elevated train station, both sides of the platform are entirely closed by glass because the whole building adopts the air conditioning system. The vast overhangs shade the interface. Only the screen door is open at the platform to communicate with the outside air, thus reducing the loss of internal cold energy. This way of completely closing the building and relying on internal machinery to adjust the climate makes us think that the design is a

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"refrigerator"-like building. However, considering the sound economic development in Dubai, people have higher requirements for comfort. Therefore, since energy-consuming active technology is adopted, we should consider reducing the energy loss as much as possible. In this regard, Aedas has done an excellent job.

Figure 4-51 Top sunshade Figure 4-52 Closed platform

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4.4.4 Doha metro station

UN Studio is the architect of Qatar comprehensive railway project (QIRP), which includes a complete subway network and will become the central public transportation system in Doha. The first phase of the project includes about 35 initial sites, and the subsequent phase will add another 60 sites to the system. The design refers to the local architecture in this area, fully responds to the hot and dry climate, and serves as a bridge between the past and the country's future.

Figure 4-53 The shape of Doha subway station is conducive to Figure 4-54 Overhanging structure shading forms the entrance grey space

This series of subway stations is guided by the "building brand manual" developed by UN Studio, which includes a series of guidelines, such as scale, layout, details and materials, to ensure the quality of the whole subway network. The landmark umbrella-shaped structure of the building forms the gray entrance space to shield the sunlight and bring daylight to the interior. The architect reinterprets the traditional architectural features of Qatar, integrates new and transformative features, and can capture sunlight and introduce it into the interior to create a pleasant and bright atmosphere.

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Figure 4-55 Umbrella module combination Figure 4-56 Metro station Brand Handbook developed by architects

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4.4.5 The King Abdullah Financial District (KAFD) Metro Station

King Abdullah Financial District (KAFD) subway station, located in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, will be the crucial intersection of Line 1, Line 4 and Line 6. KAFD subway station has six platforms with four public floors and two underground parking lots, which will be integrated into the urban environment of the financial district to meet the functional requirements of the multimodal transport center and the future vision of the district. This project goes beyond the simple station type and emphasizes building as a dynamic and multifunctional public space. It is an intermediate place perceived through rapid transition and a dramatic urban public space.

The facade of the subway station has a particular pattern, which can reduce the absorption of sunlight, and its geometric perforation makes the subway station reflected in its cultural environment. ZHA said in his project description: "The overall composition is similar to the mode of desert wind generation in sand dunes. In sand dunes, multiple frequencies and repetitions produce complex natural formation." The diamond-shaped light-passing hole on the facade has a specific thickness to prevent direct sunlight. Simultaneously, the size and opening direction should be appropriately adjusted according to the needs of actual internal space to correspond to the dry and hot climate.

Figure 4-57 Porous skin of KAFD subway station Figure 4-58 Diamond window inside the subway station

The construction of the subway station is progressing steadily, and its steel structure 129 frame has been completed. At present, its external sunshade components are being installed.

Figure 4-59 Construction of steel frame of subway Figure 4-60 Partial sunshade skin has been station completed installed in the subway station

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4.5 Train station response to cold climate

Cold climate corresponds to D (cold) and E (polar) groups in K-G climate classification. Cold climate is mainly distributed in high latitudes and high altitudes in the northern hemisphere, and the temperature varies significantly throughout the year. At noon in July, Yakutsk region (DWD classified by K-G) in Russia received more than 650 watts of global radiation per hour, which is equivalent to temperate climate, but only 45 watt- hours in December. In winter, the temperature in cold climate areas will be much lower than the freezing point. The long daytime and relatively high incident angle in summer lead to a large amount of solar radiation, and the temperature in summer is relatively high.

Figure 4-61 Yakutsk, Russia, annual temperature and global radiation levels

According to the defined characteristics of cold climate, the Design logic and strategies in order of importance are as follows:

1) Radiation heating

Due to the low solar radiation received in winter in cold areas, passive solar heating

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technologies such as sunroom and double curtain wall should be carefully adopted. Because the heat loss of the transparent part of the building skin may be far greater than the temperature gain of solar radiation, the skin should have better heat insulation ability, and thermal mass wall and Trumpet wall should be used to provide heat storage in the cold season to improve the performance, at this time, solar radiation can reduce the heating demand. Besides, reducing the reflectivity of the building surface can absorb solar radiation heat.

2) Equipment complement

Cold areas need heating for a long time, so it is difficult to realize the ideal thermal environment by passive technology alone. Mechanical equipment is needed to supplement it, so the energy efficiency of equipment is essential.

3) natural lighting

Most cold regions are located in high latitudes, and the length of day and night varies significantly with seasons. However, windows should be mainly used for lighting, rather than solar radiation heating, and the opening size should be controlled appropriately.

4) Energy saving

Few climate resources can be converted in cold areas, so it is not suitable for photovoltaic power generation because of less solar radiation. Wind power generation can be considered according to the actual geographical situation.

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Table 4-4 Rank the importance of technology strategies in cold climates (the darker the color, the more important) Building Skin Equipment System Structure Transparent Opaque interface Design logic interface Thermal mass wall Low reflectivity Radiation heating surface Trumpet wall Air-conditioning system Radiation Temperature Equipment cooling/ sensing control complement heating system system Light sensing control system Natural lighting Skylight Light Guide Plate Wind power Energy saving generation

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4.5.1 Lhasa train station

Lhasa Train Station is located in Tibet, a plateau region of China. Lhasa, known as the "Sunlight City", has an average altitude of 3,700 m, and the air oxygen content is only 70% of that in plain areas. The annual average temperature is 7.8℃, the highest is 29.6℃, the lowest is -16.5℃, the annual average precipitation is 406.8mm, and the annual average evaporation is 1,975.7 mm. The climate is dry and sunny, which belongs to the typical plateau climate. Given the unique climatic conditions in Lhasa, how to effectively deal with the advantages and disadvantages of climatic conditions, building a comfortable and beautiful architectural environment, and adopting appropriate strategies have become the design focus of Lhasa Train Station.

Figure 4-62 The heavy shape of Lhasa Train Station

Traditional Interpretation of Shading

The intense plateau climate of sunshine makes shading one of the critical points in architectural design. In the design of Lhasa Train Station, it is considered to minimize the radiation of sunlight to the room. The sunshade measures adopted are the traditional way, but they are also more suitable for plateau characteristics. The external windows of the building are designed to be long and narrow, and they are deeply recessed into the wall, which is quite the same as the design of thick wall and narrow external windows in Tibetan traditional buildings, which have the same effect of self-shading. Also, the dense window panes and stepped back changes and the square wooden rafters overhanging the window lintels of the main entrance and the facade of the waiting hall enrich the facade modeling

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and achieve a better shading effect.

Figure 4-63 Shading effect of train station facade Figure 4-64 Natural lighting inside the station

Natural lighting

In the design of the train station, the traditional lighting treatment methods are absorbed, and the side window lighting system, skylight lighting system and atrium lighting system are used, which are manifested in the architectural modeling of slender external windows, long and narrow lighting belts on the roof and high windows in the hall. Combining these three lighting systems can effectively introduce natural light into the room and distribute it reasonably. Also, the natural light is filtered into bundles of light beams and thrown into the room through the divided panes. The supplementary ceiling artificial lighting adopts the same grid method, strengthening the spatial sequence of entering and leaving organized by different functional spaces such as porch, stair hall, elevator hall, east- west corridor, waiting for hall, and station side service and dispatching room.

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Figure 4-65 The deeply sunken window of the station Figure 4-66 The entrance is vast and overhanging

Weather resistance of materials under severe climatic conditions

Lhasa's dry climate and significant temperature difference between morning and evening are severe tests for the durability and weather resistance of surface materials. Thick concrete walls are selected for the building, and vertical stripes artificially roughen the surface to form a rough texture effect, which is durable. Thick exterior walls are also conducive to saving heat during the day and releasing it when the temperature is low at night, thus maintaining a relatively constant indoor temperature.

Dust-proof ventilation slot

Lhasa is located in Tibet Plateau with distinct dry and wet seasons. Because the ground elevation is close to the middle troposphere and is influenced by high-altitude solid westerly jet, it is windy and dry and cold in the dry season, which usually lasts from October to March. The wet season is from April to September every year, with rain and heat in the same season and a high night rain rate. Wind and sand prevention in the dry season and adequate ventilation in the wet season have become contradictory complexes in architectural design.

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Lhasa Train Station makes use of the length of the train platform to make the building stretch horizontally as much as possible. On the one hand, it can reduce the walking distance in and out of the station, so that people can quickly adapt to the climate conditions of high altitude and low oxygen; On the other hand, the depth of the building can be reduced, and the narrow and long windows on the south and north exterior walls should correspond to each other as far as possible, so that natural ventilation can be strengthened in the wet season to create a comfortable station environment. Simultaneously, because the building space of the train station is ample, and the upper window is difficult to open, the way of dust-proof ventilation slot under the window is specially adapted so that clean fresh air can be obtained in the station space all day. The need for natural ventilation in the dry season is better met.

Solar heat collecting plate technology

The plateau climate with solid sunshine in Lhasa has brought abundant solar energy, with sunshine time exceeding 3000 hours throughout the year. The amount of solar radiation obtained is as high as 847.4× 104 kJ/m2. In the design of Lhasa Train Station, the active solar system is selected, which uses solar energy instead of the conventional heat source for driving heating and cooling air-conditioning equipment, and uses solar heat collecting plate as a unique device to collect heat radiation and convert it into adequate heat energy, thus serving as the primary heat source for indoor floor radiant heating and effectively solving the heating problem of the station.

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4.5.2 Harbin west station

Harbin West Train Station, located in Heilongjiang Province in Northeast China, is the coldest provincial capital city in China. The facades on both sides of the train station adopt large solid walls to resist the cold wind and reduce heat loss. Appropriate transparent facade treatment is adopted at the central entrance to highlight the train station's main entrance. The station faces the city with an open attitude, and the tall and spacious internal space of the station is well expressed on the facade. The wall treatment at the junction between the facades on both sides of the station building and the platform continues to treat the solid walls on both sides of the east station building, making the whole station building integrated. The facade material of the building is mainly made of brown ceramic plates, to create a warm place in cold areas.

Figure 4-67 Plan of Harbin Figure 4-68 Red ceramic plate on the facade of the train station West Train Station

The roof of the station hall leaves a lighting seam in the large crotch truss structure gap, which forms a space with a sense of rhythm and saves energy consumption.

Figure 4-69 Daylighting seam on the roof of the station hall

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4.5.3 Northern Europe train station

In northern Europe, near the Arctic Circle, the temperature is low all year round, and most of them belong to Dfb and Dfc temperature zones. Except for warmer summer, all other seasons are colder. Due to the rugged railway construction in alpine areas, the high- speed railway has not been popularized in these areas in recent years, but we can still find the earliest train stations decades ago. We can also find some common features of train station design in cold areas from the design of these train stations.

Figure 4-70 Bird’s view of Helsinki central station

Figure 4-71 South façade of Helsinki central station

Helsinki central station, located in Helsinki, was designed by Eliel Saarinen and opened in 1919. The outer wall of the station is made of heavy stone with good thermal insulation performance.

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Oulu train station was founded in 1886 and is located in Oulu, north of Finland. This station is small. Considering the continuous severe cold and heavy snow in winter, the building adopts a sloping roof, and the windows are as small as possible to reduce the heat exchange with the outside world.

Figure 4-72 Oulu train station Figure 4-73 Oulu train station in winter

Bergen train station is one of the major train stations in Norway and the train's last stop between Oslo and Bergen. The station was opened in 1913. The architect, Jens Zetlitz Monrad Kielland, designed it in the National Romantic style. The building uses heavy stone to resist the cold.

Moskovsky train station in Saint Petersburg also has a tight appearance, with only small windows in necessary parts to meet indoor natural lighting.

Figure 4-74 Bergen train station Figure 4-75 Moskovsky train station

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4.6 Train station response to temperate climate

The population density in mild climate areas is the highest, mainly distributed in North America, Europe, India and most parts of China between 30 and 50 degrees north latitude. Mild climate types correspond to three groups in K-G climate types: dry, hot or warm summers (Csa and Csb), dry winters but no hot, warm or cold summers (Cwa, Cwb and Cwc), no dry seasons and no hot, warm or cold summers (Cfa, Cfb and Cfc). According to K-G classification, the main criteria for defining mild climate are that the average temperature in the hottest month is higher than 10 degrees Celsius. The average temperature in the coldest month is between MINUS 3 and 18 degrees Celsius. There will be a great deal of precipitation in temperate places, but the precipitation may vary significantly from place to place. Generally speaking, areas close to the ocean (i.e,marine climate) get more precipitation than areas far away from the ocean (i.e,continental climate). There are four distinct seasons in mild climate areas. Generally, there are few terrible weather conditions, so passive technology can achieve comfort to the greatest extent. However, due to the difference in geographical location, a small amount of extreme weather may occur, which requires equipment to make up. Compared with climate types, buildings in mild climate areas can make more use of climate resources. In mild climate areas, almost all technical strategies can be adopted. Among them, the utilization and defense of solar radiation and wind is essential. The rational use of intelligent equipment (non-air conditioning and other traditional equipment) can better promote the efficiency of passive technology. The Design logic and strategy to adapt to mild climate are as follows:

1) Radiation heating and radiation heat prevention

In the transitional season between spring and autumn, due to the combination of favorable external temperature and sufficient solar radiation level, buildings can only use climate to achieve proper indoor thermal conditions.

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Radiation heating is needed in winter, and technologies such as roof greenhouse, sunroom, double curtain wall (closed state) and Trumpet wall are usually used, which are usually transparent components. A thermal mass wall is used to insulate the sunless surface to prevent heat loss entirely. Meanwhile, it can provide an appropriate time delay for passive solar heating, and release the stored solar energy when the external temperature drops at night.

In summer, it is necessary to prevent overheating caused by radiation, and the design of shading must be carefully considered. Still, it does not prevent solar radiation from entering buildings in winter. The thermal mass wall makes indoor thermal comfort better in summer and reduces the possibility of overheating. However, the light building envelope is also suitable for mild climate, especially in winter and relatively cool summer (i.e., high latitude areas) where a small amount of solar radiation is available. Another advantage of the light building envelope is that it has a fast response time in intermittent buildings or occasionally heated buildings.

2) Rational use of natural lighting and ventilation

Lighting and ventilation in mild climate areas usually need comprehensive consideration. The orientation should be reasonably determined according to local wind direction and sunshine, and the opening area should be controlled appropriately. Technology such as skylight and light guide plates can make light more suitable for the indoor light environment. In the transitional season, the wind tower, wind extraction well, solar chimney and double curtain wall under wind pressure and hot pressing drive indoor airflow and reduce unnecessary energy consumption.

3) Equipment complements

In mild areas where the overall climatic conditions are suitable, the equipment should have the ability to promote the better operation of passive technology. Intelligent technologies, such as standard temperature sensing and light-sensing control systems, have 142 significant benefits in reducing energy consumption. Some active and passive combinations can also be adopted to improve building performance.

4) evaporative cooling

Mainly used in hot summer, the roof pool or water mist can be used for cooling in summer.

5) Energy saving

According to the specific geographical location, the microclimate has a significant influence on energy-saving technology, which needs to be adapted to local conditions.

6) Geothermal exchange

Because mild climate has both heating and cooling needs, it is most suitable to adopt ground source heat pump technology, but the disadvantage is that it has specific requirements for geology and the cost is high.

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Table 4-5 Strategy Logic and Strategy in Moderate Climate Region (Dark Expression is Important) Building Skin Equipment System Structure Transparent Opaque interface Design logic interface Thermal mass wall Glasshouse Low reflectivity Roof Radiation heating surface greenhouse Double curtain Trumpet wall wall Variable sunshade Roof greening member Prevent radiant Perforated panel Thermal mass wall heat Structural High reflectivity shading surface Natural lighting Skylight Light Guide Plate Wind catching tower Double curtain Natural ventilation Wind wall extraction well Solar chimney Air-conditioning system Mechanical fan Radiation Equipment Temperature cooling / complement sensing control heating system system Light sensing control system Evaporative Water mist Roof pool cooling cooling Photovoltaic

power generation Wind power Energy saving generation Solar thermal

collector Geothermal Earth source heat

exchange pump

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4.6.1 Horrem station

Horrem train station is Europe's first climate-neutral station, and the climate- responsive technology adopted in the building is of great significance to future municipal construction projects.

Figure 4-76 Aerial view of Horrem station

Natural lighting and radiant heat

The station is a gathering place for people, and the design introduces as much natural light into the building as possible. The south facade of the building is mainly made of glass curtain wall, selected from the roof. In summer, the solar elevation angle is high, which can better shade the sun. In winter, the solar elevation angle is low, and the sunlight enters the room through the glass curtain wall, achieving the effect of radiation heating. A large- area glass curtain wall is used in the east of the building to increase indoor solar radiation heat. In contrast, a heavy solid wall is used in the west to prevent overheating caused by solar radiation in summer evenings.

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Figure 4-77 Large area solid wall on the west Figure 4-78 Large area glass curtain wall in the east side of the station of the station

The additional reflective devices on the roof enable light to reach every part of the station all day, thus realizing energy-saving mixing of natural and artificial light. An efficient artificial lighting system adopts LED technology, which can be turned on as needed, creating a pleasant, open atmosphere and a high visual atmosphere.

Figure 4-79 Energy collection facilities on the Figure 4-80 Good natural lighting inside the station station roof

Energy utilization

A solar photovoltaic panel of 340 square meters is installed on the roof of the station. The total power generation is about 31,000 kWh per year, which fully meets the daily power consumption of the station. The excess power is connected to the public power grid. Simultaneously, a solar thermal system is installed on the roof to provide a certain amount 146

of hot water for the building. Ground-source heat pump technology is adopted in the building. Water is used as the medium. Pipes connect the floor of the building with the soil with relatively constant temperature underground and exchange heat. Heating is provided indoors in winter and cooling is provided indoors in summer to achieve maximum efficiency.

The green roof and rainwater management

Shrubs are planted on the roof of the train station and integrated with the rainwater collection system. Rainwater collected on the roof can irrigate vegetation and be used for flushing the sanitary facilities of buildings. Water on the roof surface and surrounding land permeate and evaporates in buildings and adjacent areas, resulting in the slight cooling effect. Green roofs and soil not only improve the microclimate, but also enhance the heat insulation effect.

Figure 4-81 Explosion diagram of various technical integration of the station

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Local materials

Maximizing the use of local materials in stations reduces the energy consumption caused by high energy consumption and long-distance transportation, and at the same time creates the regionality of buildings.

Figure 4-82 Use local materials as much as possible at the station

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4.6.2 Stuttgart station

Stuttgart Train Station is located in Stuttgart, an economic center in the south of Germany. This project was proposed in 1988, including a 30-year urban reconstruction plan, which focuses on railway line reconstruction and further enhances Stuttgart's urban status. In this project, the original north-south harbor train station will be rotated 90 degrees and transformed into an east-west train station. The whole train station will be moved underground, leaving 180 hectares of ground space for Stuttgart city. The architectural scheme cooperated by architect Christoph Ingenhoven and Frei Otto provides a perfect answer to this proposition.

Figure 4-83 Schematic diagram of Stuttgart Train Station

Figure 4-84 Natural lighting of the station platform Figure 4-85 Daylighting skylight on the roof of the station

The underground hall of the new train station is more than 400 meters long, with 27

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circular skylights called "light eyes" on the top. At the beginning of the design, Frei Otto's team used more than 40 models to explore the feasibility of heavy-duty cable net structure, but soon found that what cable net structure needs to transfer to the self-mast formed by cable eye and then to the ground, which is very uneconomical. Therefore, the design team decided to adopt the compressed arch shell structure instead of the tension cable-membrane structure. The form of "light eye" was retained, but the structural logic was utterly redesigned. A typical goblet-type pressure-bearing structure replaces the original traction scheme. Through accurate calculation, the convex height of the hyperbolic roof is controlled based on forming a pure pressure-bearing structure, to meet the comfort of roof walking. In the end, the top of each "light eye" is 4.235 meters higher than the ground, the long inner side is 17.1 meters, the wide side is 14.7 meters, and the outer direct is 20.6 meters, while the thinnest part of the "light eye" is only 35 cm, and the thickest part is only 60cm. For this structure with a maximum span of more than 50 meters, the thickness of 35 cm can be very thin and light.

Figure 4-86 Frei Otto's research from cable-membrane structure to arch shell structure

On the other hand, the seemingly complex "light eye" shape is also very rational in construction. According to the circular design of the arch shell structure, the design team designed a very economical construction method to construct this structure. Specifically, 150 wooden boards were used to build templates, and then the plasticity of wet self-compacting concrete was used to realize this arch shell shape. During the construction process of the arch shell structure, the steel structure of each spider was bent to the designed shape at first, and then concrete was poured. Each goblet type of support can bear an axial force of 35000 kN.

Figure 4-87 Optical eye monomer model Figure 4-88 Light eyes become urban green space

This work gives an outstanding and integrated solution in both structural and ecological significance. Otto considered how to make full use of natural resources during operation, and he worked hard to build an open system to absorb natural energy and minimize building energy consumption. Otto's works are characterized by environmental protection, energy conservation, sustainable development and "minimum energy consumption" by fully considering the utilization of climate resources.

Figure 4-89 light eye construction Figure 4-90 light eye construction

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4.6.3 Rotterdam central station

Rotterdam Central Train Station is one of the most important transportation hubs in the Netherlands, with a daily passenger flow of 110,000. Working as a part of the high- speed train (HST) network connecting Europe, Rotterdam Central Train Station is a complex with trains, trams, buses, and subways, regarded as a national transportation center and an international transportation hub.

Figure 4-91 The relationship between Rotterdam Figure 4-92 Skylight on the big roof on the south central station and surrounding urban environment side of the station

The city texture on the north and south sides of the station is quite different, with low traditional Dutch town buildings on the north side and business districts composed of many high-rise buildings on the south side. The entrance to the south side of the train station adopts a tremendous overhanging shape, forming a "city gate" leading to the city's core area, and at the same time, providing passengers with a semi-outdoor stay space. Seven skylights are arranged deep in the roof to avoid insufficient natural lighting caused by excessive depth. The north entrance of the station is close to the surrounding buildings, which is suitable for the characteristics of Provenierswijk, a northern city, and passengers with small flow. Provenierswijk is full of the characteristics of Dutch towns in the 19th century. To maintain the characteristics of the city, the station is also designed to be transparent.

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Figure 4-93 The huge entrance on the south side Figure 4-94 Low entrance on the north side of the of the station station

The roof area of the station is 28,000 square meters, of which 10,000 square meters are covered by 130,000 pieces of glass with solar panels. This is the largest rooftop solar energy application project in Holland and one of the most significant rooftop solar energy projects in Europe. Considering the influence of high-rise buildings around Rotterdam Central Train Station, solar cells are placed on the roof where the most sunlight is irradiated. According to the different light transmittance of the glass panel, different modes of solar cells will be used. The installation density of solar panels is the highest in the place with the most sunshine on the roof. The solar panel on the roof has high transparency to ensure sufficient lighting in the station. The use of solar cells has reduced the carbon dioxide emissions of train stations by 8%. Moreover, these solar cells are expected to generate 320 MW of energy every year, which is enough to provide energy for 100 households.

Figure 4-95 The platform has sufficient natural Figure 4-96 Photovoltaic panels on the roof of the lighting station

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4.6.4 Hague central station

The Hague Central Train Station, located in the heart of the city, is bright, spacious and highly recognizable, designed by Benthem Crouwel Architects. Compared with the old concrete train station built in the 1970s, the new train is praised as the church of light.

Figure 4-97 Hague central station section Figure 4-98 The station is a transparent city square

Architects regard the new train station as a city square with a transparent roof. The open and bright space inside makes the functional areas such as trains, automobiles, restaurants and retailers clear at a glance. The station strengthens the connection with the city center and financial district. In addition to lighting at night, there is plenty of natural lighting in the station, whether sunny or rainy. When sunlight shines on the glass roof of the diamond-shaped panel, spectacular and dramatic light and shadow effects will be formed inside the station.

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Figure 4-99 The internal functions of the station Figure 4-100 Diamond texture of station roof are clear at a glance

The roof, with a length of 120 meters and a width of 90 meters and a distance of 22 meters from the ground, is mainly made of glass. In winter, the glass box absorbs sunlight to form a greenhouse, and the indoor temperature is suitable. In summer, when the air temperature rises, the roof can automatically open the vents, and the rise of hot air promotes the air circulation inside the station. The Hague Central Train Station is a train station and a public space of great significance.

Figure 4-101 There is plenty of Figure 4-102 Roof openable skylight sunshine indoors in winter

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4.6.5 Canary Wharf train Station

Canary Wharf train station is located in Canary Wharf, a famous financial district in London. The station is a comprehensive development project connected with the surrounding buildings on the ground and underground. The station hall and platform of the station are located on the bottom two floors.

Figure 4-103 Overall aerial view of Canary Wharf Figure 4-104 ETFE Skin

The most prominent feature of the project is an open park on the roof, which is the same length as the station. The park and other building parts are surrounded by a unique roof, which surrounds the building like a protective shell. The center of the 300-meter-long wooden lattice roof is open, absorbing sunlight and rainwater for natural irrigation. Wood is the most suitable material for parks, which has a natural appearance and strong shaping ability and reduces station construction's carbon consumption.

Figure 4-105 Schematic diagram of longitudinal section

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Although the roof curve looks smooth, there are only four curved wooden beams in the whole structure. To connect straight beams continuously rotating along diagonal lines seamlessly, the design team developed an innovative steel joint system to solve the torsion problem. Between the wooden lattices is ETFE, which is filled with air and lighter than glass. ETFE plays a role in insulating heat and filtering ultraviolet rays, creating a comfortable environment for people to enjoy the garden all year round, and providing a favorable microclimate for plant growth.

There are four floors of shops, cafes and convenience facilities above the underground station. The roof of ETFE uses natural light to minimize energy consumption and welcomes people to enter the building. Most public areas are naturally ventilated and passive cooling measures are adopted. Roof gardens are also equipped with rainwater collection and reclaimed water recovery systems to reduce the consumption of water resources.

Figure 4-106 Schematic Figure 4-107 Roof garden diagram of transverse section

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4.6.6 Montpellier Train Station

Montpellier Train Station is located in Montpellier, a city in southern France, which enjoys an average of 2618 hours of sunshine every year. Marc Mimram, an architect, takes complete account of the warmer climate in the Mediterranean area all year round and pays attention to the regulation of sunshine and climate. Pick out a span on the south side of the building to form a gray space at the entrance to shield the sun.

Figure 4-108 Montpellier Station site plan Figure 4-109 The arched roof of a building

The most distinctive feature of the building is its arched roof. The roof structure makes good use of UHPC, which forms a large area roof through continuous space arch splicing. Simultaneously, there are regular holes in the UHPC arch, and the sunlight is filtered into the room through the holes, forming sufficient natural light and rich light and shadow effects. When entering the station, passengers will be immediately attracted by the light and shadow effect, and the wide rib roof creates a calm and peaceful atmosphere.

Figure 4-110 Grey space at the south Figure 4-111 Light and shadow effect formed by roof entrance of the building lighting hole

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Arched roof unit members are prefabricated in advance, which significantly saves the construction period. Rounded roofs are also beneficial to roof drainage in autumn and winter.

Figure 4-112 There is no need for artificial Figure 4-113 Roof prefabrication unit in lighting inside the station during the day construction site

Figure 4-114 Schematic diagram of station section

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4.6.7 Vienna central station

Vienna central station is the largest train station in Austria. Unlike ordinary train stations, the platform is located above the station hall, and the first thing passengers see when they arrive at the station is the roof of the station hall.

Figure 4-115 The undulating roof of Vienna central station Figure 4-116 Site plan of the station

The station roof includes 14 diamond-shaped space frames which extend along the track. The space frames rise and fall to form diamond-shaped gaps, which bring a soft light to the platform. The height of the space frame is constantly changing, and the light is constantly reflected along with the undulating panel, forming a rich internal space.

Figure 4-117 Station profile

Figure 4-118 Daylighting skylight Figure 4-119 Daylighting skylight

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4.6.8 Logrono high speed train station

The new high-speed train station designed by Abalos+Sentkiewicz AS+ for Logrono Spain is a comprehensive project, and high-intensity development will be carried out around the station. There are five new residential towers around the new station. The whole project aims to provide more excellent connectivity between the north and south of the city. The architect placed the new train platform underground, and the roof of the station was the same height as the road, only slightly raised at the entrance, which became a part of the urban public space. The roof is planted with vegetation, which keeps the platform space warm and insulated and forms a new urban park.

Figure 4-120 Lighting pavilion on the roof of Figure 4-121 The lighting pavilion brings enough Logrono high speed train station light to the platform

By calculating the indoor light intensity, the architect uniformly set up four huge lighting tubes along the track direction. Four round glass tubes pass through the green roof and act as light wells, bringing sunlight to the floors below. Mirrors are also used to direct light into underground space. As Abalos said: "Logrono station is an opportunity to transform cities, create public spaces, increase green vegetation, and promote pedestrians and bicycles. It can unite cities."

Figure 4-122 Daylighting tube and roof greening in station section 161

4.6.9 Casa-Port Train Station

Casablanca is a modern city in Morocco, which gathers decorative arts, international styles and modernist architecture, which try to learn a lot from the local Moorish architecture in this area. Casa-Port Train Station faces Casablanca port and is the economic center of Morocco. The train station is located between the new city and the old city. The overall design of the station and the adjacent public space reflects more grand thinking and improves the quality of the waterfront area near the port.

Figure 4-123 Casa-Port Train Station site plan Figure 4-124 Bright interior space

The roof is a steel-wood structure, which has a particular thermal buffering performance. Thin columns support the rectangular roof, and the upper part is divided into eight branches, which filters the sunlight from the skylight. The natural lighting inside the station hall is sufficient. The building's exterior wall is mainly made of glass curtain walls, ensuring the continuity between indoor and outdoor public spaces. It enables passengers to know the layout of the station to plan their actions.

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Figure 4-125 Section of Casa-port station

Figure 4-126 Lighting column unit Figure 4-127 Skylight is perfectly combined with the structural column

On the building's west facade, the modern grid screen is like the screen between the city and the station, reducing the direct sunlight in the afternoon. The roof covers the spacious outdoor public space on the south facade, which plays buffering and shading. Space, volume, materials, lighting and geometry, the station pays tribute to the heritage of Moroccan palaces and public buildings and expresses the modernity of Casablanca.

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Figure 4-128 Sunshade barrier of west facade of station

Figure 4-129 Sunshade barrier

Figure 4-130 Grey space covered by the roof of the south entrance

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4.6.10 Kenitra train station

Kenitra and Casablanca are close in latitude, with abundant sunshine and mild climate all year round. In the design of Kenitra train station, D'Ascia hopes to draw inspiration from the traditional Islamic architecture in Morocco and apply the repeated triangular patterns on the facade of local buildings to the station design elements. A triangular element is not only the facade of a building, but also a stable structure.

In the design of the station, the traditional mashrabiya has been interpreted and interpreted. The fashionable mashrabiya in the Kenitra train station achieves a perfect balance between shadow and transparency. The building's facade becomes a massive filter through which you can see the scene outside the city.

Figure 4-131 4.6.10 Unified triangular elements of Kenitra train Figure 4-132 Mashrabiya station

Mashrabiya element forms an active and porous architectural skin, which can filter natural light and air to ensure comfortable indoor temperature. With the change of seasons and time of day, the light and shadow of mashrabiya on the indoor floor and wall constantly change, which ensures natural thermal regulation and forms a poetic effect.

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Figure 4-133 Sketch of architect's climate adaptation design Figure 4-134 Mashrabiya roof section

Triangular panes on some roofs and facades can be opened, but closed in winter, thus forming a closed greenhouse indoors, reducing the use of air conditioners. When the windowpane is opened in summer, it is beneficial for the hot air to flow upwards, and the fresh outdoor air enters the indoor circulation, taking away the surface heat. The station also designed a rainwater collection and circulation system to reduce the consumption of water resources.

Figure 4-135 The triangular pane Figure 4-136 Triangular panes form rich indoor light and provides shade for the veranda shadow effects

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4.7 Summary

The 25 building cases analyzed in this chapter are located in different cities in four different climate zones. In the case study process, firstly, a brief analysis is made based on the existing physical relationship of the building. The specific technical strategies and their benefits are discussed in-depth, and finally, how to deeply combine diversified technologies with the building ontology through integrated design is explored. The following points can be summarized:

1. Preconditions of technology, such as architectural layout, orientation, shape, etc., often fail to meet the ideal conditions for adapting to the climate, and are limited by the complex urban environment, site restrictions, landscape vision, etc. At this time, technology plays a more important role in optimization and adjustment, to alleviate the influence of adverse climate factors. If the building is an east-west building, it needs various shading technologies to make up for it.

2. An important trend of contemporary architecture is to use variable spaces and components to adapt to climate change. Acousto-optic thermal sensing devices are often used to connect with building control systems. This dynamic mechanism also includes the linkage of active energy equipment in the building, such as artificial lighting, air conditioning system, etc., which can finally reduce energy consumption.

3. Passive technology strategy can be optimized by the active control system and play a more significant role.

4. At present, the technologies adapting to the climate in architecture are constantly merging, and new technologies are being bred. This is related to the ever-blurred structure, skin and boundary between equipment of the building itself. In the above cases, we can see many design methods with integrated technologies. 167

5. The process of integrated design is a process of coordination among different technologies and is closely related to the aesthetic expression of architecture. The technology that is truly embedded in the architectural system and works cooperatively can produce technical aesthetics.

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Table 4-6 This chapter summarizes the climate-responsive design strategies of railway station building cases in four climate zones Climate type Case Location Climate-responsive design strategy West Kowloon train Hongkong, Roof garden station China Skylight Changhua station Taiwan, Skylight China Structural shading Guangzhou South Guangzhou, Skylight train station China Photovoltaics Hot-humid Air conditioner climate High reflectivity surface ETFE Stadium MRT station Singapore Skylight Light shelf Bras Basah MRT Singapore Skylight station Roof garden High reflectivity surface Haramain high Medina, Water mist cooling speed train station Saudi Arabia Perforated plate Skylight Structural shading Sderot train station Sderot, Israel Green roof Perforated plate Hot-arid Dubai metro station Dubai, The Air conditioner climate United Arab High reflectivity Emirates Structural shading Doha metro station Doha, Katar Perforated plate Structural shading Skylight KAFD Metro Station Riyadh, Saudi Perforated plate Arabia Lhasa train station Tibet, China Skylight Thermal mass Solar thermal collector Harbin west station Harbin, Skylight Cold climate China Thermal mass Helsinki central Helsinki, Thermal mass station Finland Bergen train station Bergen, Thermal mass Norway

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Moskovskiy train St. Thermal mass station Petersburg, Russia Temperate Earth coupling climate Roof garden Structural shading Solar thermal collector Kerpen, Photovoltaics Horrem station Germany Water management Roof garden Stuttgart, Skylight Stuttgart station Germany Wind shaft Skylight Rotterdam central Rotterdam, Photovoltaics station Netherlands Structural shading Hague central Hague, Skylight station Netherlands Wind shaft Canary Wharf train London, Roof garden station Britain ETFE Montpellier Train Montpellier, Skylight Station France Structural shading Vienna central Vienna, Skylight station Austria Structural shading Roof garden Logrono high speed Logroño, Skylight train station Spain Water management Skylight Casa-Port train Casablanca, Perforated plate station Morocco Structural shading Skylight Perforated plate Kenitra, Structural shading Kenitra train station Morocco Wind shaft

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CHAPTER 5 DESIGN OF CHONGMING TRAIN STATI ON IN SHANGHAI

5.1 Project background

5.1.1 Site selection

It can be seen from the case analysis in the fourth chapter that the moderate climate zone is the region with the highest concentration of human beings and the highest population density, so the railway construction is higher than the other three climate zones, and the corresponding number of train stations is also more. Moreover, with the constant changes in people's way of life and travel, many requirements are put forward for the convenience, comfort and ecology of train transportation. From a global perspective, the railway construction in developed countries is mainly to speed up and update. In the fourth chapter, we can see many avant-garde train station designs; Railway construction in developing countries is mainly new, and railway transportation plays a vital role in its development. From the point of view of climate zoning, railway construction in cold areas is slightly stagnant. Due to severe climate conditions and high construction costs in cold areas, the number of newly built train stations is also tiny. In hot and humid areas such as Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, and South China, the construction of train stations is mainly in economically developed areas. Hot and dry areas are similar to hot and humid areas, and the construction of train stations is mainly in the economically developed Middle East. Comparatively speaking, it is easier to build trains in mild climate areas, and the demand is more significant than that in other cities. At the same time, because the mild climate zone has distinct seasons, it has to face the climate adjustment problems faced by several other climate zones at the same time, such as how to keep the indoor temperature stable and resist

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the severe cold in winter and how to keep the indoor cool and resist the scorching sun in summer. Therefore, when choosing the design site, focus on the mild climate area.

In recent years, China's railways have developed rapidly, with the mileage of both high-speed trains and subways ranking first in the world. At the same time, there are many lines under construction and planning. However, due to the extensive level of China's economic development, the construction of many train stations blindly pursues high space, large scale and high cost. The space scale does not match the actual traffic volume, is out of touch with the local climate, and consumes colossal energy, resulting in a waste of resources. Choosing the design site in China's mild climate region can criticize the problems of the existing train station and promote the planning and design of the future train station.

Because the hub train station is too large, the functional requirements are complicated and the design task is heavy, so the intercity train station with small scale is chosen. The design site is finally selected in Chenjia Town, Chongming District, the outer suburb of Shanghai. The train station is located on the rail transit Chongming Line connecting Chongming District and the center of Shanghai, which is currently under construction.

Figure 5-1 Chongming Island is located on the north side of Shanghai

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5.1.2 Railway planning

The project is located in Chenjia Town, Chongming District, Shanghai, China. The rail transit Chongming Line is a rail transit urban line in the Third Round Construction Plan of Shanghai Urban Rail Transit (2018-2023) approved by the state. It starts from Jinqiao, Pudong, passes through Changxing Island, and finally reaches Chenjia Town, Chongming. The total length of the line is about 43km.

Figure 5-2 Map of Chongming subway line

To cooperate with the construction of Chongming's world-class ecological island, Chongming Line will always uphold the design concepts of the green subway, ecological subway and innovative subway. In the conception of metro area development, Chongming Line will become the first one-station-one-city and station-city integrated line in Shanghai.

The whole Chongming line is an underground station, and six marshaled A-type vehicles are selected, with the designed maximum running speed of 120 kilometers per hour. According to the plan, Chongming Line will transfer between Shenjiang Road Station and Line 12, Jinji Road Station and Line 9, and connect with the rail transit network. The time from Chenjia Town to People's Square is expected to be shortened to about one hour.

Chongming Line passes through Chongming Island, Changxing Island and Pudong New Area, and connects hubs, functional groups and significant towns of Chongming

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Island in series along the line, which is beneficial the linkage development between Chongming Island and the rapid connection with the urban area. Its construction is needed to support the comprehensive transformation and upgrading of Chongming District to build a "world-class ecological island", optimize the urban spatial layout, and promote the coordinated development of Chongming District and Shanghai Central City; It is also the need to play the TOD function of rail transit and guide the intensive development of cities and towns in Chongming Island.

At the same time, Chongming Line is the demand of implementing the bus priority strategy, which can effectively improve the current situation of external traffic marginalization and low bus service level in Chongming District, significantly save the travel time from Chongming District to Shanghai Central City, and reduce the travel cost. It is an effective relief for the contradiction of the lack of toll-free passage between Chongming and Central City. It can further strengthen the rapid passenger transport links between Chongming and Central City.

Chongming Line starts from Jinqiao Export Processing Zone, Pudong New Area, and passes through Jinqiao Automobile Industry Unit, Microelectronics Zone, Caolu town- level Industrial Community, Caolu Supporting Commercial Housing Relocation Base, Caolu Safe Housing Base and New Rural Construction Demonstration Zone. Caolu town is an important administrative, commercial, financial and trade center in Jinqiao Functional Zone. The construction of the Chongming Line will provide substantial transportation facilities for Jinqiao Export Processing Zone, Microelectronics Zone and Caolu Base, and promote the rapid development of Jinqiao Functional Zone and the coordinated development of northern Pudong New Area.

5.1.3 Urban planning

Chongming Island is the third largest island in China and the largest alluvial island in

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the world. It is open to the ocean and connected to the Yangtze River. It has a superior geographical location, ecological environment, land resources and shoreline conditions. It is an essential strategic space for Shanghai's sustainable development. It is an essential frontier for Shanghai to further link the Yangtze River Delta region, serve the higher-quality integrated development of the Yangtze River Delta region and the ecological protection of the Yangtze River Basin Economic Belt. It is also a critical window and pioneering demonstration area for China's green development and ecological civilization construction.

Figure 5-3 Eco-island Planning and Construction Guidelines for Chongming

In 2016, the 13th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Chongming World-class Ecological Island was released. Chongming started a new journey of building a world-class ecological island in an all-around way, and promoted the primary strategy of building a world-class ecological island with higher standards, broader vision, higher level and higher quality. In May 2018, "Chongming Eco-Island Planning and Construction Guidelines" was released, which put forward the goal of zero carbon, formulated guidelines for planning and construction of world-class ecological islands to support ecological island construction, controlled world-class ecological islands with high standards and high quality, further refined control measures, strengthened ecological construction guidance, strengthened urban and rural architectural style control, optimized infrastructure layout, and realized sustainable development of ecological islands.

Chenjia Town, where the site is located, has a subway plan closely connected with the traffic in the center of Shanghai, so more modern service industries are planned.

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Chenjiazhen Town is one of the innovative functions gathering areas established by the city's general regulations. It is an integral part of building Shanghai into a science and technology innovation center city. Relying on unique ecological advantages, efforts should be made to optimize the development environment, build smart towns, promote innovation in new energy, biological genes, big data analysis, artificial intelligence and other emerging technologies, accelerate innovation breakthroughs, carry out research on the ecosystem, ecological technology and life health, promote the incubation and transformation of scientific and technological achievements, enhance the agglomeration capacity of science and technology, and promote the upgrading of industries such as ecological conservation, ecological agriculture and leisure sports, to become a new driving force for the development of science and technology industry in Shanghai.

Figure 5-4 The future development of Chenjia Town is Figure 5-5 Land use planning of Chenjia mainly based on modern agriculture and the modern town service industry

Chongming subway station is located in the northern part of the international business district. The current development level is relatively low. The east side is a concentrated residential community, with farmland and water system as the main areas, with a sizeable future development space.

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Figure 5-6 Plan of the North Unit of the International Figure 5-7 Satellite map of the site Business District where the base is located

5.1.4 Geography and nature analysis

Chongming Island is located at the mouth of the Yangtze River, known as "the gateway of the Yangtze River and Yingzhou of the East China Sea", and is the largest sand island in the world. The whole island covers 1267 square kilometers, with a length of 80km from east to west and a width of 13-18km from north to south. The island is flat with a ground elevation of 3.21-4.20m.

Chongming Island has a history of more than 1,300 years, with an area of 1,041.21 square kilometers and an altitude of 3.5 meters to 4.5 meters. It is a famous land of fish and rice with flat terrain, fertile land, lush forests and rich products.

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Figure 5-8 Chongming Island is located at the mouth of the Yangtze River

Chongming Island took a long time to form and did not exist before the Tang Dynasty. At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, only two small sandbanks, Dongsha and Xisha, emerged from the water, separated by more than 30 kilometers. In 697 AD (Wu Zetian period), fishermen gradually settled on Xisha. In 705 AD (the first year of Tang Zhongzong Lixian Shenlong), the Tang Dynasty set up Chongming Town on Xisha Island. Worshiper, high also; Ming also, flat and wide. Also, there is a saying about the name of Chongming Island. It turns out that there is a sand mouth, which appears and disappears in the Yangtze River. It is very mysterious and people call it Ming Ming. When Shazui formed a fixed island, the mystery disappeared, so it was not appropriate to call it "special" again, and it was changed to "Chongming".

In 1277 AD, after the Yuan Dynasty destroyed the Southern Song Dynasty, Chongming State was set up, and its administration was located in Chongming Town, Xisha, belonging to Yangzhou Road. However, Chongming Island had not yet taken shape at this time. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, sandbanks snowballed, and Chongming Island became larger and larger, and it didn't form until the late Ming and early Qing

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Dynasties. In the early Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang gave Chongming Island a magical name, called Yingzhou in the East China Sea.

Figure 5-9 In the 16th century there were Figure 5-10 In the 17th century a large island appeared many small islands scattered around the in the mouth of the Yangtze River mouth of the Yangtze River

Figure 5-11 Chongming Island gradually took Figure 5-12 Satellite image of Chongming Island shape in the early Qing Dynasty

Chongming enjoys superior natural conditions, with a forest coverage rate of nearly 24%. The atmospheric environmental quality has been maintained at the national first-class standard all year-round, and the excellent rate of ambient air quality (AQI) has reached 78%. The content of negative oxygen ions in the air is 1000 to 2000 per cubic centimeter. The island is rich in the water system, with farmland as the mainland. All polluting enterprises are relocated outside the island, and some land is used for forest, wetland and park construction. Chongming has two extremely precious wetlands, Dongtan Wetland and Xisha Wetland. The two wetlands are located at the east and west ends of Chongming Island. Although they are also wetlands with affluent ecological populations, they have distinct geological characteristics and unique landscapes. Dongping National Forest Park, with a total area of 5400 mu, is the largest artificial plain forest in East China. 179

Figure 5-13 The wetland resources Figure 5-14 The forest resources

Figure 5-15 Farmland resource Figure 5-16 Water resources

5.1.5 Cultural analysis

Chongming traditional buildings are generally located in adjacent water systems and woodlands with rich vegetation. Most buildings use sloping roofs, taking the square courtyard as the primary form, and the rooms are spread around the courtyard. The larger houses have three or even four spaces with rich levels.

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Figure 5-17 Chongming traditional courtyard

Traditional building structures are all made of wood, divided into lifting beam type and bucket type. The walls are made of local materials such as platycodon grandiflorum and straw, and the roofs are made of tiles to prevent rain.

Figure 5-18 Chongming Xuegong Figure 5-19 Schematic diagram of wood structure of traditional buildings

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Figure 5-20 Traditional wood structure architecture Figure 5-21 Chongming local materials in Chongming

5.1.6 Climatic analysis

Chongming Island belongs to subtropical monsoon humid climate, with southeast wind prevailing in summer, abundant rainfall, hot and humid climate, northerly wind prevailing in winter and dry and cold climate. Chongming Island has a generally suitable climate with four distinct seasons. The average temperature in July and August is about 31 degrees Celsius, and the annual average temperature is 15.3 degrees Celsius. There is plenty of rainfall throughout the year, with more rainfall concentrated from June to September, with an average annual rainfall of 1117.1mm.

Figure 5-22 Wind rose of Chongming

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Figure 5-23 Climate analysis of Chongming

5.1.7 Design task

The main target of the design is the Chongming subway station, and its primary function is to meet the basic needs of subway security check, ticket purchase, ride and waiting. Unlike traditional urban subway lines, Chongming Line is located as an intercity railway, with a considerable station distance, long line and relatively low train density, so it is necessary to reserve a particular waiting space.

Passengers at the station mainly include the following types: residents within 10km of the surrounding area, people who come to work in Chenjia Town from the urban area, and people who come to Chongming for tourism from the urban area. For local residents, the bus transfer needs of residents far away should be considered in the design. For those who come to work in Chenjia Town from urban areas, the connection between the subway station and surrounding industrial buildings should be considered to reduce commuting distance. The train station should have a particular functional compound for tourists to meet people's needs for dining and rest. At the same time, the train station is their first impression

183 of Chongming Island. The purpose of people traveling here is to feel the ecology and enjoy nature. Therefore, the train station should be green and have ecological education significance.

5.2 Climate-responsive design strategy

5.2.1 Low-carbon wooden structure

Wood can meet the needs of a large span, and is a building material with the lowest processing degree. Compared with concrete and steel, wood has a smaller carbon footprint. Wood architecture originated in China, and wood structure is the most common and mature structural system in traditional Chinese architecture. However, the most mature places in the world are Europe and the United States, and their traditional buildings were Stone and bricks a thousand years ago. Chinese architects have forgotten how to use wood, not to mention the innovation of wood structure. China used more concrete in the past 20 years than America used in the past 200 years, which caused colossal carbon consumption.

Chongming is rich in wood locally, and there are also some wood processing plants, which use wood structures to reduce carbon footprint in materials. As Chongming Island is an independent island at the mouth of the Yangtze River, its traffic connection with the mainland is weak, so using local materials as much as possible can reduce the carbon emissions required for long-distance transportation of materials to the island.

The building's wooden structure comprises an umbrella structure of 16.9m*16.9m, which is symmetrically spliced by four petal-shaped small units. The petal-shaped unit comprises four wooden members, with L-shaped columns at the bottom and three arched wooden beams at the top. The arched wooden beams are connected by secondary wooden beams to form two natural apartment surfaces, making the petal units form a three- dimensional structure. Square wood members lock the four petal-shaped units to form a

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Figure 5-24 Diagram of the umbrella column unit

A cable structure is adopted on the surface of the umbrella unit to form a plane that provides space for different activities.

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Figure 5-25 The plane formed by the cable at the Figure 5-26 The plane formed by the cable at the top of the umbrella unit top of the umbrella unit

Figure 5-27 A plane split view of the top cable of Figure 5-28 Diagram of connection node between the umbrella unit cable and wooden beam

Umbrella-shaped units are connected to form an arched spatial circle, which is reflected in the orthogonal direction and 45 diagonal direction, giving space a specific directionality.

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Figure 5-29 Four umbrella-shaped units form the Figure 5-30 Diagram of arch space section arched space

Figure 5-31 Umbrella unit combined top view Figure 5-32 Elevation view of umbrella unit combination

The earliest and most famous train stations in the world are all built with arch structures. For example, London King's Cross Train Station adopts a steel arch to realize long-span space. The concrete arch of Grand Central Station in New York creates a tall and magnificent space atmosphere, and the combination of small-span steel arch in Pennsylvania Station forms a beautiful space. This design advocates a kind of wooden arch, low-carbon and environment-friendly, which may be a trend of future architectural development.

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It can be said that the arched space is a collective impression of the train station. The design virtually restores people's most primitive and familiar impression of the train station.

Figure 5-33 The railway station ticket barrier

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Figure 5-34 London King's Cross Train Station Figure 5-35 Arch roof of King's Cross Train Station

Figure 5-36 Arched dome of New York Grand Central Figure 5-37 Arch side skylight of Grand Station Central Station

Figure 5-38 The arched structure between the collumns of Figure 5-39 The continuous arch roof of Pennsylvania Station Pennsylvania Station

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5.2.2 Be part of the wetland

The site is taken from the wetland, characterized by a combination of vegetation and water, and has rich biodiversity and strong ecological regulation ability. I arranged the traffic function of the building underground, and the roof of the building was designed as a vast garden. This garden is closely connected with the station space under the roof through elevators and stairs and connected with the urban space through step trails, with one entrance in the wetland direction and one entrance in the business district direction.

Figure 5-40 The roof garden faces the wetland and the industrial park with one entrance each

The roof garden is a simple garden and an essential interface between architecture and climate to exchange energy and resources. The roof garden is composed of units with different functions, and their basic structures are the same, but the hollow part of the structure carries different systems and activities. In the wetland ecosystem, different kinds of plants shoulder different missions. Some plants are responsible for absorbing rainwater, promoting water circulation and keeping high water content in wetlands. Some plants are responsible for producing oxygen and providing support for animals and plants in wetlands. Some plants are good at bearing fruit and providing food for fish. The soil, water, animals and plants in the wetland constitute a pluralistic and elastic ecosystem. The leading energy of the system comes from the sun, which does not need other energy supplements. Simultaneously, it has strong resilience to cope with climate and environmental changes

190 and finally forms a self-sufficient system.

Figure 5-41 Wetland Ecosystem Figure 5-42 Howard Odum’s Energy Systems Language diagram

This building is not simply a nice layer of green on the roof, attracting people's attention and making people feel very ecological. Instead, we should learn from the wetland ecosystem, and construct the capture and circulation system of water, air, light, wind and other resources, and integrate these systems inside the building to form an environment suitable for living and growing of organisms (not only people). The roof surface has different textures and provides different activity spaces. The cavity under the surface provides the possibility of material energy for the roof and the bottom equipment layer.

Figure 5-43 Bird’s view of the station

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Figure 5-44 Hollow column is the channel for collecting and treating climate resources

Like the plants in a wetland, different plants have different amounts of water, and they work together to promote the water cycle and keep the wetland's water content high. Different umbrella-shaped units in the building have different water content. From a spatial point of view, they correspond to different functions. Systematically, they are connected with the water circulation system at the bottom of the building, forming efficient water use. The aquarium unit, which has the highest water content, is the most special because it provides living space for fish. The other water-bearing units are all different types of greenery, including wetland, courtyard, forest, vegetable garden, grassland, chair, fountain and shelter, a total of 8 types.

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Table 5-1 Schematic diagram of water content and function of roof greening module

Water Unit percenta Unit design Section name ge

Aquarium 100% unit

Wetland 80% unit

Courtyard 70% unit

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60% Forest unit

Vegetable 50% garden unit

Grassland 30% unit

20% Bench unit

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Skate/ 10% Fountain unit

Shelter 0% unit

5.2.3 Natural light with gradient

The courtyard unit, aquarium unit and theater unit are the building's media to introduce nature, and their different functions and structures provide different degrees of natural lighting. According to the specific functional requirements of the station, three different lighting units are distributed in different areas. The natural lighting formed by them can meet the illumination requirements of the station interior, and there is no need to turn on the lights in the daytime to save energy for the station. In the meantime, the intensity of illumination of different daylighting units is different. Without a signboard or sign, people can easily recognize indoor direction.

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Figure 5-45 Planar distribution of 3 types of natural lighting units

The brightest units are two green courtyards and a spiral staircase in the middle. Courtyards are located on two diagonal sides of the building, and there are two sets of ramps inside which can be walked to the roof and station hall. Deciduous broad-leaved trees and shrubs dominate the interior greening of the courtyard. The summer sunshine is strong, and the lush leaves can play a role in shading the sun. Winter leaves fall, sunlight can directly into the room, improve the indoor temperature.

Figure 5-46 Section of yard unit Figure 5-47 Section of yard unit

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Figure 5-48 Diagram of natural lighting of courtyard unit

Figure 5-49 Renderings of the ramp above the courtyard

The aquarium unit provides softer natural lighting for the interior. Sunlight enters the interior through water refraction, producing gorgeous light and shadow effects.

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Figure 5-50 The aquarium unit provides daylight for the interior

The theatre unit provides a space for people to gather, perform, and give speeches, while under the theatre provides natural light for the interior. As you can see from the section, the horizontal secondary beams form the steps to sit on, and the vertical glass panels are spaced, allowing light to enter the interior through the side Windows. The center of the theatre unit is the glass stage, which is blurred to bring light to the interior space below while protecting the performers' privacy.

Figure 5-52 Section of theater unit

Figure 5-51 Theater unit Figure 5-53 Theater unit node design

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5.2.4 A breathable building

The opening fan is set at the bottom of the train station curtain wall. The hollow part of the umbrella-shaped column can connect the air at the bottom and the roof. Once the wind pressure or temperature pressure is generated, the air can be discharged outdoors through the cavity.

In spring and autumn, the station does not need additional energy consumption to maintain the thermal environment. In the summer, water circulation pipes spray water to cool the room. In winter, hot water is pumped into the floor to raise the room temperature by radiation.

Figure 5-54 The center of the umbrella column is the passage of air

In addition to the stairs, elevators and other places that need rigid structure, the first floor of the building adopts a large area of high-performance cable network structure conducive to the airflow in the station hall.

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Figure 5-55 Cable net structure floor slab on the ground floor of the station

Figure 5-56 Floor plan of cable net Figure 5-57 The connection between the cable net and the timber structure

Figure 5-58 The cable net structure floor slab on the first floor of the building

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The underground floor of the building has been planted with some greenery to regulate the indoor air and water.

Figure 5-59 Vegetation inside the station regulates the microclimate

5.2.5 A place with climate educational significance

Train stations are places where many people gather, but most stations are just transit points, where people come here, get on trains and go far away. My design wanted to transform the train station into a place where people would like to stay, gather and enjoy nature. Every weekend, many tourists from the city center come to Chongming Island for rest and vacation. In the future, they will be able to come here by train instead of by car. Chongming train station is their first stop on the island. I hope to design the train station into a place with climate and ecological education significance. People visit exhibitions of ecological significance, plant vegetables by themselves, see the root growth of plants, fish swimming in the water, touch wood, the most original building material, and intuitively feel the importance of ecology from the architectural space.

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Figure 5-60 Ecological eye inside the train station

The bottom of the forest unit is made of transparent high-strength glass. Through the glass, you can see the growth of the roots of plants and feel the attitude of life growth.

Figure 5-61 Section of forest unit

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Figure 5-62 The roots of the plants can be seen from the interior

The aquarium unit can collect light and raise some endangered fish in the estuary of the Yangtze River, such as Chinese river dolphins, Chinese sturgeon, Yangtze swordfish Yangtze shad. These precious fish are in danger of extinction because of climate change caused by humans. This is a way of reminding people of the importance of species diversity.

Figure 5-63 The aquarium unit is connected to the bottom pool

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Figure 5-64 Rendering of the aquarium unit

A Vegetable Garden Unit is an opportunity for people in the city center to grow vegetables that they can look after on the weekend, let them grow during the week and take home for food when they're ripe. Growing vegetables can help children learn about different types of vegetables, the original form of the vegetables they eat every day, and the sunlight, air, water and nutrients they need to grow vegetables. The process helps raise the climate and ecological awareness of the younger generation, who will be delighted when they harvest the vegetables they grow.

Figure 5-65 Vegetable Unit Figure 5-66 People grow vegetables on their roofs

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In addition to the above units, the colorful space on the roof offers endless possibilities for various activities. The theatre unit can be used as an outdoor pulpit. The shelter unit provides shade for people. The skating/fountain unit spouts snow and water in winter and summer respectively.

Figure 5-67 Colorful space on the roof

In addition to the distinctive roof, the interior space is also attractive. The first floor of the station is a cable-net structure, which makes the space flexible and accessible, and can be changed or expanded according to the actual use. On the rope net, people walk, lie down or sit down, and themed exhibitions and art installations based on climate and ecology can be easily arranged.

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Figure 5-68 The spatial effect of cable net structure on the first floor of station

Figure 5-69 The interior space of the station is flexible

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The roof and interior of the train station are not separate spaces but a unified whole. The interior can be accessed through multiple staircases, elevators and ramps to the roof, providing passengers with various possibilities to experience the space. Elevator units located at the east and west ends of the station are essential accessibility facilities.

Figure 5-70 Elevator unit Figure 5-71 Section of Elevator unit

The rotating stair unit is located in the center of the station, and the stair steps slowly rise around the central steel core to provide a panoramic view of the station. The elevator inside the middle steel cylinder allows disabled people to reach the roof quickly. The steel tube structure is separated from the main wooden structure and supported by six high- strength steel columns. The top supports one of the rings, and the stair-step is connected to the ring through steel cables.

Figure 5-72 The spiral staircase and the umbrella Figure 5-73 Structure plan of spiral staircase units on both sides form the overall structure 207

Figure 5-74 Look inside the station from the spiral staircase

Figure 5-75 Section of the spiral staircase

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Figure 5-77 Design of wooden beam joint of the spiral staircase

Figure 5-76 Section of the spiral staircase Figure 5-78 Stair step panel node design

There are a total of four accessible ramps, which are set at the junction of the stepped unit and the wall, and there are resting platforms at intervals.

Figure 5-81 Accessible ramp location

Figure 5-79 Section of accessible ramps Figure 5-80 Node design of accessible ramps

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5.3 Integrated design

The train station is designed in a prefabricated manner, with wooden structure units prefabricated in the factory in advance and embedded pipelines, which will be transported to the base for assembly after the foundation is completed.

Building components have been minimized, and various climate-responsive design strategies have been deeply integrated into the timber structure.

Water, electricity and air are arranged in the middle of the umbrella-shaped unit columns. There are no exposed pipes or air ducts inside the station, which maximizes the texture and spatial beauty of the wood.

Figure 5-82 Pipeline distribution in the middle of the umbrella unit column

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Figure 5-83 Explosion view of the integrated design

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5.4 Design drawings

Figure 5-84 Rendering of Chongming Train Station entrance

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Figure 5-85 View of the train station from the wetland

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Figure 5-86 Site plan

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Figure 5-87 Ground floor plan

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Figure 5-88 Underground first floor plan

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Figure 5-89 Underground second floor plan (Platform)

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Figure 5-90 Roof plan

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Figure 5-91 Longitudinal section 1 Figure 5-92 Longitudinal section 2

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Figure 5-93 Transverse section 1 Figure 5-94 Transverse section 2

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CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND PROSPECTS

6.1 Conclusions

The original intention is to advocate architectural thinking and architectural design methods based on climate. Facing the increasingly severe environmental crisis and climate challenge, the research on climate-responsive architecture undoubtedly provides a vision and thinking way with both innovation and scientific rationality. The climate-responsive design relies on integrating knowledge across physics and climatology, regards architecture as a container for coordinating climate resources and transforming energy. It discusses the relationship among human comfort, climate and building system. Through theoretical construction, case summary and design practice, the author tries to promote the research of contemporary architecture to change to climate adaptation, which is summarized as follows:

1. Climate-responsive design to address the energy crisis

The most primitive function of a house is to form a certain degree of separation between the human body and the environment, so climate has always been an essential clue in architecture, especially when people pay more attention to ecology, green and sustainability. Climate-responsive design is of great significance to carbon emission and environmental protection. The production and use of non-renewable energy cause significant pollution to the natural environment and is limited by the global total. Simultaneously, non-local energy based on non-renewable energy will cause excessive energy loss, which is undoubtedly worse for the society already facing energy crisis. Therefore, we should pay full attention to renewable energy and local energy utilization based on renewable energy. This not only requires us to study the local climate in the early stage of architectural design to ensure that this climate-based energy form can be fully

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utilized. At the same time, it also requires us to combine energy use with architectural forms in architectural design to meet the needs of local energy development. Energy will be a design issue, not a technical issue.

2. Technical view of climate-responsive design

We need to look back on history, but we should face up to the present. When we immerse ourselves in studying the climate-responsive design methods in traditional buildings, the science and technology around us are constantly updated and iterated. The methods and approaches of climate-responsive design have undergone qualitative changes. As a physical condition with accurate quantification and regularity, climate can be analyzed more scientifically. Climate-responsive design can be simulated and verified by digital and visual technology and continuously develop new technologies to actively or passively regulate the environment. Therefore, instead of sticking to tradition blindly and focusing on empirical knowledge transformation practice, climate-responsive architecture should actively embrace appropriate technologies to meet the needs of contemporary human settlements.

3. Integrated design is a critical way to apply climate-responsive technology

The complex space and performance requirements of contemporary architecture promote structure, equipment and material technology. However, when we use these technical tools in practice, it is easy to get into the predicament of collage and disorganization, which leads to the loss of architectural performance and aesthetics. In this paper, through the combination of sectional drawing, axonometric drawing, energy analysis drawing and photo, I try to explain the technical intervention and integrated design behind climate-responsive buildings with both performance and aesthetics, proposing the importance of integrated design for technical application. In the integrated design, each building system component is no longer an accurate combination of single physical 222

materials, but a dynamic mechanism integrated with technology. In the climate-responsive design, it is a module of collaborative energy.

6.2 Future Prospects

In this paper, from the perspective of technical strategy and integrated design, the climate adaptation research of contemporary architecture is cut into, and the critical analysis and design practice are carried out with the train station building as an example, which provides a new perspective for reflection, research and practice of contemporary architecture. However, climate adaptation is a rich and heavy architectural topic. Its research perspective can be cut in not only from the technical dimension, but also from the perspectives of architectural physical form and body phenomenology. Further possible research directions are as follows:

1. Analyze the comprehensive benefits of passive and active technologies through energy visualization. At present, there are many analysis platforms for architectural design and performance simulation. Still, most of them can only analyze the performance changes caused by the changes of the shape, structure and materials of the building itself, mainly the responses of passive technology in architecture. However, the impact of active technology should be considered comprehensively in practical projects. Does the analysis of the combination of active and passive technologies quantitatively prove its environmental benefits?

2. The complexity of climate in actual design. To explain the differences in technical strategies in different climates, the thesis divides the global climate into four types: hot and humid, dry and hot, cold and mild. However, the climate in different places is more complex. Even different microclimates appear in different places in the same place, which may be different from the technical strategies listed in this paper. Climate-responsive

223 design should be adapted to local conditions and combined with other factors as a design idea.

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Figure 2-24 https://dev.architectuul.com/architecture/kandalama-hotel Figure 2-25 http://modernistarchitecture.blogspot.com/2013/12/the-liljestrand-residence.html Figure 2-26 https://www.messynessychic.com/2017/10/04/derelict-masterpieces-of-havanas-forgotten- art-schools/ Figure 2-27 https://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/image/I0000W5bGgSrK1Cs Figure 2-28 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-29 Drawn by author Figure 2-30 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-31 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-32 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-33 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-34 https://www.onlyinyourstate.com/hawaii/historic-houses-hi/ Figure 2-35 https://blog.buildllc.com/2017/09/interview-dean-sakamoto-on-vladimir-ossipoff-part-2/ Figure 2-36 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-37 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-38 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-39 https://mcconnellvintage.wordpress.com/2011/01/11/the-ibm-building/ Figure 2-40 https://www.dwell.com/query/honolulu%20hawaii Figure 2-41 https://bruteforcecollaborative.wordpress.com/2010/03/29/architecture-in-oahu/ Figure 2-42 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-43 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-44 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-45 https://www.iconichouses.org/houses/liljestrand-house Figure 2-46 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-47 Ossipoff V, Treib M. Hawaiian Modern: The Architecture of Vladimir Ossipoff[M]. Yale University Press, 2007. Figure 2-48 https://archinect.com/news/bustler/6129/urban-land-institute-awards-13-developments-in- north-america-europe-and-asia Figure 2-49 https://www.archdaily.com/800182/interview-with-woha-the-only-way-to-preserve-

228 nature-is-to-integrate-it-into-our-built-environment Figure 2-50 https://www.greenbuildingmagazine.it/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/4-GB-magazine-3- 2012-pdf Figure 2-51 https://www.explorehainan.com/sitefiles/hnly_zh/html/zixun/tehui/19263.shtml Figure 2-52 http://eny2006615www.archiworld.com.cn/a/15928.html Figure 2-53 Photographed by author Figure 2-54 https://www.gooood.cn/china-architectural-education-zhang-tong.htm Figure 2-55, 2-56, 2-57 UN Studio, https://www.unstudio.com/ Figure 3-1 Drawn by author Figure 3-2 Drawn by author from Rhino & Ladybug Figure 3-3 Drawn by author from Meteonorm Figure 3-4 Drawn by author from Meteonorm Figure 3-5 Drawn by author from Rhino & Ladybug Figure 3-6 Drawn by author from Rhino & Ladybug Figure 3-7 Drawn by author from Meteonorm Figure 3-8 Drawn by author from Rhino & Ladybug Figure 3-9 https://cleantechnica.com/2019/03/17/all-you-need-to-know-about-home-geothermal- heating-cooling/ Figure 3-10 https://www.vladtime.ru/obsh/681111 Figure 3-11 https://pixabay.com/photos/umbrella-rain-colors-woman-968480/ Figure 3-12 https://data.worldbank.org/ Figure 4-1 http://disused-stations.org.uk/m/manchester_liverpool_road/index.shtml Figure 4-2 http://disused-stations.org.uk/m/manchester_liverpool_road/index.shtml Figure 4-3 http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/present.htm Figure 4-4 Drawn by author from Rhino & Ladybug Figure 4-5 https://www.gooood.cn/hong-kong-west-kowloon-station-by-andrew-bromberg-at- aedas.htm Figure 4-6 Photographed by author Figure 4-7 https://www.gooood.cn/hong-kong-west-kowloon-station-by-andrew-bromberg-at- aedas.htm Figure 4-8 Photographed by author Figure 4-9 Photographed by author Figure 4-10 Photographed by author Figure 4-11 Photographed by author Figure 4-12 https://www.gooood.cn/hong-kong-west-kowloon-station-by-andrew-bromberg-at- aedas.htm Figure 4-13 https://www.gooood.cn/hong-kong-west-kowloon-station-by-andrew-bromberg-at- aedas.htm Figure 4-14 Photographed by author Figure 4-15 Photographed by author Figure 4-16 https://www.xinmedia.com/article/70131

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Figure 4-17 http://www.twarchitect.org.tw/works/%E9%AB%98%E9%90%B5%E5%BD%B0%E5% 8C%96%E7%AB%99/ Figure 4-18 https://www.krisyaoartech.com/ch Figure 4-19 https://www.krisyaoartech.com/ch Figure 4-20 https://www.krisyaoartech.com/ch Figure 4-21 https://www.krisyaoartech.com/ch Figure 4-22 http://td.gd.gov.cn/dtxw_n/tpxw/content/post_3222682.html Figure 4-23 https://www.archdaily.com/267849/guangzhou-south-railway-station-tfp- farrells?ad_medium=office_landing&ad_name=article Figure 4-24 https://www.archdaily.com/267849/guangzhou-south-railway-station-tfp- farrells?ad_medium=office_landing&ad_name=article Figure 4-25 https://www.archdaily.com/267849/guangzhou-south-railway-station-tfp- farrells?ad_medium=office_landing&ad_name=article Figure 4-26 https://www.archdaily.com/267849/guangzhou-south-railway-station-tfp- farrells?ad_medium=office_landing&ad_name=article Figure 4-27 https://www.behance.net/gallery/50479081/Kimball-Art-Museum Figure 4-28 https://www.archdaily.com/267849/guangzhou-south-railway-station-tfp- farrells?ad_medium=office_landing&ad_name=article Figure 4-29 https://www.world-architects.com/en/woha-singapore/project/stadium-mass-rapid-transit- mrt-station Figure 4-30 https://www.world-architects.com/en/woha-singapore/project/stadium-mass-rapid-transit- mrt-station Figure 4-31 https://www.world-architects.com/en/woha-singapore/project/stadium-mass-rapid-transit- mrt-station Figure 4-32 https://www.world-architects.com/en/woha-singapore/project/stadium-mass-rapid-transit- mrt-station Figure 4-33 https://www.archdaily.com/40802/bras-basah-rapid-transit-station-woha Figure 4-34 https://www.archdaily.com/40802/bras-basah-rapid-transit-station-woha Figure 4-35 https://www.archdaily.com/40802/bras-basah-rapid-transit-station-woha Figure 4-36 https://www.archdaily.com/40802/bras-basah-rapid-transit-station-woha Figure 4-37 Drawn by author from Rhino & Ladybug Figure 4-38 https://www.archdaily.com/919039/haramain-high-speed-rail-foster-plus- partners?ad_medium=gallery Figure 4-39 https://www.archdaily.com/919039/haramain-high-speed-rail-foster-plus- partners?ad_medium=gallery Figure 4-40 https://divisare.com/projects/316395-foster-partners-ruben-p-bescos-al-haramain-high- speed-rail-stations Figure 4-41 https://divisare.com/projects/316395-foster-partners-ruben-p-bescos-al-haramain-high- speed-rail-stations Figure 4-42 https://www.archdaily.com/919039/haramain-high-speed-rail-foster-plus- partners?ad_medium=gallery

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Figure 4-43 https://www.archdaily.com/919039/haramain-high-speed-rail-foster-plus- partners?ad_medium=gallery Figure 4-44 http://www.mann-shinar.com/details.asp?ID=_746 Figure 4-45 http://www.mann-shinar.com/details.asp?ID=_746 Figure 4-46 http://www.mann-shinar.com/details.asp?ID=_746 Figure 4-47 http://www.mann-shinar.com/details.asp?ID=_746 Figure 4-48 http://www.mann-shinar.com/details.asp?ID=_746 Figure 4-49 https://www.aedas.com/en/what-we-do/featured-projects/dubai-metro Figure 4-50 https://www.aedas.com/en/what-we-do/featured-projects/dubai-metro Figure 4-51 https://www.businessinsider.in/slideshows/miscellaneous/dubai-has-the-worlds-largest- completely-automated-driverless-metro-line-and-it-shows-how-far-behind-the-us-really- is/slidelist/66856574.cms#slideid=66856614 Figure 4-52 https://yourdubaiguide.com/damac-properties-metro-station/ Figure 4-53 https://www.unstudio.com/en/page/12108/doha-metro-network Figure 4-54 https://www.unstudio.com/en/page/12108/doha-metro-network Figure 4-55 https://www.archdaily.com/947301/unstudio-completes-first-37-stations-on-the-doha- metro-network-in-qatar Figure 4-56 https://www.archdaily.com/947301/unstudio-completes-first-37-stations-on-the-doha- metro-network-in-qatar Figure 4-57 https://www.constructionweekonline.com/king-abdullah-financial-district-metro-station Figure 4-58 https://www.archdaily.com/374198/zaha-hadid-architects-selected-to-design-the-king- abdullah-financial-district-metro-station-in-saudi-arabia- 2?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 4-59 https://worldarchitecture.org/article-links/ecfvf/zaha-hadid-architects- parametricallydesigned-metro-station-takes-shape-in-riyadh.html Figure 4-60 https://worldarchitecture.org/article-links/ecfvf/zaha-hadid-architects- parametricallydesigned-metro-station-takes-shape-in-riyadh.html Figure 4-61 Drawn by author from Rhino & Ladybug Figure 4-62 https://www.sohu.com/a/112634721_395908 Figure 4-63 http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_43abaa8b0100lzv7.html Figure 4-64 https://www.zhihu.com/question/35742979?sort=created Figure 4-65 http://www.dashangu.com/postimg_6908378_4.html Figure 4-66 http://www.dashangu.com/postimg_6908378_4.html Figure 4-67 Drawn by author from Google map Figure 4-68 http://jz.720ku.net/jiaotongjianzhu/37388 Figure 4-69 https://www.photophoto.cn/show/12733588.html Figure 4-70 https://www.vr.fi/en/railway-stations-and-routes/helsinki Figure 4-71 https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/557390891361832943/ Figure 4-72 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oulu_railway_station Figure 4-73 https://line.17qq.com/articles/knnswwqwy.html Figure 4-74 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen_station

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Figure 4-75 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moskovsky_railway_station_(Saint_Petersburg) Figure 4-76 https://www.faller.de/gb/en/Products/Track-gauges/H0-selection/Railway-stations- railway-buildings/Railway-stations/Horrem-Station-sid3910.html Figure 4-77 https://ec.europa.eu/environment/europeangreencapital/carbon-neutral-station/ Figure 4-78 https://ec.europa.eu/environment/europeangreencapital/carbon-neutral-station/ Figure 4-79 https://ec.europa.eu/environment/europeangreencapital/carbon-neutral-station/ Figure 4-80 https://ec.europa.eu/environment/europeangreencapital/carbon-neutral-station/ Figure 4-81 https://ec.europa.eu/environment/europeangreencapital/carbon-neutral-station/ Figure 4-82 https://ec.europa.eu/environment/europeangreencapital/carbon-neutral-station/ Figure 4-83 https://inhabitat.com/a-nnet-zero-high-speed-rail-station-for-stuttgart/main-station- stuttgart-14/ Figure 4-84 https://inhabitat.com/a-nnet-zero-high-speed-rail-station-for-stuttgart/ Figure 4-85 https://inhabitat.com/a-nnet-zero-high-speed-rail-station-for-stuttgart/ Figure 4-86 From Professor Martin Despang Figure 4-87 https://inhabitat.com/a-nnet-zero-high-speed-rail-station-for-stuttgart/ Figure 4-88 https://divisare.com/projects/370267-ingenhoven-architects-main-station-stuttgart- germany Figure 4-89 https://www.pinterest.at/dania_304/_saved/ Figure 4-90 https://www.pinterest.at/dania_304/_saved/ Figure 4-91 https://www.scheuten.com/en/scheuten-projects/about-us/reference-projects/rotterdam- central-station#lightbox[50]/2/ Figure 4-92 https://www.designboom.com/architecture/rotterdam-centraal-station-redeveloped-by- team-cs-11-11-2013/ Figure 4-93 https://www.designboom.com/architecture/rotterdam-centraal-station-redeveloped-by- team-cs-11-11-2013/ Figure 4-94 https://www.designboom.com/architecture/rotterdam-centraal-station-redeveloped-by- team-cs-11-11-2013/ Figure 4-95 https://www.designboom.com/architecture/rotterdam-centraal-station-redeveloped-by- team-cs-11-11-2013/ Figure 4-96 https://www.scheuten.com/en/scheuten-projects/about-us/reference-projects/rotterdam- central-station#lightbox[50]/2/ Figure 4-97 https://www.archdaily.com/782706/the-hague-central-station-benthem-crouwel-architects Figure 4-98 https://www.archdaily.com/782706/the-hague-central-station-benthem-crouwel-architects Figure 4-99 https://www.archdaily.com/782706/the-hague-central-station-benthem-crouwel-architects Figure 4-100 https://www.archdaily.com/782706/the-hague-central-station-benthem-crouwel- architects Figure 4-101 https://www.archdaily.com/782706/the-hague-central-station-benthem-crouwel- architects Figure 4-102 https://www.archdaily.com/782706/the-hague-central-station-benthem-crouwel- architects Figure 4-103 https://inhabitat.com/norman-fosters-grand-canary-wharf-crossrail-station-in-london-is-

232 almost-finished/ Figure 4-104 https://www.arup.com/projects/canary-wharf-elizabeth-line-station Figure 4-105 https://www.arup.com/projects/canary-wharf-elizabeth-line-station Figure 4-106 https://www.crossrail.co.uk/route/stations/canary-wharf/ Figure 4-107 https://www.arup.com/projects/canary-wharf-elizabeth-line-station Figure 4-108 https://www.ductal.com/en/architecture/The-roofing-of-the-Montpellier-TGV-Station- South-of-France Figure 4-109 https://www.archdaily.com/915279/gare-tgv-de-montpellier-montpellier-railway-station- marc-mimram?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 4-110 https://www.archdaily.com/915279/gare-tgv-de-montpellier-montpellier-railway-station- marc-mimram?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 4-111 https://www.archdaily.com/915279/gare-tgv-de-montpellier-montpellier-railway-station- marc-mimram?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 4-112 https://www.archdaily.com/915279/gare-tgv-de-montpellier-montpellier-railway-station- marc-mimram?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 4-113 https://www.archdaily.com/915279/gare-tgv-de-montpellier-montpellier-railway-station- marc-mimram?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 4-114 https://www.archdaily.com/915279/gare-tgv-de-montpellier-montpellier-railway-station- marc-mimram?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 4-115 https://www.dezeen.com/2017/02/13/crystalline-roof-by-theo-hotz-zigzags-over-vienna- central-station/ Figure 4-116 https://www.dezeen.com/2017/02/13/crystalline-roof-by-theo-hotz-zigzags-over-vienna- central-station/ Figure 4-117 https://www.dezeen.com/2017/02/13/crystalline-roof-by-theo-hotz-zigzags-over-vienna- central-station/ Figure 4-118 https://www.architonic.com/en/project/theo-hotz-partner-vienna-central-station/5105057 Figure 4-119 https://www.architonic.com/en/project/theo-hotz-partner-vienna-central-station/5105057 Figure 4-120 https://www.dezeen.com/2012/10/17/high-speed-train-station-in-logrono-by- abalossentkiewicz-arquitectos/ Figure 4-121 https://www.dezeen.com/2012/10/17/high-speed-train-station-in-logrono-by- abalossentkiewicz-arquitectos/ Figure 4-122 https://inhabitat.com/logrono-high-speed-rail-station-is-a-combo-transportation-hub- and-public-park-in-spain/ Figure 4-123 https://www.archdaily.cn/cn/769239/casa-porthuo-che-zhan-arep Figure 4-124 https://www.archdaily.cn/cn/769239/casa-porthuo-che-zhan-arep Figure 4-125 https://www.archdaily.cn/cn/769239/casa-porthuo-che-zhan-arep Figure 4-126 https://www.archdaily.cn/cn/769239/casa-porthuo-che-zhan-arep Figure 4-127 https://archello.com/project/casa-port-railway-station Figure 4-128 https://www.archdaily.cn/cn/769239/casa-porthuo-che-zhan-arep Figure 4-129 https://www.archdaily.cn/cn/769239/casa-porthuo-che-zhan-arep Figure 4-130 https://www.archdaily.cn/cn/769239/casa-porthuo-che-zhan-arep

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Figure 4-131 https://www.archdaily.com/928065/kenitra-train-station-silvio-dascia- architecture?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 4-132 https://www.archdaily.com/928065/kenitra-train-station-silvio-dascia- architecture?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 4-133 https://www.archdaily.com/928065/kenitra-train-station-silvio-dascia- architecture?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 4-134 https://www.archdaily.com/928065/kenitra-train-station-silvio-dascia- architecture?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 4-135 https://www.archdaily.com/928065/kenitra-train-station-silvio-dascia- architecture?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 4-136 https://www.archdaily.com/928065/kenitra-train-station-silvio-dascia- architecture?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects Figure 5-1 Drawn by author Figure 5-2 Drawn by author Figure 5-3 From Shanghai Chongming Government Figure 5-4 From Atelier L plus Figure 5-5 From Shanghai Chongming Government Figure 5-6 From Shanghai Chongming Government Figure 5-7 Drawn by author Figure 5-8 Drawn by author Figure 5-9 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E5%B4%87%E6%98%8E%E5%B2%9B/586417?fr=aladd in Figure 5-10 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E5%B4%87%E6%98%8E%E5%B2%9B/586417?fr=alad din Figure 5-11 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E5%B4%87%E6%98%8E%E5%B2%9B/586417?fr=alad din Figure 5-12 Drawn by author from Google map Figure 5-13 From Shanghai Chongming Government Figure 5-14 From Shanghai Chongming Government Figure 5-15 From Shanghai Chongming Government Figure 5-16 From Shanghai Chongming Government Figure 5-17 Drawn by author Figure 5-18 https://sh.focus.cn/zixun/d09f9bb3f859b3dc.html Figure 5-19 https://www.163.com/dy/article/CG8GPTRK0521DTBI.html Figure 5-20 Gu, Yunping. Research on Traditional Architecture of Chongming Island. Architecture and culture, 2020. Figure 5-21 www.baidu.com Figure 5-22 Drawn by author from Meteonorm Figure 5-23 Drawn by author from Meteonorm Figure 5-24~5-94 Drawn by author

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