Radio Pulsar Navigation

Home , Celestial navigation, Starlight

arXiv:0812.2635v3 [astro-ph] 4 Feb 2011 h usrnvgto a ietecontinu- the give So can technology. navigation today’s pulsar minutes the the 36 on in some based pulsar observe which radio antenna of meters sources 2 strong a 5 use is that will (signal-to-noise we ) profile that stability show the analysis planet have Our the of lunar. the land the the space, or and the ship the include airborne, which pro- design basically and cess analysis different mission the give navigation then pulsar, radio navigation use nav- integrated which pulsar the discuss radio and use igation analy- that and we process instrument signal Now exist the the of origin. sensitivity the inertial re- sis an au- with to could position spect spacecraft its pro- the determine It that tonomously way refraction. Pro- the starlight Test vide Space use the that under gram pulsar use Crab which the tested is (XNAV) Verification position Autonomous and Navigation X-ray The Abstract mail: As hn.Tecneto hspprhv ap- have paper this exploration, of patent. space content the The deep plied and China. lunar NAOs, of center cation ∗ † Ji nYna srnmclOsraoy E- Observatory, Astronomical YunNan in is DJ aucitrcie ;rvsd—. revised —; received Manuscript [email protected] usrNvgto nteSlrSystem Solar the in Navigation Pulsar n cetfi n appli- and Scientific and , coe 9 2018 29, October in Dong, Jiang 1 ld ae lc,qarn etn (1731, Sextant in- quadrant which clock, invented water be clude century), technique 17th new century early many 15th the into early continuing (the and Exploration of Age times. that the in assuming clear guides was stars, sky celestial of moon, as principle the planets base and used The is navigation night. celestial the in home back to and hunting an- include the which activity from cient origin history use celestial The use all navigation road. they of the Viking, discovered in or navigation be ZhengHe celestial first by it 1421 if in even Hemi- 1492, Western in the the sphere of in continents awareness navigation American Columbus celestial Christopher of is success gigantic The Introduction 1 al. et BeiDou and include Galileo which GRONSS, (GNSS) GPS, Naviga- System Global Satellite to tion dependence less the can abolish also It or sensor. star pul- traditional include and sys- sar that we solar navigation celestial the means use in that tem successfully space, fly freedom deep can in position ous ihtepro fteAeo icvr or Discovery of Age the of period the With ∗† John Hadley), Chronometer (1761, John Har- navigation aid that uses the computing and rison), the Sumner Line or line of position motion sensors to continuously track the posi- (1837, Thomas Hubbard Sumner), the In- tion, orientation, and velocity (direction and tercept Method or Marcq St Hilaire method speed of movement) of a moving object with- (1875, Marcq St Hilaire) et al. The Sum- out the need for external references. The gy- ner Line and Marcq St Hilaire method con- roscopic compass (or gyro compass) was in- struct the foundation of modern nautical nav- troduced in 1907. In 1942, the first INS be igation. The lighthouse are used to mark applied in V2 missile, then it be used in aero- dangerous coastlines, hazardous shoals and nautics, nautical and space widely. reefs, safe entries to harbors and can also assist in aerial navigation. For the physics and chemistry development, Gustaf Dalén in When GPS and INS is still not ripe, Ce- recognition of his remarkable invention of au- lestial Navigation System (CNS) be spread tomatic valves designed to be used in combi- to aeronautics by US (B-52, B-1B, B-2A, C- nation with gas accumulators in lighthouses 141A, SR-71, F22 et al.) and Soviet (TU- and light-buoys (the noble prize in 1912). 16, TU-95, TU-160 et al.) (Pappalardi et al., After Guglielmo Marconi achieve the radio 2001; AnGuo, 2007). Then the star tracker communication in 1895, navigation that use (i.e. track one star or planet or angle be- radio as an aid has been practiced in Ger- tween it) (McCanless, 1963) be used to de- many since 1907. Scheller invent the com- termine the attitude of the spacecraft in help plimentary dot-dash guiding path, which can orient the Apollo spacecraft enroute to and be seen as a ‘landmark’ for several decades from the Moon. Now the advanced star sen- of navigational aids. The first practical VHF sor (i.e. sense many star simultaneous) has radar system be installed on French ship in been developed for the application of optical 1935. Radio navigation grow fast for the de- CCD technique (Kennel, Havstad and Hood, fense technique need in the World War II, 1992). the LOng RAnge Navigation (Loran) system is invented. In 19 century, it is proposed that use artificial stellar navigation. Until 1960, Although GPS and INS almost can finish the first satellite navigation system, Transit, any job in this planet now, someone still think is first successfully tested, used by the United celestial navigation is important for it can be States Navy. Then it evolve to Global Posi- used independently of ground aids and has tioning System (GPS). The soviet also build global coverage, it cannot be jammed (ex- the similar system - GLONASS for the same cept by clouds) and does not give off any sig- reason. Now the Global Navigation Satellite nals that could be detected by an the others. system (GNSS) in the realism or dreams still The traditional maritime state which include have BeiDou, GALILEO et al. US, Russia, UK and French, all spend many An Inertial Navigation System (INS) is a money in CNS for its unique advantage.

2 2 X-ray Pulsar-based (Hanson, 1996). Then in the USA Exper- Navigation System in iment on the ARGOS, the X-ray Pulsar- based Navigation System (XPNAVS) be first Spacecraft tested which use the Crab pulsar between Feb 1999 and Nov 2000. In fact, USA experi- After radio pulsar be discovered by Bell, J. ment is Not Real X-ray pulsar-based navi- and Hewish, A. in 1967, Downs, G. S. give gation experiment for it is based on occul- the advice that use radio pulsars for inter- tation method that depend on the earth at- planetary navigation in 1974 (Downs, 1974). mospheric models (Wood et al., 2002). Dr But in that time, both the radio and opti- Sheikh, S. I. et al. construct the X-ray cal signatures from pulsars have limitations pulsar-based autonomous navigation theory that reduce their effectiveness for spacecraft which based on modern spacecraft navigation navigation. At the radio frequencies that pul- technique that include Kalman filter et al. sars emit (from 100 MHz to a few GHz) and (Sheikh, 2005). In the same time, Woodfork, with their faint emissions, radio-based sys- D. W. show that the accurate of the position tems would require large antennas (on the and the clock will be improved if using pul- order of 25 M in diameter or larger) to de- sars to aid in a constellation Signal-In-Space tect sources, which would be impractical for Range Error (SISRE) reduction (Woodfork, most spacecraft. Also, neighboring celestial 2005). objects including the sun, moon, Jupiter, and In XPNAVS, the stability of pulsar as close stars, as well as distance objects such one beacon and kalman filter to represent as radio galaxies, quasars, and the galac- the vehicle state lay the foundation for tic diffuse emissions, are broadband radio the navigation. Figure. 1 show the prin- sources that could obscure weak pulsar sig- ciple of Sheikh’s pulsar navigation theory. nals (Ray, Wood and Phlips, 2006; Sheikh, Pulsar as the nature lighthouse provide a 2005; Sheikh et al., 2006). So Chester, continuous periodic signal. Then all signal T. J. and Butman, S. A. describe space- be normalizing to solar system barycenter craft navigation using X-ray pulsars in 1981 coordinates (SSBC). Though calculate the (Chester and Butman, 1981). Dr Wood, K. phase difference of pulsar’s times-of-arrival S. design the NRL-801 Unconventional Stel- (TOA), that observed by spacecraft, we lar Aspect Experiment (USA) experiment, will have position and velocity by a vector give strategies for using information gathered computing in SSBC (Sheikh and Pines, by X-ray detectors to determine attitude and 2006; Golshan and Sheikh, 2007; position that use occultation method of tra- Sheikh, Ray, Weiner, Wolff and Wood, ditional celestial navigation, and timekeep- 2007; Sheikh, Golshan and Pines, 2007; ing (Wood, 1993). Dr Hanson, J. E. give Sala et al., 2004). The satellite’s amplitude the plan of attitude determination algorithm will gain by the same way of star sensor and timekeeping that use phase-locked loop (Ray, Wood and Phlips, 2006; Sheikh et al.,

3 2006). that use the dynamic state estimate the system. (Though Thiele, T. N. and Swerling, 2.1 Pulsar Clock for Timing P. developed a similar algorithm earlier, that is Kalman suggest the applicability In 1971, Reichley, et al. de- of his ideas to the problem of trajectory scribed using radio pulsars as clocks estimation for the Apollo program, leading (Reichley, Downs and Morris, 1971). With to its incorporation in the Apollo navigation researching in-depth, radio astronomer computer.) Kalman filter is an important build a stand template to pulsar timing topic in control theory and control systems (Downs, 1981; Backer and Hellings, 1986). engineering, and an important method of The character of pulsar spin be under- least-squares estimation (Sorenson, 1970). stood more deeply with the timing time It is used in a wide range of engineering increase. Pulsar especially millisecond applications which include radar tracking, pulsars (MSP) be thought the natures most control system, communication, guiding and stable clock (Taylor, 1991). The data show navigation, computer vision, prediction in some pulsar stability than atomic clock weather and economy, biomedicine, robot in the timescale greater than one year et al. In XPNAVS, that is significant like (Matsakis, Taylor and Eubanks, 1997). So it in INS and the traditional CNS (i.e. star pulsar time not only is one independent sensor). We can use navigation kalman filter clock to spacecraft (Hanson, 1996) but also measure pulsar range and phase, space- even can inject to GPS in a long term craft clock, then compare with the signal (Woodfork, 2005). But currently utilized which come from pulsar, so we will have methods of timing pulse have errors on the position and velocity (Sheikh and Pines, order of hundreds of nanoseconds based upon 2006; Golshan and Sheikh, 2007; their implementation simplifications, which Sheikh, Ray, Weiner, Wolff and Wood, should be addressed if improved accuracies 2007; Sheikh, Golshan and Pines, 2007; are required (Sheikh, Hellings and Matzner, Sala et al., 2004). 2007).

2.2 Kalman filter for Position In the future XPNAVS, the system noise and Velocity can not be ignore which origin from all signal processing (Hanson et al., 2008). Pulsar’s The kalman filter is an efficient recursive proper motion must be accurate measure- linear filter that estimates the state of ment for we must know the beacon position a dynamic system from a series of noisy first (McGary et al., 2001; Chatterjee et al., measurements (Kalman, 1960). It can 2004). That must be point which use one predict the motion of anything for it is pulsar also can finish XPNAVS if integrate recursive, even the signal have noise, for with INS or star sensor.

4 3 Navigation use Radio Lyne and Graham-Smith, 2006): Pulsar σβ Tsys W 1/2 Slim = 1/2 ( ) , (1) (BNpτobs) G P − W When Downs, G. S. advise that use radio pulsars for interplanetary navigation in 1974, the here σ is a loss factor, taken to be 1.5 (One- antenna and electronic technique can not fin- bit sampling at the Nyquist rate introduces a ish this job and pulsar signal process has been loss of q2/π relative to a fully sampled signal. understood roughly (Lorimer and Kramer, The principal remaining loss results from the 2005; Lyne and Graham-Smith, 2006). In non-rectangular bandpass of the channel fil- 1988, Wallace, K. has planned use of radio ters.), β is the detection signal-to-noise ratio stars that include pulsar for all weather nav- threshold, taken to be 5.0, B is the receiver igation (Wallace, 1988). But it is still im- bandwidth in Hz, Np is the number of polar- possible job on technology in that time. In izations, τobs is the time per observation in fact, just radiometric sextant is widely ap- seconds, P is pulsar period, W is pulse width plied on submarine and aircraft carrier et al. (W/P ≃ 0.1), Tsys is the system tempera- in US and Soviet, for example the Cod Eye ture, G is the telescope gain, G = Ae/(2kB), (Polmar and Noot, 1991). here Ae the effective area of a telescope, kB is Now we think the exist instrument Boltzmann’s constant. can achieve radio pulsar navigation al- From the above described, we can use low- though micro-strip antennas can not noise receivers, a relatively wide bandwidth do it (Sala et al., 2004). The reason and long observation times to observed pulsar that is the technology development although it is relatively weak radio sources and pulsar signal process be cognized if there are not a large radio telescope. Us- more deeply (Lorimer and Kramer, ing the equation 1, we use 2 M antenna (If 2005; Lyne and Graham-Smith, 2006; the telescope efficiency is 0.4, Ae = 0.4 × Hankins and Rickett, 1975; Rickett, 1990). π(2/2)2 ≃ 1.256 m2, G ≃ 4.55×10−4 KJy−1), Tsys is 40 K, 28 GHz bandwidth (2 G - 30 G), N is 2, τ is 36 min, so we have 3.1 Pulsar signal process in as- p obs Slim ≃ 0.0803 Jy = 80.3 mJy. The table tronomy Vs The requires of 1 is the list of the strong radio pulsar source, engineer project Vs The re- it show that we can observed those pulsars liable of technique which use 2 meter antenna in 36 minutes. If we set τobs is 4 min, 4 M antenna, we have The sensitivity of radio pulsar obser- Slim ≃ 60.3 mJy. vation system (i.e. the raw limiting The above formula use Jy as unit. The flux density) is given by the radiome- Jansky (Jy) is a measure of spectral power ter equation (Lorimer and Kramer, 2005; flux density - the amount of RF energy per

5 unit time per unit area per unit bandwidth, lar medium. The dispersion delay across a 1 Jy ≡ 10−26 W/m2/Hz. The jansky is bandwidth of ∆ν centred at a frequency ν is not used outside of radio astronomy. It − τ =8.30 × 103 DM ∆ν ν 3 s, (2) is not a practical unit for measuring com- DM munications signals, the magnitude is much where the dispersion measure, DM, is in too small, and is a linear unit, Very few units of cm−3pc and the frequencies are in RF engineers outside of radio astronomy will MHz. To retain sensitivity, especially for know what a Jy is. Because of wide dy- short-period, high-dispersion pulsars, the ob- namic range encountered the most radio sys- serving bandwidth must be sub-divided into tems, the power is usually expressed in log- many channels to use to incoherent dedis- arithmic units of watts (dBW) or milliwatts persion or achieve the coherent dedisper- (dBm): dBW ≡ 10log10Powerwatts, dBm ≡ sion (Hankins and Rickett, 1975). Now a 10log10Powermilliwatts. While not comprised filterbank system have been developed to of the same units, we can make some reason- Digital Filterbank (DFB) which base field- able assumptions to compare a Jy to dBm. programmable gate array (FPGA). The co- Assumptions bandwidth is 28 GHz (2 G - herent system also enter a new times with 30 G), 14 GHz frequency (λ0 = 0.022 m), multi-core and multi-PC cluster development parabolic receive antenna, antenna collecting and the price of PC decrease. In recently, the area = π × r2 = 3.14 × (2/2)2 = 3.14 m2. advantage of graphics processing unit (GPU) How much is one Jy worth in dBm ? PmW = and FPGA in computing be attracted, if we 10−26 W/m2/Hz × 28, 000, 000, 000 Hz × can fuse Multi-core CPU, GPU and FPGA, 3.14 m2 × 1000 mW/W=8.82 × 10−13 mW, construct one computing server and use the −13 PdBm = 10log(8.82 × 10 mW) = different advantage of it, that will easily finish −120.5453 dBm. Considering the parabolic many scientific computation which include antenna as a circular aperture gives the fol- coherent dedispersion. lowing approximation for the maximum gain: In XPNAVS, they use the TOA Mea- 2 2 GdBi ≃ 10log((9.87 × D )/λ0. in this form, G surements of pulsar gain the position is power gain over isotropic D is reflector di- (Sheikh and Pines, 2006). In radio wave- ameter in same units as wavelength, λ0 is the band, can we not only use the TOA but also center of wavelength. For 2 M diameter and use the single pulse of pulsar if the antenna is λ0 = 0.022 m, GdBi = 49.1153. So 1 Jy in 2 enough big, for example, in SIGINT (SIGnals M antenna is −71.43 dBm. May be the sig- INTelligence) satellite. Navigation using pul- nal intensity is small for RF engineers, but sar single pulse different with XPNAVS use for pulsar which like the periodic Gaussian the TOA, that will have more precision than signal, we can fold it in the integrate time to use the TOA for it direct access to phase in- increase the pulsar singal sensitivity. formation that less the error in the measuring Pulsar signal suffer dispersion due to the process. Using the above equation 1, we use presence of charged particles in the interstel- 50 M antenna (If the telescope efficiency is

6 2 2 0.35, Ae = 0.35 × π(50/2) ≃ 686.875 m , steadiness. Glitch can use wavelet to de- −1 −1 G ≃ 2.489 × 10 KJy ), Tsys is 40 K, 28 tect in time (Dong, 2009 in prepared) when GHz bandwidth (2 G - 30 G), Np is 2, τobs is 1 use several strong radio pulsar in short time ms, so we have Slim ≃ 0.0537 Jy = 53.7 mJy. mission. So we can rule out the interference The result show that we can observe the sin- source, whether using single pulse or TOA. gle pulse of pulsar in the table 1 that use 50 The navigation system must leave a copy of M antenna. raw data to astronomer for the best filter is In radio pulsar, the strong flux density construct a good pulsar noise model by it. pulsar usually is young pulsar, for example Vela et al., but it take place glitch that is 3.2 Pulsar Tracker spin faster than past, that is abnormal phe- nomenon in pulsar timing model, then it be- The parabolic dish usually be used in radio come the biggest noise source. MSP is a astronomy. But the conventional telescope kind of stability pulsar, but it often is weakly. will bring the control problem in spacecraft Many MSP is in binary system, the signal be because the big dish is so weight. Figure. 2 is modulated by orbit effect. And many MSP a radio telescope in Nasu Pulsar Observatory in globe cluster, its position unstable for the which the same like Arecibo radio telescope complex gravitational potential. in single dish (Takeuchi et al., 2005). It will Navigation of use pulsar just for a con- less the difficult of control if use it in vehicle. tinuous pulse signal during the mission time So we can use this telescope achieve pulsar which during tens of minutes to several years. tracker like star tracker easily. When we penetrate the system of pulsar navigation as one systems engineering, we think 3.3 Pulsar Sensor navigation system use radio pulsar is feasi- ble absolutely. Besides increasing the obser- The phased array antenna or radar have seen vation times et al., we think some modern in recent years breakthroughs that lead to digital signal processing (DSP) technique can capabilities not possible only a few years apply to pulsar signal navigation which in- ago. This is exemplified by the devel- clude signal enhancement, signal reconstruct opment of GaAs integrated microwave cir- and singularity detection et al. The hypoth- cuits called monolithic microwave integrated esis of pulsar signal is Gaussian be used in circuits (MMIC) which makes it possible study pulsar emission geometry although it to build active electronically scanned ar- do not be validated directly by observation rays (AESAs) having lighter weight, smaller (Wu et al., 1998). In navigation, we just need volume, higher reliability and lower cost the information from phase, so we can mag- (Brookner, 2007). Figure. 3 is AESAs of nify the weak pulsar signal through plus a F22 which namely AN/APG-77 and built by Gaussian signal or normalizing it to a Gaus- Northrop Grumman. This phased array easy sian signal on the premise of keep period achieve pulsar sensor (i.e. observe several

7 pulsar simultaneous) when it work in passive searches at other wavelengths (non-radio) is mode (Malas, 1997). The phased array feed that in many cases, less than one photon per also can apply in pulsar sensor when use one pulse period is observed. For example the av- dish. erage separation between photons from the Crab when observed by EGRET is 10 minutes, which corresponds to about 18000 pulse 3.4 Pulsar Observation in Ra- periods (Bell, 1998). It is the reason that pul- dio and X-Ray sar timing and search in radio waveband in usual. So pulsar timing in radio have the sec- When measuring the arrival times of pulsar, ond advantage for have pulsar ephemerides the TOA of a fiducial point in the rotational that need long time timing observation. Pul- phase of a pulsar is the fundamental quan- sar timing in X-ray just about 15 years from tity which must be determined. This is nor- RXTE be launched (Rots, Jahoda and Lyne, mally done by comparison with a standard 2004). Pulsar timing in radio have over 40 pulse profile s(t). The observed pulse profile years (Hobbs, Lyne and Kramer, 2010). If p(t) can be expressed in terms of the standard we want to use radio pulsar ephemerides profile by p(t)= a+bs(t−φ)+g(t) where a is a in X-ray, we must study the phase differ- DC offset, b is a scale factor, φ is a phase shift ence in X-ray and radio use some years and g(t) represents noise. For the compari- observation (Rots, Jahoda and Lyne, 2004; son, full use of the available signal to noise is Livingstone et al., 2009). most easily achieved by cross-correlating the The frame of reference is the foundation of observed and standard profiles in the Fourier measure the position, orientation, and other domain. To do this a very accurate time stan- properties of objects in it. Now astronomer dard is required and is usually obtained from have built three reference frame in optic, ra- a local hydrogen maser referenced to a stan- dio and infrared that include FK5 and ICRF2 dard bank of caesium clocks in the ground et al., still do not build it in X-ray band radio observation (Bell, 1998). But, it is not (Johnston and de Vegt, 1999). So radio pul- always possible to have a sufficiently accurate sar will direct link to the reference frame in clock at the telescope, requiring regular de- navigation. termination of clock offsets. For example, the absolute time of RXTEs clock is sufficiently accurate to allow this phase of the main X- 3.5 Integrated Navigation with ray pulse to be compared directly with the Pulsar radio profile (Rots, Jahoda and Lyne, 2004). The reason that is atomic clock so bigger that Integrated navigation with pulsar in CNS, can not be installed in satellite. INS or GNSS, is realistic path in the fu- A fundamental reason for the provision ture mission. It will increase the reliability of contemporary ephemerides for timing and and redundancy of navigation or guiding sys-

8 tem (GuoLiang and Jing, 2008). The multi- timing in the same time which compare with waveband pulsar navigation also is interested, X-ray astronomy for the different detection for instance, use 1 meter optical telescope method. For some satellites in orbit which (Oosterbroek et al., 2008) or 1.2 meter in- include GPS, the Tracking and Data Relay frared telescope (Ransom et al., 1994) can Satellite System (TDRSS) et al., that need gain the crab pulsar profile, those observation precise time, radio tracker like Figure. 2 is system also easily load in one truck. In inte- a good choice for it will have a best clock in grated navigation, system analysis and mod- long term. SIGINT (SIGnals INTelligence) eling, system state estimation, filter design, satellite is the biggest spaceborne antenna for information synchronization and system fault intelligence-gathering by interception of sig- tolerance filter design all is important. nals, whether between people (i.e., COMINT or communications intelligence) or between machines (i.e., ELINT or electronic intelli- 4 Pulsar Navigation in gence), or mixtures of the two. Its diame- the Solar System ter even has 150 meters. Radio pulsar signal must be strong noise for it like Crab pulsar to the Ballistic Early Warning Site (BMEWS) of Like giving different produce in differ- US Air Force (Schisler, 2008). For some air- ent place by navigation systems division borne vehicle (F22, J20, B2 et al.) and sub- of Northrop Grumman Corporation, pulsar orbit spaceship (X37, X51 et al.), pulsar sen- navigation also need use different system sor like AN/APG-77 of F22 is best choice for in each mission (Graven et al., 2007, 2008; its mission need change attitude frequently. Ray et al., 2008). The Snark (SSM-A-3/B-62/SM-62, Northrop) is the only intercontinental 4.1 In the space based and the surface-to-surface cruise missile (ICCMs) airborne ever deployed by the US Air Force, but is operational for only a very short time In deep space explore, X-ray pulsar tracker because it was already made obsolete by suitable for most small spacecraft in usually the new Intercontinental Ballistic Mis- for it even can use a 30 cm detector have sile (ICBMs). It first achieve CNS (star the crab pulsar profile. But it can not fin- tracker) in astronautical. P-29 (i.e. SS-N-18, ish pulsar sensor mission now. We can have Stingray) is submarine-launched ballistic spacecraft attitude and position et al. from missile which first achieve one integrated it. In International Space Station (ISS) or navigation system between INS and CNS Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) (star sensor), and it first be launched many et al., the biggest vehicle, the dish like Fig- simultaneous for have this integrated navi- ure. 2 is well in mission time. In radio astron- gation system. The Snack and the Stingray omy, we will have more accurate profile and both the large vehicle which easily equip

9 pulsar tracker or sensor, and it can be trol. In project 667, missile tube about 2 me- used in reconstruct the solar system which ter, it can observe pulsar signal underwater include dig well in Mars for water et al. if less one missile and built one 2 meter optic (McFadden, Weissman and Johnson, 2007). or infrared telescope which the same like solar With the distance increase, the radiometric tower. Those technique carry out will beneﬁt tracking of deep space network (DSN) will to launch one submarine to the four gas gi- decrease in accuracy (Thornton and Border, ants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) 2005), and it can’t work when spacecraft in for understand hydro-geology and interiors the other side of sun. But pulsar can’t be et al. (McFadden, Weissman and Johnson, eﬀected in that place. 2007).

4.2 At the shipboard and sub- 4.3 On the land of planet and marine lunar

The big ship all have the radar or antenna In the navigation system, the reliability and for communication et al. (Brookner, 2007). redundancy is very important. GPS is a Some special shipfor example Yuan Wang system that spend a lot of money and high tracking ship can use to test pulsar navi- maintenance costs. So Ai GuoXiang et al. gation in nautical. The interesting thing is develop Chinese Area Positioning System whether it can be used in submarine for pul- (CAPS) that using the communication satel- sar can be observed in 12.6 MHz (Bruck, lite (Ai et al., 2008) and Wang AnGuo made 1987). Project 667 submarines (NATO re- the navigation theory that based on the mea- porting name Delta) are Soviet-built strate- surement of radio signal that from celestial gic nuclear missile submarines which have and the carrier signal of man-made objects two VLF/ELF communication buoys. Navi- (AnGuo, 2007). The above system just can gation systems include SATNAV, SINS, Cod application in the earth, can not be used in Eye (radiometric sextant), Pert Spring SAT- the other planet. Even if in the earth, the COM (Polmar and Noot, 1991). It usually phased array radar can easily moved, and the use the enormous antenna net (array under- 2 meters radio telescope or 1.5 meters opti- water) to realize VLF/ELF communication, cal or infrared telescope can load in one truck may be it can receive pulsar signal after a easily. The same technique can use in lunar coherent dedispersion. rover, Mars rover and rover in the others ter- The higher frequency waves (that is, the restrials, Mercury and Venus. The virtue is shorter the wavelength), the more easily be obvious, when the rover in the back of the absorbed by water. So radio signal reach others planet or lunar, DSN can not work deeper than optic, but the big antenna net and human can not built GNSS for the other is more diﬃculty than optic telescope in con- planet in long term. So the radio pulsar nav-

10 igation is one and only method at any place a serious obstacle to the application of skills. of the other planet surface day and night in The round-the-clock work is a basic require- the future explore. ment by modern navigation system. The use of celestial bodies to achieve the astronomical radio navigation can be out of ad- 5 Pulsar Navigation in verse weather conditions and restrictions on day and night light. As a result, the only the Human evolution to way of celestial navigation is radio technol- the Type II of Karda- ogy to accomplish the all-weather navigation. Traditional the equipment of radio celestial shev civilizations navigation is radio sextant, it only receive a small number of radio signal, thus difficult to Now Conventional Inertial Reference System achieve continuous navigation, and just have (CIRS) is defined in the help of the Inter- the low navigation accuracy, and the equip- national Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF) ment size is very big. So it difficult to ap- that is a quasi-inertial reference frame cen- plication and development. XNAV is devel- tered at the barycenter of the solar system, oped by Sheikh et al. in recently, have achieve defined by the measured positions of extra- the preliminary results in X-ray band. Now galactic sources (mainly quasars). So it has the European Space Agency (ESA), Russia, very high accuracy and reliability. It will France and German also have begun research be direct, natural, reliable and accurate, if it. However, these study limited to X-ray the navigation system be built on the ce- band, only can be used in spacecraft navi- lestial reference system. Therefor, CNS has gation. From the above analysis, the small some advantages, first it is passive measure- antenna (even two meters) or the small opti- ment in autonomous navigation, second it has cal or infrared telescope (even one meter), can anti-interference ability and is highly reliable, receive the stable pulsar signal, which means third it has wide scope of application and that in radio, optical and infrared bands also the big space of the development, finally it can achieve the pulsar navigation. This work has simple low-cost equipment and facilitate expanded the application range of pulsar nav- the application and popularization (AnGuo, igation, made it can use in the aerospace, avi- 2007). ation, maritime, ground and underwater. So Traditional celestial navigation can be di- pulsar navigation avoid the disadvantage of vided into optical stars navigation and radio the traditional radio celestial navigation tech- stars navigation. In rainy, the conventional nology. optical instruments can not observing the ce- In recently, Coll, B. and Tarantola, A. lestial bodies, the use of navigation time is give the analysis of pulsar navigation in the limited. So optical celestial navigation diffi- Milky Way that base general relativity theory cult to achieve all-weather work, has always (Coll and Tarantola, 2009). If we can under-

11 stand the effect of pulsar emission area, may aerospace industry for instance SpaceX and be we can use it navigation in the Milky way. SpaceDev et al., need one low cost and re- Soviet astronomer Kardashev, N. S. pro- liable navigation system. Pulsar navigation pose a scheme for classifying advanced tech- give a path which do not depend on DSN, nological civilizations. He identified three so it less huge cost in the outer space and possible types and distinguished between the interplanetary navigation. It make the them in terms of the power they could muster spacecraft of the private company not only for the purposes of interstellar communica- enter the outer space but also voyage to the tions. A Type I civilization would be able other planet. After some pioneer explore, if to marshal energy resources for communica- we can find one mode to gain profit, may tions on a planet-wide scale, equivalent to be tour or dig ore that include He3 in lu- the entire present power consumption of the nar and diamonds in Uranus and Neptune human race, or about 1016 watts. A Type (Knudson, Desjarlais and Dolan, 2008), the II civilization would surpass this by a factor new manufacturing about space travel will of approximately ten billion, making avail- lead people into a new economic era, and the able 1026 watts, by exploiting the total en- real Second Age of Discovery or Age of Ex- ergy output of its central star. Finally, a ploration will begun. That is extraordinary Type III civilization would have evolved far in the human evolution to type II of Karda- enough to tap the energy resources of an en- shev civilizations. tire galaxy. This would give a further increase by at least a factor of 10 billion to about 1036 watts (Kardashev, 1964). Carl Sagan esti- Acknowledgements mate that, on this more discriminating scale, the human race would presently qualify as The author thank DARPA make someone in- roughly a Type 0.7. In the Age of Discovery, vent Internet and open it for public. that is CNS make human freely voyage in the sea. So it make human civilization increase to higher type. References Now the Second Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration in the solar system is begin- Ai, G.X., H.L. Shi, H.T. Wu, Y.H. Yan, Y.J. ning, pulsar as nature beacon in the Milky Bian, Y.H. Hu, Z.G. Li, J. Guo and X.D. Way will make human freely fly in the space Cai. 2008. “A Positioning System based on of solar system. Recently, the first Falcon Communication Satellites and the Chinese 9 flight is successfully launched on June 4, Area Positioning System (CAPS).” Chin. 2010 with a successful orbital insertion. It is a J. Astron. Astrophys 8(6):611–630. spaceflight launch system that uses rocket en- gines designed and manufactured by SpaceX AnGuo, Wang. 2007. “Modern Celestial Nav- company. Many private company of the igation and the Key Techniques.” Acta

12 Electronica Sinica(Chinese) 35(12):2347– Downs, G.S. 1974. “Interplanetary naviga- 2353. tion using pulsating radio sources.”.

Backer, D. C. and R. W. Hellings. 1986. “Pul- Golshan, A.R. and S.I. Sheikh. 2007. On sar timing and general relativity.” ARA&A Pulse Phase Estimation and Tracking of 24:537–575. Variable Celestial X-Ray Sources. In Pro- ceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Bell, J. F. 1998. “Radio pulsar timing.” Ad- Institute of Navigation. pp. 413–422. vances in Space Research 21:137–147. Graven, P., J. Collins, S. Sheikh, J. Han- son, P. Ray and K. Wood. 2008. XNAV Brookner, E. 2007. Phased-Array and Radar for Deep Space Navigation. In 31st An- Breakthroughs. In Proc. IEEE Radar Con- nual AAS Guidance and Control Confer- ference. pp. 37–42. ence. pp. 08–054. Bruck, Y. M. 1987. “Decametric emission Graven, P., J. Collins, S. Sheikh and J.E. by pulsars.” Australian Journal of Physics Hanson. 2007. XNAV Beyond the Moon. 40:861–870. In Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Institute of Navigation. pp. 423–431. Chatterjee, S., J. M. Cordes, W. H. T. Vlem- mings, Z. Arzoumanian, W. M. Goss and GuoLiang, Zhang and Zeng Jing. 2008. Inte- T. J. W. Lazio. 2004. “Pulsar Parallaxes at grated Navigation principles and technolo- 5 GHz with the Very Long Baseline Array.” gies. 1st ed. Xi’an, China: Xi’an JiaoTong ApJ 604:339–345. University Press (Chinese). in press.

Chester, T.J. and S.A. Butman. 1981. “Nav- Hankins, T. H. and B. J. Rickett. 1975. “Pul- igation Using X-Ray Pulsars.”. sar signal processing.” Methods in Compu- tational Physics 14:55–129. Coll, B. and A. Tarantola. 2009. “Using Hanson, J. E. 1996. “Principles of X-ray Nav- pulsars to deﬁne space-time coordinates.” igation.”. ArXiv e-prints . Hanson, J., S. Sheikh, P. Graven and J. Dong, Jiang. 2009 in prepared. “Wavelet Collins. 2008. Noise analysis for X-ray nav- analysis apply in nostationary pulsar :Gi- igation systems. In Position, Location and ant pulse, nulling, and glitch.” XXX X:–. Navigation Symposium, 2008 IEEE/ION. in prepared. pp. 704–713. Downs, G. S. 1981. “JPL pulsar timing ob- Hobbs, G., A. G. Lyne and M. Kramer. 2010. servations. I - The VELA pulsar.” ApJ “An analysis of the timing irregularities for 249:687–697. 366 pulsars.” MNRAS 402:1027–1048.

13 Johnston, K. J. and C. de Vegt. 1999. “Ref- Series 3rd ed. Cambridge, U.K.; New York, erence Frames in Astronomy.” ARA&A U.S.A: Cambridge University Press. in 37:97–125. press.

Kalman, R.E. 1960. “A new approach to Malas, J.A. 1997. F-22 radar development. In linear ﬁltering and prediction problems.” Proc. IEEE 1997 National Aerospace and Journal of Basic Engineering 82(1):35–45. Electronics Conference NAECON 1997. Vol. 2 pp. 831–839 vol.2. Kardashev, N. S. 1964. “Transmission of Information by Extraterrestrial Civiliza- Matsakis, D. N., J. H. Taylor and T. M. Eu- tions.” Soviet Astronomy 8:217–+. banks. 1997. “A statistic for describing pulsar and clock stabilities.” A&A 326:924– Kennel, J. M., S. A. Havstad and D. D. 928. Hood. 1992. Star sensor simulation for astroinertial guidance and navigation. In McCanless, Floyd V. 1963. “A Systems Ap- Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation proach to Star Trackers.” IEEE Trans. Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, ed. Aerosp. Navig. Electron. ANE-10(3):182– S. S. Welch. Vol. 1694 of Society of Photo- 193. Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series pp. 74–84. McFadden, L.A.A., P.R. Weissman and T.V. Johnson. 2007. Encyclopedia of the solar Knudson, M. D., M. P. Desjarlais and D. H. system. Academic Press. Dolan. 2008. “Shock-Wave Exploration of the High-Pressure Phases of Carbon.” Sci- McGary, R. S., W. F. Brisken, A. S. Fruchter, ence 322:1822–. W. M. Goss and S. E. Thorsett. 2001. Livingstone, M. A., S. M. Ransom, F. “Proper-Motion Measurements with the Camilo, V. M. Kaspi, A. G. Lyne, M. VLA. I. Wide-Field Imaging and Pulse- Kramer and I. H. Stairs. 2009. “X-ray and gating Techniques.” AJ 121:1192–1198. Radio Timing of the Pulsar in 3C 58.” ApJ Oosterbroek, T., I. Cognard, A. Golden, P. 706:1163–1173. Verhoeve, D. D. E. Martin, C. Erd, R. Lorimer, D.R. and M. Kramer. 2005. Hand- Schulz, J. A. St¨uwe, A. Stankov and T. book of Pulsar Astronomy. Vol. 4 of Cam- Ho. 2008. “Simultaneous absolute timing of bridge Observing Handbooks for Research the Crab pulsar at radio and optical wave- Astronomers Cambridge, U.K.; New York, lengths.” A&A 488:271–277. U.S.A.: Cambridge University Press. Pappalardi, F., S.J. Dunham, M.E. LeBlang, Lyne, A.G. and F. Graham-Smith. 2006. Pul- T.E. Jones, J. Bangert and G. Ka- sar Astronomy. Cambridge Astrophysics plan. 2001. Alternatives to GPS. In

14 Proc. MTS/IEEE Conference and Exhibi- Schisler, C. 2008. An Independent 1967 Dis- tion OCEANS. Vol. 3 pp. 1452–1459 vol.3. covery of Pulsars. In 40 Years of Pulsars: Millisecond Pulsars, Magnetars and More, Polmar, N. and J. Noot. 1991. Submarines of ed. C. Bassa, Z. Wang, A. Cumming and the Russian and Soviet navies, 1718-1990. V. M. Kaspi. Vol. 983 of American Institute Naval Institute Press. of Physics Conference Series pp. 642–645. Ransom, S. M., G. G. Fazio, S. S. Eikenberry, Sheikh, S. I. 2005. “The use of variable ce- J. Middleditch, J. Kristian, K. Hays and lestial X-ray sources for spacecraft naviga- C. R. Pennypacker. 1994. “High time res- tion.”. olution infrared observations of the Crab Nebula pulsar.” ApJ 431:L43–L46. Sheikh, S.I., A.R. Golshan and D.J. Pines. 2007. Absolute and Relative Position De- Ray, P.S., K.S. Wood and B.F. Phlips. 2006. termination Using Variable Celestial X-ray “Spacecraft Navigation Using X-ray Pul- Sources. In 30th Annual AAS Guidance sars.” Naval Research Laboratory Review and Control Conference. pp. 855–874. Featured Research:95–102. Sheikh, S.I. and D.J. Pines. 2006. “Recur- Ray, P.S., S.I. Sheikh, P.H. Graven, M.T. sive estimation of spacecraft position and Wolff, K.S. Wood and K.C. Gendreau. velocity using x-ray pulsar time of arrival 2008. Deep Space Navigation Using Ce- measurements.” Navigation 53(3):149–166. lestial X-ray Sources. In Institute of Navi- gation National Technical Meeting. pp. 28– Sheikh, S.I., D.J. Pines, K.S. Wood, P.S. 30. Ray and M.N. Lovellette. 2007. “Naviga- tional system and method utilizing sources Reichley, P., G.S. Downs and G. Morris. 1971. of pulsed celestial radiation.”. US Patent “Use of pulsar signals as clocks.”. 7,197,381. Rickett, B. J. 1990. “Radio propagation Sheikh, S.I., D.J. Pines, P.S. Ray, K.S. Wood, through the turbulent interstellar plasma.” M.N. Lovellette and M.T. Wolff. 2006. ARA&A 28:561–605. “Spacecraft Navigation Using X-Ray Pul- Rots, A. H., K. Jahoda and A. G. Lyne. 2004. sars.” Journal of Guidance, Control, and “Absolute Timing of the Crab Pulsar with Dynamics 29(1):49–63. the Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer.” ApJ 605:L129–L132. Sheikh, S.I., P.S. Ray, K. Weiner, M.T. Wolff and K.S. Wood. 2007. Relative Naviga- Sala, J., A. Urruela, X. Villares, R. Estalella tion of Spacecraft Utilizing Bright, Ape- and J.M. Paredes. 2004. “Josep M P. Feasi- riodic Celestial Sources. In Proceedings of bility study for a spacecraft navigation sys- the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Institute of tem relying on pulsar timing information.”. Navigation. pp. 444–453.

15 Sheikh, S.I., R.W. Hellings and R.A. Matzner. 2007. High-Order Pulsar Timing For Navigation. In Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Institute of Naviga- tion. pp. 432–443.

Sorenson, H.W. 1970. “Least-squares estimation: from Gauss to Kalman.” IEEE Spec- trum 7(7):63–68. Figure 1: Takeuchi, H., M. Kuniyoshi, T. Daishido, K. Asuma, N. Matsumura, K. Takefuji, Wood, K. S., J. R. Determan, P. S. Ray, K. Niinuma, H. Ichikawa, R. Okubo, A. M. T. Wolff, S. A. Budzien, M. N. Lovel- Sawano, N. Yoshimura, F. Fujii, K. Mizuno lette and L. Titarchuk. 2002. Using the and Y. Akamine. 2005. “Asymmetric Sub- unconventional stellar aspect (USA) ex- Reflectors for Spherical Antennas and In- periment on ARGOS to determine atmo- terferometric Observations with an FPGA- spheric parameters by x-ray occultation. Based Correlator.” PASJ 57:815–820. In Society of Photo-Optical Instrumenta- tion Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, Taylor, Jr., J. H. 1991. “Millisecond pulsars ed. A. M. Larar & M. G. Mlynczak. Vol. - Nature’s most stable clocks.” IEEE Pro- 4485 of Presented at the Society of Photo- ceedings 79:1054–1062. Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Thornton, C.L. and J.S. Border. 2005. Radio- Conference pp. 258–265. metric tracking techniques for deep-space navigation. Wiley-Interscience. Woodfork, D.W. 2005. “The use of X-ray pulsars for aiding GPS satellite orbit de- Wallace, K. 1988. “Radio stars, what they termination.”. are and the prospects for their use in navigational systems.” Journal of Navigation Wu, X., X. Gao, J. M. Rankin, W. Xu 41:358–373. and V. M. Malofeev. 1998. “Gaussian Wood, K. S. 1993. Navigation studies utiliz- Component Decomposition and the Five- ing the NRL-801 experiment and the AR- Component Profile of Pulsar 1451-68.” AJ GOS satellite. In Society of Photo-Optical 116:1984–1991. Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Confer- Fig. 1. A schematic view of the ence Series, ed. B. J. Horais. Vol. 1940 subject system for navigation utiliz- of Society of Photo-Optical Instrumenta- ing sources of pulsed celestial radiation tion Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series (Sheikh, Pines, Wood, Ray and Lovellette, pp. 105–116. 2007).

16 Table 1: The strong sources of radio pulsar.

Name Period DM W50 S400/S1400 relation with Pulsar (S) (cm−3pc) (ms) (mJy) Glich(G) J0332+5434 0.71452 26.833 6.6 1500/203 J0953+0755 0.25306 2.958 9.5 400/84 J0747−4715 0.00576 2.64476 0.969 550/142 J0738−4042 0.37492 160.8 29 190/80 J0835−4510 0.08933 67.99 2.1 5000/100 G J1456−6843 0.26338 8.6 12.5 350/80 G J1644−4559 0.45506 478.8 8.2 375/310 G

The strong source in radio pulsar, all can use to navigation when aovid glitch noise. 1 Jy ≡ 10−26 W/m2/Hz.

Figure 3:

Fig. 2. Photograph of the array at Nasu Radio Interferometer. Eight equally spaced, 20 m diameter, fixed spherical antennas are shown in this figure. Fig. 3. The AN/APG-77 is a multi-function radar installed on the F-22 Raptor fighter aircraft. The radar is built by Northrop Figure 2: Grumman. The figure come from wiki: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AN/APG-77, accessed Nov 30 2008