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Environmental Impact Assessment of Electromagnetic Techniques Used for Oil & Gas Exploration & Production

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Environmental Impact Assessment of Electromagnetic Techniques Used for Oil & Gas Exploration & Production Environmental Impact Assessment of Electromagnetic Techniques Used for Oil & Gas Exploration & Production September 2011 Environmental Impact Assessment of Electromagnetic Techniques Used for Oil & Gas Exploration & Production Prepared by R.A. Buchanan, M.Sc. (Project Manager), R. Fechhelm, Ph.D. (Electromagnetics and Fishes), P. Abgrall, Ph.D. (Marine Mammals), and A.L. Lang, Ph.D. (Seabirds) LGL Limited environmental research associates P.O. Box 13248, Stn. A St. John’s, NL A1B 4A5 Tel: 709-754-1992 [email protected] Prepared for International Association of Geophysical Contractors 1225 North Loop West, Suite 220 Houston, TX 77008 USA September 2011 LGL Project No. SA1084 Suggested format for citation: Buchanan, R.A., R. Fechhelm, P. Abgrall, and A.L. Lang. 2011. Environmental Impact Assessment of Electromagnetic Techniques Used for Oil & Gas Exploration & Production. LGL Rep. SA1084. Rep. by LGL Limited, St. John’s, NL, for International Association of Geophysical Contractors, Houston, Texas. 132 p. + app. EIA of Electromagnetic Techniques Used for Oil & Gas Exploration & Production EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Introduction In October 2010, LGL Limited environmental research associates (LGL) of St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada was contracted by the International Association of Geophysical Contractors (IAGC) to prepare an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of electromagnetic (EM) techniques used for oil and gas exploration and production in the marine environment. The goal of the EIA is to provide a comprehensive resource summarizing available literature and potential effects of EM technologies for a broad audience. IAGC members may also use the EIA to optimize environmental protection plans (EPPs) associated with their EM activities. The EIA focuses on EM technologies that are currently being used to search for resistivity anomalies around the world: Controlled-Source Electromagnetics (CSEM) and Multi-Transient Electromagnetics (MTEM). As such, this EIA is geographically generic in scope. Site-specific EIAs and EPPs will still be needed to address issues associated with local fauna. The document provides a basic description of EM technologies, naturally-occurring electromagnetic fields, and the potential use of these fields by diverse animal groups. Relevant marine species or groups are described with emphasis on elasmobranch (sharks, rays and skates), the group potentially most affected by electromagnetic emissions. Over 400 reports and publications were reviewed during the course of this EIA. The generic effects assessment focuses on those survey activities with at least some potential to affect marine animals such as EM, noise, light emissions, and accidental events. Electromagnetics and Biology Electromagnetic fields are generated by anything that carries or produces electricity. EM fields consist of an electric field component (E) and a magnetic field component (H) that travel together in space at the speed of light. The electromagnetic wave is characterized by a frequency and a wavelength. Frequency is the number of cycles of a wave per unit time and is measured in hertz Hz (1 Hz = 1 cycle per second). Wavelength is the distance traveled by the wave in one cycle. EM technologies use extremely low frequencies (ELF). ELF fields are defined as those less than 300 Hz and include common household electrical systems that operate on 60 and 50 Hz standards for North America and internationally. These low frequencies and long wavelengths carry very little energy and are insufficient to break molecular bonds. As defined by Faraday's Law, an electrical current is generated, or "induced", in any conductor moving through a magnetic field. Magnetic fields have polarity (north and south poles) and the direction of current flow within a conductor is a function of the direction in which the conductor moves relative to iii EIA of Electromagnetic Techniques Used for Oil & Gas Exploration & Production the north-south orientation of the magnetic field. If a conductor moves from left to right relative to the north-south orientation, direct current (DC) will flow in one direction, and if it moves from the right to the left current will flow in the opposite direction. If a conductor is moved back and forth within the magnetic field, the current will alternately flow in opposite directions; an alternating current (AC) is generated. A current may also be induced in a stationary conductor if the surrounding magnetic field is in motion. Either way, electrical induction depends upon movement. Either a conductor must move within a magnetic field, or a magnetic field must move past a stationary conductor. If both elements are motionless, no electric current is induced. Just as a magnetic field induces an electric current in a conductor, an electric current creates a magnetic field in the space surrounding the conductor. When current flow is initiated a magnetic field expands around the conductor. When current flow eventually stabilizes, the surrounding magnetic field stops expanding and becomes a static magnetic field. If the current is shut off, the magnetic field collapses. The polarity of the magnetic field depends upon the direction of current flow. When current flow reverses in a conductor, the polarity of the surrounding magnetic field reverses. When an AC current is applied the surrounding magnetic field continually expands and collapses at the frequency of the current. The relevance of electrical induction to EM surveys is that all animals are electrical conductors. Biological organisms continually generate internal voltage gradients and electrical currents including those associated with the nervous system, all types of biochemical reactions ranging from digestion to higher brain functions, sensory and motor mechanisms, reproductive processes, and membrane integrity. Elecromagnetic fields of sufficient strength have the ability to induce micro-currents within an organism and possibly disrupt these normal electrical functions. Geomagnetic Navigation Many scientists believe that the planet’s geomagnetic field is the primary template that many forms of life use as a navigation coordinate system. It is the dominant feature that underlies the theory of geomagnetic navigation in animals. As such, any disruption to this field could have adverse affects on marine fauna. The Earth's geomagnetic field potentially provides a reliable global positioning system for any organism that can detect and interpret the magnetic landscape in terms of relative position and/or directional orientation. Indeed, over the past 50 years a considerable amount of evidence has been amassed showing that an astounding variety of organisms respond to geomagnetic cues: magnetotactic bacteria, protists, gastropods, crustaceans, insects, bony fish, amphibians, sea turtles, birds, and migratory whales. iv EIA of Electromagnetic Techniques Used for Oil & Gas Exploration & Production For a magnetic map to work the animal must overcome four distinct challenges: 1. Global gradients typically vary in total intensity by 5-10 nano-tesla/kilometer (nT km-1) and in inclination by about 0.01°/km. This is a weak signal. Also, since magnetic gradients cannot be detected directly the animal must make a series of point samples that have a known spatial relationship to each other. This requires that an animal memorize precise measurements from different sites. 2. Local irregularities caused by spatial anomalies in underlying rock can disrupt smoother large scale geomagnetic gradient, and thus the navigational system. 3. Interactions between the Earth’s magnetosphere and solar wind cause daily fluctuations in total intensity of about 30-100 nT and in inclination of about 0.33°. Daily fluctuations could result in significant errors in fine-scale map estimates. Further, solar storms can cause fluctuations as high as 800 nT. 4. Geomagnetic drift over an individual’s life time could cause errors in position determination. Even though the idea of geomagnetic navigation has grown into a major field of scientific study and there is much support for its theory, the mechanisms by which animals might implement a bi- coordinate mapping system and overcome its many challenges remain unknown. Adding to the complexity is the role that other environmental cues such as olfaction, celestial navigation, visual landmarks, currents, and temperature/salinity gradients may play, either interactively with geomagnetic navigation or at times dominating the navigation process. Bird Migration There is a large volume of research on bird navigation. Migratory birds undoubtedly use a suite of navigational systems that may work independently of or in concert with magnetoreceptors: celestial information including stars, sun azimuth position, olfaction, visual landmarks over short distances, and the associated skylight polarization at sunrise and sunset to determine and maintain migratory direction. Polarized light studies show that migratory songbirds use cues from the region of the sky near the horizon to recalibrate their magnetic compass at sunrise and sunset (Muheim et al. 2006). Clock-shifting experiments show that experienced pigeons use the sun as a preferred compass and when it is not available they rely on magnetic cues (Walcott 2005). Walcott (2005) contends that pigeons use multiple and redundant cues to find their way home. There is even some evidence that pigeons may use several cues and that pigeons raised in different lofts under different environmental conditions may prefer to use one cue over
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