IL PERIODO DI HEIAN (794–1185) Il Nuovo Imperatore Kanmu

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IL PERIODO DI HEIAN (794–1185) Il Nuovo Imperatore Kanmu IL PERIODO DI HEIAN (794–1185) Il nuovo Imperatore Kanmu (736-805), cercò di limitare l’ influsso buddista vietando la costruzione di templi all’ interno del perimetro della capitale e, al fine di rendere più sicure le frontiere, nel 792 abolì l’ esercito di leva sostituendolo con una milizia gestita dalla nobiltà locale. Tale scelta venne confermata dai tre imperatori successivi, ridando così importanza alla nobiltà che il sistema accentratore dei precedenti imperatori sembrava intenzionato a ridurre. Un ulteriore elemento di debolezza dell’ Imperatore fu rappresentato dal potenza assunta nella corte dal clan Fujwara che, di fatto, stabilì una sorta di monopolio sulla carica di reggente imperiale e nell’ 857 si vide assegnare nella figura di Fujiwara Yoshifusa, sia la carica di primo ministro che quella di capo del Consiglio di Stato sino ad allora riservata all’ Imperatore. Ma il vero “colpo di mano” fu realizzato l’ anno successivo quando Yoshifusa divenne reggente imperiale dell’ imperatore–bambino Seiwa di cui, tra l’ altro era il nonno; e tale rimase anche quando Seiwa aveva raggiunto l’ età per governare da solo. La pratica di una reggenza ad imperatori adulti, si istituzionalizzò con i tre imperatori successivi e rafforzò ulteriormente il clan Fujiwara che con una serie di matrimoni con membri della famiglia imperiale riuscì ad accaparrarsi spesso i titoli di sesho e di Kampaku, ottenendo una incontrastata supremazia fino al 1068, quando l’ Imperatore Go Sanjo, non appartenente alla famiglia Fujiwara, salì al trono e fu definitivamente ridimensionata nel 1068 quando l’ Imperatore Shirakawa introdusse il governo dell’ Imperatore in ritiro”, ritirandosi in un monastero e gestendo da lì la successione al trono. La caduta dei Fujwara fu dovuta anche al fatto che nobili terrieri, anch’ essi spesso monaci, si schierarono dalla parte dell’ imperatore Shirakawa. Alla ricerca di un’ autonomia culturale Sul piano formale, nonostante le trasformazioni suaccennate, la corte non fu messa in discussione e ad Heian continuò a vivere in un clima di raffinatezze che in parte derivava dal tradizionale interscambio con la Cina, ma che indicava anche un tentativo giapponese di elaborare un proprio modello culturale. Precisi segnali di questa svolta “Nazionalista” sono individuabili sia nella interruzione di missioni diplomatiche alla corte cinese sia nella invenzione del sillabario fonetico che emancipa la scrittura giapponese dalla assoluta dipendenza dal Celeste Impero. Ai numerosi testi scritti ancora in cinese si affiancò una nuova produzione in giapponese di diari (nikki), racconti (monogatari) e poesie. Saper comporre un Waka (poesia in 31 sillabe), costituirà un vero e proprio elemento di distinzione all’ interno della corte imperiale. In sintesi, la cultura che si sviluppò in questo periodo sembra attraversare due fasi: quella appartenente al primo periodo Heian in cui prevale un canone estetico centrato su raffinatezza di costumi, libertà sessuale, bellezza, i cui canoni non distinguono molto l’ uomo dalla donna e quella della fase centrale e finale in cui prevalgono i temi dell’ ansietà, della precarietà, della malinconia, della tristezza, della consapevolezza della caducità della vita spesso rappresentata dalla metafora della fioritura del ciliegio. 1 Su questa produzione letteraria, come testimonia la celebre opera Genji monogatari (il racconto del Principe Genji) scritta agli inizi dell’ XI secolo, incide notevolmente la cultura buddista che in questo periodo segna una nuova fase di espansione e vede la nascita di nuove scuole di pensiero provenienti dalla Cina: la scuola di Tendai, introdotta in Giappone dal bonzo Saicho che promosse la costruzione del complesso monastico dell’ Enryakuji, sul monte Hiei in prossimità di Heian e del Buddismo tantrico introdotto in Giappone dal bonzo Kukai ( 744 – 835) che fondò il tempio Kongobuji sul monte Koya, base della scuola Shingon (vera parola) caratterizzata da formule magiche e misteriche che favorivano la concentrazione spirituale. La forza del buddismo non si impose solo attraverso la predicazione: i templi si rifornirono ben presto di armi e disponevano di monaci guerrieri utilizzati per dirimere questioni interne e quelle con altri complessi buddisti, per difendere le proprie proprietà terriere ed anche per intimorire l’ imperatore, tanto che non mancarono interferenze religiose rilevanti sulla sfera politica. La diffusione del buddismo fra le masse si accrebbe nel X secolo, grazie all’ introduzione in Giappone di nuove dottrine di più facile fruizione, come quella della Terra Pura ( Jodo) diffusa dal monaco Kuya ( 903 – 927) e dal monaco Genshin (942 – 1017) al cui centro sta la predicazione del potere salvifico di Amida il Budda del Paradiso Occidentale ottenibile invocando il suo nome. Un altro fattore che favorì la diffusione del Buddismo fu la sua capacità di assimilare i culti shintoisti identificando, ad esempio, la solare divinità scintoista Amaterasu col Budda Dainichi. A questo periodo appartiene lo sviluppo dell’ autoctona pittura profana giappones nota come Yamatoe i cui temi dominanti sono rappresentati da paesaggi naturali e scene della vita di corte ORIGINI E DIFFUSIONE DELLO SHOEN Come già detto in precedenza, nell’ VIII secolo si era registrato un aumento demografico nel territorio controllato dal governo Nara e una conseguente penuria di terre: 5 – 6 milioni di persone gravavano su un territorio la cui estensione si aggirava intorno ai 720.000 ettari. Da qui l’ allontanarsi di molta popolazione dalle terre Kubunden e l’ ambizioso programma, nel 722, di messa a cultura di nuovi spazi. Mancando tuttavia la manodopera necessaria, il governo era stato costretto ad assegnare la bonifica a famiglie disposte ad eseguirla gratuitamente in cambio del possesso dei territori dissodati e con esenzione dal pagamento delle tasse, prima per 3 generazioni e poi , di fatto, in maniera perpetua. Di questa opportunità avevano approfittato nobili della Corte e istituzioni religiose buddiste. Questi nuovi centri (noti come shoen) si affrancarono gradualmente dal potere centrale e accolsero molti contadini che abbandonarono le proprietà Kubunden riducendo il potere del governo centrale e favorendo prima la nobiltà di corte e poi la nascita di una élite guerriera provinciale. Nonostante i successi ottenuti da alcuni imperatori del primo periodo di Heian per riportare sotto il controllo centrale tali territori, nel tempo si assistette ad un ampliamento di tali aree sotto controllo di privati e alla transizione verso la cosiddetta fase dello Ichien shoen in cui i proprietari privati impedirono ai funzionari imperiali di accedere alle loro terre e vi esercitarono poteri amministrativi e di governo. Attorno al XIII secolo alcune centinaia di persone fisiche o giuridiche (clan, monasteri) possedevano circa 5000 shoen sparsi in varie regioni del 2 Giappone la cui amministrazione veniva delegata a uno shokan. Nel caso in cui la terra fosse posseduta da un capo di famiglie locali, questi, al fine di mantenere i propri privilegi, creava a sua volta un legame con uomini della Corte imperiale che ne diventavano il protettore (honke) in cambio di una quota dei beni agricoli prodotti in quel possedimento. L’ ulteriore richiesta da parte dell’ imperatore ai proprietari di terre di creare una forza armata a difesa dei propri possedimenti, rese sempre più importante la loro figura. In sintesi: ogni shoen era rappresentato dalla seguenti figure in ordine gerarchico e con diritti– doveri diversi: il ryoshu (proprietario), l’ honke (il garante), gli shokan (deputati dell’ amministrazione), i contadini proprietari (myoshu), e, infine, i dipendenti. La diffusione dello shoen contribuì a migliorare il sistema di comunicazione, a diffondere cultura, ma soprattutto a produrre quella stratificazione nei villaggi da cui emerse un gruppo ristretto di famiglie da cui nasceranno i clan di caste guerriere. L’ ASCESA DELLA CLASSE GUERRIERA (i samurai) Nel 792 l’ esercito di leva a base locale poco efficiente e poco motivato, soprattutto perché formato da contadini di età compresa fra i 10 e i 60 anni sottratti alla terra e obbligati a provvedere autonomamente a viveri ed equipaggiamento, venne sostituito con il Kondei ossia con l’ arruolamento di valenti maschi selezionati fra le famiglie di funzionari distrettuali o influenti personalità locali destinati a difendere le regioni del nord dalle popolazioni barbare. Fu inoltre organizzata una milizia all’ interno degli shoen per compitivi difensivi. Tutto ciò contribuì a creare fra il IX e il X secolo un gruppo di professionisti tra cui bushi (uomini d’ arme) e saburai (militari al servizio della nobiltà e dei governatori) da cui sarebbe derivato il nome samurai. Con il passare del tempo questi acquisirono il controllo delle terre agricole grazie alla loro forza militare e a discapito dell’ aristocrazia civile. La nuova casta che di fatto veniva legittimata dalla Corte Imperiale, si consolidò dandosi norme comportamentali, coniando una propria cultura, acquisendo uno status ereditario e stabilendo una serie di rapporti gerarchici al proprio interno. Spesso a capo della gerarchia vi erano famiglie di nobili origini come i Tachibana, i Taira, i Minamoto che avevano legami di parentela con la casa imperiale, ma che erano state escluse dalla successione al trono. Avevano pertanto scelto di vivere nelle province dove potevano ottenere alte cariche pubbliche o assumere la gestione degli shoen. IL TRAMONTO DELL’ ERA DEI KUGE1 Se la formula degli Imperatori in ritiro
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