DHARMA OF THE FOUNDERS: BUDDHISM WITHIN THE PHILOSOPHIES OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, THOMAS JEFFERSON, AND ELIHU PALMER A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of The School of Continuing Studies and of The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts in Liberal Studies By Ryan N. Aponte, B.A. Georgetown University Washington, D.C. November 3, 2012 Copyright 2012 by Ryan N. Aponte All Rights Reserved ii DHARMA OF THE FOUNDERS: BUDDHISM WITHIN THE PHILOSOPHIES OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, THOMAS JEFFERSON, AND ELIHU PALMER Ryan N. Aponte, B.A. Mentor: Charles E. Yonkers, J.D. ABSTRACT Scholars have long recognized the significance of the Founding Fathers’ religious views and the teachings Buddhism, but never have they provided a comprehensive comparison. While some scholars continue to label these pivotal figures as fervent Christians, a more prevalent reflection is to assert the influence of deist and Enlightenment philosophy. However, such dichotomy fails to examine the Founders outside their assessment of Christianity. The interest in and connection with Eastern religions has been established among prominent Hellenistic and Enlightenment philosophers, yet such parallels have not been elaborated upon regarding the Founders they impacted. Buddhist literature often analyzes the affinity of the Dharma with the American intellectual landscape, but also provides insufficient reflection upon the figures so influential within the latter’s development. With modern emphasis on religious pluralism, questions emerge regarding the universality of the Founders’ philosophies. Essentially, this thesis argues that there is a strong connection between the Founders’ philosophies, fundamental American ideals, and Eastern religious traditions. Analysis of the foundations and philosophies of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and Elihu Palmer demonstrates their deviation from contemporary Christianity and correlation to Buddhism. Since the Founders regarded religion as a confidential matter, personal correspondence and private reflection establish parallels iii with the Dharma. Any additional articles or publications provide supplementary insight into their individual sentiments. Of particular emphasis were the Founders’ views of God, Jesus Christ, the Bible, institutionalized religion, morality, suffering, impermanence, immortality, and death. Each reveals that both the Dharma and the Founders revered universal liberty, individual equality, social responsibility, interdependence, pragmatism, simplicity, tranquility, and the cultivation of happiness. In addition, they also denounced mysticism, supernaturalism, dogmatism, revelation, and predestination. Ultimately, analysis demonstrates that Franklin, Jefferson, and Palmer followed a precedent established by ancient and Enlightenment intellectuals in which they cultivated interests in Eastern traditions and established parallels with Buddhist philosophy. iv PREFACE While analysis of the Founding Fathers has always held a firm grasp upon the interests of Americans, Buddhism has garnered increasingly significant consideration within the scholarly community and popular consciousness. As a student of both United States history and Eastern philosophy, the scope of the subsequent analysis arose from my own personal experience. I was first introduced to Buddhist literature and the story of Siddhārtha Gautama as an adolescent. I found myself immediately captivated and came to recognize the importance of the Dharma, which denominates an encapsulation of the teachings of the historical Buddha, the principles of the universe, and the conditions of existence. I continued such passions while earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in History at Davidson College, enrolling in nearly every course regarding Eastern philosophy. After beginning my professional career teaching about the early American republic, I focused much of my graduate study on the political, social, and cultural environment surrounding the Founding Fathers. Within one such course, I set out to research the religious philosophies of Thomas Jefferson and was astonished by the results. I found that Jefferson’s reconceptualization of Christianity and incorporation of deist and Enlightenment thought produced innumerable parallels with the teachings of Buddhism. Upon completing my research regarding Jefferson, I further inquired into the beliefs of Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Thomas Paine, and Elihu Palmer. Although not commonly recognized, Palmer was the champion of American deism and had a profound impact on the religious landscape of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Ultimately, I found that the more I read the writings of these Founders, the more I recognized the Dharma. v The subsequent analysis focuses particularly upon the figures of Franklin, Jefferson, and Palmer. While consideration was originally given to Adams and Paine, both presented certain difficulties. Adams ultimately shared many of the same philosophies as Jefferson and was outspoken in his appreciation for the cultures and religions of Asia. However, remnants of the pessimism and supernaturalism ingrained through his Calvinist upbringing were quite divergent from Buddhism. Although Paine also demonstrated some fundamental similarities with Asian religions, he failed to provide a comprehensive philosophy. Focused more on obliterating contemporary institutions, Paine was also far more caustic than the sentiments found within Eastern thought. Therefore, the writings of Franklin, Jefferson, and Palmer provided the foundation of the forthcoming analysis. Despite their applicability, each Founder implemented also presented some challenges. Since none of the Founders provided a systematic theology, evidence of their religious philosophies is dispersed within innumerable writings and correspondence. Having received fervent condemnation from his only extensive publication Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson shared his views with a limited selection of family and friends. Franklin similarly recognized the potential backlash regarding publication and often implemented pseudonyms. As he sought to mask his views within his countless writings, Franklin’s religious philosophies remain elusive. Despite his significance within early American religion, Palmer proved the most difficult of the Founders. By far the youngest of the trio, he gained prominence only after the developments surrounding the American Revolution and Constitutional Convention. Due to such circumstances, as well as the controversial nature of his vi publications, the majority of Palmer’s writings were not well preserved and only a limited few have survived. Therefore, analysis of Palmer focuses on his pinnacle treatise Principles of Nature. In addition to issues regarding the nature or accessibility of their writings, many of the Founders deviated throughout segments or extended periods of their lives. The sentiments that emerged within their adolescence and early adulthood might transform as they became public figures or as they declined in age and reflected upon death. Ultimately, what the Founders professed in one moment could transform in the next. While the philosophies of many schools may be applied, emphasis has been placed upon the teachings of Mahāyāna Buddhism and particularly the Japanese lineages of Zen. Practically speaking, many other schools include certain traditions or practices that are far less applicable. For instance, the naturalistic, pragmatic, and anti- ecclesiastical Founders would denounce the implementation of mysticism, supernaturalism, and guru devotion within Tibetan Buddhism. In addition, the adherence to monasticism and emphasis upon personal liberation within schools of Theravāda Buddhism would contradict the Founders’ belief in universal freedom and social consciousness. The teachings of Zen have also been recognized for their affinity with the fundamental intellectual currents of American thought. In order to accurately reflect such parallels, I implemented many of the most influential figures in expanding the Dharma within the United States. Of particular significance were the endeavors and writings of Japanese Zen teachers Soyen Shaku, Nyogen Senzaki, Shigetsu Sasaki, D.T. Suzuki, and Shunryu Suzuki. In addition to authoring many of the most influential Buddhist publications, these early pioneers also established immensely successful vii centers and organizations. Another pivotal individual was the Vietnamese Zen monk Thich Nhat Hanh, who has emerged as one of the most widely read Buddhist authors throughout the West. While such monumental figures provide the foundation for the subsequent analysis, broader scholarly works are also implemented, especially when specific parallels with the Founders can be recognized throughout many schools of Buddhism. Reflecting upon the journey undertaken, I would be remiss not to recognize the people and institutions that have aided in the completion of this work. Professor Charles E. Yonkers was most gracious in providing invaluable support and advice during the entirety of the process. In addition, Professor James H. Hershman, Jr. provided momentum during the initial conceptualization of the scope of this analysis. I have also been indebted to the literature surrounding the Founding Fathers, as well as the history and teachings of Buddhism. Emphasis should be placed upon those scholars who provided guidance and insight into my inquiries, specifically Donald McCown, Harry Oldmeadow, Stephen Batchelor,