Advocacy Competencies for Professional School Counselors

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Jerry Trusty is a professor at the Pennsylvania State University, University Park. E-mail: [email protected] Duane Brown is a professor at the University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill. Advocacy Competencies for Professional School Counselors

The American School Counselor Association National counselors often advocate for particular students and Model describes advocacy as a key role for professional their families (e.g., Downing & Harrison, 1990; school counselors, and numerous advocacy activities Trusty, 1996). Advocacy efforts frequently are are presented in the model. Several authors have con- aimed at helping particular groups of students (e.g., tributed to the literature on advocacy; however, the lit- Cooley, 1998; Stone, 2000). School counselors erature and the National Model do not delineate the advocate for better school counseling programs, bet- dispositions, knowledge, and skills required for advo- ter schools, and more effective community resources cacy. The purpose of this article is to present and (House & Hayes, 2002; Kuranz, 2002). They also describe school counselor advocacy competencies recent- advocate for the school counseling profession and ly introduced in a book by Brown and Trusty (2005). for social justice on local, state, regional, national, and international levels (e.g., Eriksen, 1997; Kiselica lthough advocacy has a long tradition in the & Robinson, 2001). counseling profession (Kiselica & Robinson, The counseling literature attests to the broad con- A2001), school counselors’ roles as advocates ceptualization of advocacy. For example, in Eriksen’s have only recently received widespread attention (1997) definition, generating research on the effica- (Baker & Gerler, 2004). For example, articles by cy of counseling is advocacy. Myers, Sweeney, and Cooley (1998), Stone (2000), and Kuranz (2002) White (2002) noted that promoting counselors’ address the need for school counselor advocacy. In credibility in the public’s eye is a salient advocacy addition, Bailey, Getch, & Chen-Hayes (2003) and task. Many of the multicultural counseling compe- Osborne et al. (1998) focus on the need to teach tencies (Sue, Arrendondo, & McDavis, 1992) in- advocacy skills in counselor education programs. volve advocacy, and advocacy is a main means for Perhaps most notably, the American School addressing discrimination (Brown, 1988; Ponter- Counselor Association (ASCA, 2003) National otto, 1991; Trusty, 2002). Model devotes particular attention to advocacy. In The recent literature reveals the broad scope of this model, advocacy is one of the themes that advocacy, but it provides only minimal direction underpin all of the activities in which school coun- toward a coherent conceptualization (see Myers et selors engage. al., 2002). Several authors (Bailey et al., 2003; According to ASCA, advocacy is a broad and mul- Eriksen, 1997; Fiedler, 2000; House & Hayes, tifaceted process. The ASCA National Model states, 2002; Kuranz, 2002) have provided definitions and “Advocating for the academic success of every stu- descriptions of advocacy; and although authors vary dent is a key role of school counselors and places in conceptualization, a common theme is that advo- them as leaders in promoting school reform” cacy involves identifying unmet needs and taking (ASCA, 2003, p. 24). According to the National actions to change the circumstances that contribute Model, school counselors’ advocacy efforts are to the problem or inequity. Authors also agree that aimed at (a) eliminating barriers impeding students’ advocacy requires an altruistic disposition. The development; (b) creating opportunities to learn for ASCA National Model (2003) provides much infor- all students; (c) ensuring access to a quality school mation about the goals of advocacy, but it provides curriculum; (d) collaborating with others within and little insight into the advocacy process and it takes outside the school to help students meet their needs, only first steps in delineating the advocacy role. and (e) promoting positive, systemic change in Because advocacy cuts across multiple school schools. Therefore, advocacy involves leadership, counseling roles, occurs on multiple levels, and is collaboration, and systemic change. conceptualized broadly, it is logical to conclude that Advocacy also occurs on multiple levels. School everything school counselors do is advocacy. But if

8:3 FEBRUARY 2005 | ASCA 259 advocacy is inherent to everything that school coun- ❚ Family support/empowerment disposition: selors do, how can advocacy be adequately delineat- Professional school counselors with a family ed and understood? How can it be differentiated support/empowerment disposition recog- from other school counseling roles? How are other nize that parents-guardians are often the best school counseling roles complementary to advocacy? advocates for their children, and their empa- How can we—as school counselors, counselor- thy extends to parents. They join parents in trainees, and counselor educators and supervisors— advocacy for their children, and they become more effective advocates? empower families to adapt and grow. The purpose of this article is to offer a structure ❚ Social advocacy disposition: Professional for conceptualizing advocacy and for developing school counselors not only advocate for par- advocacy competencies. When advocacy is concep- ticular students and families, they also advo- tualized and described in terms of school counselor cate to eliminate inequities and barriers competencies, the structure, purposes, and process- affecting all people. They advocate for their es of advocacy are illuminated. In this article, advo- profession on behalf of their students-clients, cacy competencies are first presented, followed by others’ students-clients, and non-clients. material on school counselors’ development of ❚ Ethical disposition: Professional school advocacy competencies. The article closes with an counselors with an ethical disposition place When advocacy is advocacy model based on the competencies. high value on professional codes of ethics. They recognize that many advocacy dilem- ADVOCACY COMPETENCIES mas will occur, and that analysis of ethical conceptualized and principles and laws is necessary for effective described in terms Fiedler (2000) enumerated advocacy competencies problem solving. Counselors with an ethical for special education professionals (e.g., special edu- disposition possess a personal ethic of caring. of school counselor cation teachers, school psychologists), categorizing competencies into the dispositions (personal quali- ❚ Knowledge: ❚ competencies, the ties), knowledge, and skills needed for effective Knowledge of resources: Resources reside advocacy. This categorization of competencies is a both within and outside the school, and they structure, purposes, commonly used structure in training various educa- exist in various forms (e.g., people, pro- tion professionals (see National Council for Accred- grams, institutions, agencies, and communi- and processes of itation of Teacher Education, 2002). Although ty groups). Professional school counselors some of the requisite dispositions, knowledge, and have knowledge of a wide range of resources advocacy are skills are shared by special educators and school that can be used in the advocacy process. counselors, some competencies are specific to the ❚ Knowledge of parameters: Professional illuminated. particular profession. In developing the following school counselors are knowledgeable of (a) advocacy competencies for school counselors, we, school polices and procedures, (b) the legal the authors, used Fiedler’s special-educator compe- rights of individuals and families, and (c) the tencies as a guide. We relied on the literature on scope of their practice. This knowledge helps advocacy; and we drew from our personal experi- school counselors assess problems and solve ences as school counselors, counselor educators, and problems. advocates. Brown and Trusty (2005) published ❚ Knowledge of dispute resolution mechanisms: these competencies in their text on designing and Advocacy often involves disagreements and leading school counseling programs, and the com- conflicts. Professional school counselors have petencies are presented herein as they are presented knowledge of mediation and conflict resolu- in the text. tion strategies for working toward successful resolution of disputes. Mediation and con- Advocacy Competencies for Professional School flict resolution are often empowering ways to Counselors: solve problems. ❚ Dispositions: ❚ Knowledge of advocacy models: Advocacy ❚ Advocacy disposition: Professional school models give direction and focus to profes- counselors with an advocacy disposition are sional school counselors’ advocacy efforts. aware of and embrace their professional ad- Knowledge of various models gives coun- vocacy roles. They are autonomous in their selors flexibility to various advocacy situa- thinking and behavior. There is an altruistic tions. motivation with the major concern being ❚ Knowledge of systems change: Professional students’ well-being. Advocates are willing school counselors use a systems perspective to take risks in helping individual students to understand the systems and subsystems and groups of students meet their needs. inherent in schools and society. School coun-

260 ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING selors form partnerships across subsystems mission of Wadsworth, a division of Thomson (e.g., parents, students, school staff or Learning, www.thomsonrights. com) administrators, other professionals, community groups) in working for positive change. Developing Advocacy Dispositions Of the three areas of advocacy competencies, advo- ❚ Skills: cacy dispositions are the least mutable. That is, dis- ❚ Communication skills: Professional school positions are most closely connected to school coun- counselors’ communication skills serve them selors’ selves and to their beliefs and values; and well in the role of advocate. Listening skills these are not readily subject to change. Advocacy and empathy skills help counselors under- dispositions, however, are necessary for advocacy stand and assess problems. Effectively com- skills to develop. If school counselors do not have municating problems and possible solutions advocacy dispositions, it will not be possible to to others is a necessary skill in the advocacy develop skills. Inversely, if school counselors do pos- process. sess advocacy dispositions, it is very likely that skills ❚ Collaboration skills: Strong relationships will follow. Several authors (e.g., Bailey et al., 2003; are a necessary condition for advocacy. Baker & Gerler, 2004; Gysbers & Henderson, Professional school counselors form and 2000) maintain that effective schools and effective School counselors maintain positive relationships with profes- school counseling programs require dispositions sionals and parents. Relationships with toward advocacy. Advocacy dispositions are funda- should be familiar administrators require special attention mental to multicultural counseling (Baker & Gerler, because advocacy efforts often put adminis- 2004; Sue et al., 1992; Trusty, 2002), and advocacy with local referral trators and school counselors on opposite dispositions are axiomatic to the new vision of school sides of issues. Openness to others’ ideas and counseling (ASCA, 2003; House & Hayes, 2002). resources, other sensitivity to others’ perspectives promote An important component of advocacy dispositions positive relationships. is autonomy. Fiedler (2000) noted that people new groups that provide ❚ Problem-assessment skills: Professional to the education professions are naturally more con- school counselors use skill in assessing and forming than they are autonomous. New employees services for defining problems and in “choosing their in any setting will naturally be more obedient than battles.” The salience of students’ needs and independent. When new professionals, however, students and the possibility of successfully meeting their possess advocacy dispositions, self-confidence and needs through advocacy are factors that autonomy can be developed. Autonomy must be families, and people determine choices and actions. balanced with relationships because collaborative ❚ Problem-solving skills: Professional school relationships with other professionals are necessary whose counselors use their communication skills to the success of advocacy efforts (ASCA, 2003; and collaboration skills to build relationships House & Hayes, 2002). For example, school coun- responsibilities and empower others. They demonstrate selors often advocate for students who lose opportu- problem-solving skills by effectively bringing nities because they are “caught” by school rules and have commonality resources to bear on problems. Counselors procedures, and counselors often advocate for stu- use counseling theories and models as frame- dents in these situations by working for flexibility with school works for decisions, goals, and actions. Many from school principals. If a counselor’s autonomy of the problem-solving models employed in has eroded the relationship between the counselor counselors’ counseling are useful in the advocacy and the principal, it is likely that the counselor’s process. advocacy efforts will not be successful. responsibilities. ❚ Organizational skills: Effective advocacy Developing autonomy does depend on school requires careful and detailed planning, gath- counselors’ environments. Some schools maintain a ering of information, collection and presen- culture of autonomy, whereas others maintain a cul- tation of data, organized action, and follow- ture of conformity. These school cultures are perva- up. Professional school counselors are sys- sive in inculcating their values. In a culture of con- tematic in managing the advocacy process. formity, for example, the norms, values, and expec- ❚ Self-care skills: Engaging in advocacy often tations of conformity are imposed on students, involves taking risks, and advocacy efforts are teachers, counselors, administrators, staff, parents, not always successful. Sometimes, a high and the community. In contrast, a culture of auton- degree of energy is expended in an unsuc- omy, or an advocacy culture, is a more democratic cessful advocacy attempt. Professional school environment that values individual expression and counselors develop coping skills to avoid change. A school culture of autonomy is more burnout. focused on the needs of learners than on the needs (From Brown and Trusty 2005—reprinted with per- of the professionals in the school.

8:3 FEBRUARY 2005 | ASCA 261 Developing Advocacy Knowledge were formulated for particular advocacy contexts. To be effective advocates, school counselors need to Advocacy often involves changing school systems develop knowledge of their particular settings. or other systems (House & Hayes, 2002; Kiselica & School counselors should be familiar with local Robinson, 2001). There are many subsystems with- referral resources, other groups that provide services in schools (e.g., students, teachers, departments, for students and families, and people whose respon- administrators), and schools function in larger sys- sibilities have commonality with school counselors’ tems (e.g., communities, school districts, state responsibilities. Allies in the advocacy process may departments of education). According to VanZant be other professionals, community members, par- and Hayslip (2001), understanding systems theory ents, or students. Additionally, regional, state, and helps school counselors conceptualize how systems national resources (e.g., ASCA, Chi Sigma Iota) may become dysfunctional, how they remain dysfunc- be useful in advocacy efforts. Knowledge of the fol- tional, and how they can be changed. Rowley, Sink, lowing basic parameters are required for effective and MacDonald (2002) described the use of systems advocacy: (a) school policies and procedures; (b) theory in school counseling program development, local and state political and school-governance and Keys and Lockhart (1999) demonstrated how structures; (c) special education laws (Individuals school counselors can use systems theory to foster Dispute resolution with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA) and pro- collaborations for stimulating systemic change. An cedures (e.g., Individualized Education Plan understanding of systems theory also helps advo- mechanisms processes); (d) Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act cates approach advocacy problems in numerous of 1973 and the functions of local-school 504 com- ways. typically come in mittees; (e) Child Protective Services or Youth and The following is an example of how knowledge Family Services laws and procedures; (f) particular can serve school counselors in their advocacy efforts: the forms of state family codes (laws regarding families and chil- The first author of this article was a new high school dren); and (g) student assistance program and child counselor in a rural school district. There were no mediation and study team processes and procedures (Brown & mental health counselors in the immediate area; and Trusty, 2005). therefore, students who needed mental health serv- conflict resolution, Dispute resolution mechanisms typically come in ices either received services from school counselors the forms of mediation and conflict resolution, and in the district or were driven over 20 miles to anoth- and counselors’ counselors’ knowledge of these techniques can aid in er county to see a mental health counselor. The two the advocacy process. Mediation is a nonadversarial, elementary counselors in the school district had inti- knowledge of these confidential process used to resolve disputes mate knowledge of the political system in the coun- (Fiedler, 2000; Leviton & Greenstone, 1997). A ty, and this knowledge led to a detailed advocacy techniques can aid mediator is an impartial, third party who is not ini- plan. All the school counselors in the district spoke tially involved in the dispute. School counselors—as before the County Board of Supervisors, presenting in the advocacy advocates—are not impartial third parties in dis- objective data and demonstrating the need for men- putes, and therefore they are not appropriate medi- tal health services in the community. Through this process. ators in most situations. However, counselors may and other well-planned efforts, a mental health use resource people outside the school for mediating counselor was hired by the county and an office was disputes. Current IDEA amendments specify that provided. This successful advocacy effort required mediation be available for resolving special educa- not only advocacy dispositions and knowledge, it tion disputes. School counselors should have famil- also required skills in areas such as communication, iarity with conflict resolution strategies because collaboration, problem assessment, problem solving, these dispute resolution mechanisms have wide and organization. applicability in schools (see Sweeney & Carruthers, 1996). Change often involves conflict; and there- Developing Advocacy Skills fore, conflict resolution strategies are especially Professional school counselors’ communication applicable to advocacy. skills are relied upon heavily in their advocacy Advocacy models provide frameworks for advoca- endeavors (Brown, 1988). Empathy helps coun- cy processes. Advocacy models are not frequently selors understand students’ needs from students’ taught in counselor-training programs, and they are perspectives, and it helps in building trusting rela- not often found in school counseling journals or tionships with students and families. Trusty (1996) books. The models of Eriksen (1997), Fiedler maintained that school counselors’ empathic under- (2000), and Svec (1987, 1990) lay out stages or standing and positive relationships with students are steps in the advocacy process. Also, an advocacy necessary for effective advocacy. Empathic under- model is presented subsequently in this article. It is standing and communication skills also promote useful for school counselors to be familiar with mul- assertive behavior. tiple advocacy models because particular models In advocacy, assertive, objective communication

262 ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING often is needed, especially when disagreements arise from the interactions among environments, student- (Fiedler, 2000). Disagreements often become emo- family characteristics, and school characteristics. In tionally charged and personalized, deteriorating into assessing problem etiology, school counselors anger and resentment, and thrusting the disputing should have a deep understanding of students’ and parties into defensive positions. When disagreements families’ worldviews and environments because the begin to arise, objective communication keeps the appropriateness of many school policies and prac- focus on facts and concrete information; and it helps tices depends on students’ and families’ worldviews, maintain a professional level of communication. environments, and associated values. There is a nat- Communication skills are useful in presenting to ural tendency for education professionals to attrib- groups and engaging in the public relations aspects ute problem etiology to students and families; and of advocacy (Eriksen, 1997). For school counselors likewise, students and families tend to attribute to advocate for their profession and for their stu- problem etiology to schools. It is often unrealized dents, they will need skills in oral and written com- that the actual problem etiology lies in the interac- munication to educate or persuade various publics. tions (the lack of fit) among environments, students- As noted in the aforementioned example of advoca- families, and schools. cy, delivering persuasive arguments to the County Objective data are required for objective problem Board of Supervisors helped in providing local men- assessment and problem definition (Fiedler, 2000). Retrospective tal health services for students. Advocates may need For example, consider the following two statements to deliver persuasive oral presentations to central related to an advocacy problem in a middle school: interviews of office personnel, school committees, school boards, (a) “We need to establish more extracurricular activ- parents, community groups, or political decision- ities that are attractive to students from African effective advocates makers. American and Latino groups”; or (b) “Whereas the Collaborative relationships are developed largely average number of hours of participation per week would likely shed through effective communication, and collaboration in extracurricular activities is 3.75 hours for White skills and communication skills are closely related. students, the averages for African American and light on how school Developing and maintaining positive relationships Latino students are 1.25 and 1.10 hours per week, with school administrators is paramount. School respectively.” Clearly, the second statement makes a counselors’ counselors and principals should come to a mutual stronger and more objective argument, and it understanding regarding school counselors’ advoca- implies a more objective and measurable goal. advocacy cy roles. However, trust is not an easily attained After advocacy problems are assessed and clearly quality in relationships; and it is wise for counselors defined, the focus should turn toward problem solv- dispositions to be cautious, especially with regard to confiden- ing. Problem-solving skills are used in developing tiality issues. Counselors should take steps to ensure detailed action plans. School counselors who are interact with and that all collaborators behave ethically and profes- skilled in taking divergent perspectives on problems sionally. Advocacy must be balanced with diplomacy and solutions are effective action planners and prob- develop in school and relationships because if collaborative relation- lem solvers. Knowledge of systemic change is useful ships suffer due to advocacy, then advocacy is less in developing action-planning skill. Various prob- environments. likely to be successful in the future (see Brown, lem-solving strategies employed in counseling can 1988; Brown & Trusty, 2005; Kiselica & Robinson, be applied to problem solving in advocacy, and these 2001). Advocacy does involve risks, and collabora- counseling strategies have the advantage of an tive relationships may be at risk when one is advo- empowerment focus. Davis and Osborn (2000), for cating for change. example, applied solution-focused strategies to Among all the skills needed for advocacy compe- working toward solution-focused schools that con- tence, problem-assessment skills are the most specif- centrate on strengths, solutions, and change, rather ic to advocacy. Problem assessment is one of the first than on difficulties from the past. These schools steps in advocacy models (see Eriksen, 1997; Fiedler, would have a culture of advocacy. 2000; Svec, 1987, 1990). According to Eriksen, For advocacy to be successful, school counselors advocacy problems are assessed and advocacy actions need organizational skills for (a) collecting, analyz- are taken based on two major criteria: (a) the reason ing, and presenting data; (b) planning and organiz- for advocacy is compelling, and (b) it is likely that a ing actions on multiple fronts; and (c) managing the viable solution can be attained. Trusty (1996) main- advocacy process. One salient organizational skill tained that when advocating for individual students involves identifying and coordinating resources for and groups of students, one should identify problem particular advocacy endeavors. People within and etiology as the first step in problem assessment. That outside the school may be advocacy allies, change is, the counselor determines the extent to which the initiators, or change agents. Also, there will be those problem arises from the student or students, the who passively or actively resist change. When school family, the school, or the students’ environments, or counselors are skilled in identifying adversaries and

8:3 FEBRUARY 2005 | ASCA 263 resources, mobilizing resources, and managing com- 2. Develop advocacy relationships and advocacy munication among those involved, the advocacy pro- knowledge. Build collaborative relationships with cess unfolds in a systematic and organized manner. decision-makers and potential advocacy resource All advocacy efforts are not successful, and there- people and groups. Acquire knowledge of param- fore, self-care skills are needed. A counselor might eters, and gain an understanding of relevant sys- invest considerable time and energy into an advoca- tems within and outside the school. cy effort, only to fail in producing change. Baker and 3. Define the advocacy problem. Gather data and Gerler (2004) and Kiselica and Robinson (2001) other information to understand and objectively noted cases of counselor burnout resulting from assess and define the advocacy problem and to aid advocacy. Burnout is one of the risks associated with advocacy efforts. Determine problem etiology advocacy; however, administrator and supervisor and understand the problem in the context of support can lessen the likelihood of burnout. systems. Counselors need to develop their personal coping 4. Develop action plans. Clear and specific plans of skills. When school counselors possess advocacy dis- action should effectively utilize resources and positions, there is a natural tendency to personalize anticipate difficulties. Be flexible unless an impor- advocacy efforts. Fiedler (2000) stressed the cogni- tant moral principle is at stake. tive coping skill of reframing. Through reframing, 5. Implement action plans. Use problem-solving we counselors help our students and others avoid skills, communication skills, collaboration skills, personalizing or internalizing the difficulties they dispute resolution mechanisms, and advocacy encounter. Likewise, reframing can help us view our models for producing change. Monitor, organ- own experiences more rationally and selectively. For ize, and manage advocacy efforts on various example, a particular “unsuccessful” advocacy effort fronts. Ensure that agreed-upon changes are might be perceived as (a) a personal failure, (b) the implemented. Promote and support collabora- result of inadequate planning, (c) a valiant best tors and others as changes unfold and as setbacks effort, (d) a growth experience, or (e) a successful occur. start toward change. 6. Make an evaluation. Evaluate the effectiveness of Behavioral coping skills also should be developed. advocacy efforts by following up on changes and All those involved in the advocacy process (e.g., stu- determining if needs are met. The problem dents, parents-guardians, school counselors) should assessment and problem definition should specify mutually support one another. Personal behavioral or imply appropriate evaluation criteria. coping skills might involve engaging in hobbies and 7. Celebrate or regroup. If advocacy efforts are suc- pastimes, sports and physical exercise, or other cessful, recognize and reward contributions to enjoyable activities. When counselors balance their success and empower all involved (including stu- advocacy efforts with their own personal needs, they dents and families) to become advocates for can avoid burnout and maintain an effective advoca- themselves and others. If goals were not reached, cy role. regroup and focus on support and coping.

A Model of the Advocacy Process for Professional CONCLUSION School Counselors Brown and Trusty (2005) derived several useful There is wide agreement that advocacy is a necessary practice guidelines from the advocacy competencies. role for professional school counselors. Although We now present a step-by-step model of the advoca- the advocacy role has been touted extensively in the cy process based on those guidelines and based on literature, there has been little analysis of the per- the competencies. The following tenets and strate- sonal qualities or expertise needed for advocacy. We gies are integral components in one or more other have presented the dispositions, knowledge, and advocacy models (Eriksen, 1997; Fiedler, 2000; skills needed for effective advocacy. These compe- Svec, 1987, 1990), and most are supported by other tencies provide direction to the development of literature on advocacy (e.g., Bailey et al., 2003; advocates, and they illuminate the process of advo- House & Hayes, 2002; Kuranz, 2002). cacy. We hope that the advocacy competencies and the model of the advocacy process presented herein 1. Develop advocacy dispositions. Develop and clarify are practically useful for school counselors and coun- professional identity around advocacy disposi- selor-trainees. Further, we hope that the advocacy tions. Having advocacy dispositions is motivating competencies and the model can be useful as a basis to the advocacy process, and advocacy disposi- for expanding knowledge of advocacy. tions help in making decisions of an ethical-legal It seems that qualitative studies (e.g., case studies) nature. could add to the profession’s knowledge of how school counselors develop advocacy competencies in

264 ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING particular environments. For example, retrospective House, R. M., & Hayes, R. L. (2002). School counselors: Becoming key players in school reform. Professional School interviews of effective advocates would likely shed Counseling, 5, 249–256. light on how school counselors’ advocacy disposi- Keys, S. G., & Lockhart, E. J. (1999).The school counselor’s role tions interact with and develop in school environ- in facilitating multisystemic change. Professional School ments. Quantitative studies could be used to deter- Counseling, 3, 101–107. mine levels of competence and investigate the rela- Kiselica, M. S., & Robinson, M. (2001). Bringing advocacy counseling to life:The history, issues, and human dramas of tionships among advocacy dispositions, knowledge, social justice work in counseling. Journal of Counseling & skills, and other variables. 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