Most US School Districts Have Low Access to School Counselors

University of New Hampshire CARSEY RESEARCH Carsey School of Public Policy National Issue Brief #108 Fall 2016

Most U.S. School Districts Have Low Access to School Counselors Poor, Diverse, and City School Districts Exhibit Particularly High Student-to-Counselor Ratios

Do u g l a s J . G a g n o n and M a r y b e t h J . M a t t i n g l y

n education today, diverse movements such as the “whole child” approach, “conveyor belt” services, and “Let’s Move!” share a common understanding that Ichildren bring a host of needs to school and often require more than academic support.1 Students living in poverty often benefit from more intensive support, as they are much more likely to come from difficult circumstances such as less stable homes2 and more violent environ- ments.3 It is difficult to estimate the number of children with social or emotional impediments to learning, but by any measure it is substantial.4 Addressing the non-cognitive challenges these students face is important not only for them but for their peers, who can experience harmful spillover effects.5 Even students who perform well can face “last mile” hurdles that prevent them from successfully transitioning to suitable college or career options. School counselors,6 tasked with addressing the academic, career, personal, and social needs of students, play a crucial role in bridging these gaps. Perhaps the most popularized aspect of their work is conducting one-on-one and small group counseling with students in need, but in addition school counselors often work closely with school administrators, teachers, school support staff, parents, and outside community members to design, implement, and evaluate comprehensive and other improved measures of academic, emotional, wellness programs within schools. For instance, such and social performance.10 The breadth and consistency curricula may aim to provide drug abuse awareness, of these findings about the efficacy of school coun- foster non-cognitive academic skills, or develop appro- selors’ work provide strong support for establishing priate social connections.7 Additionally, school coun- manageable caseloads. However, we know little about selors play an important role in meeting the needs of, what types of school districts provide adequate access and advocating for, students with a disability. to school counselors. In this brief, we examine the level Consequently, the impact of school counselors may of access to school counselors, and how this access is be felt throughout schools. Researchers have found that mediated by district demographic and location charac- greater access to school counselors is associated with teristics. We use a large nationally representative data higher graduation rates,8 fewer disciplinary incidents,9 source compiled from the 2013–2104 Civil Rights Data 2 CARSEY SCHOOL OF PUBLIC POLICY

Collection (CRDC), the 2014 Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates Box 1. Definitions (SAIPE), and 2007 urban centric Any school counselor access: A district has “any” access if there is at locales made available by the U.S. least one school counselor employed by the district. Census Bureau to examine trends in Student-to-school counselor ratio: The number of enrolled students school counselor access. See Box 1 for per school counselor in a district. Due to a skewed distribution and the a description of variables examined. presence of districts without any school counselor access (and therefore an infinite/undefined student-to-school counselor ratio), we examine Findings median as opposed to mean ratios. Nearly 90 percent of U.S. school Meeting recommended ratio: A district meets ASCA recommenda- districts report employing at least tions if it has a student-to-school counselor ratio of 250:1 or lower.a one school counselor (Table 1). The Poverty rate: The percentage of school-aged youth in a school district median student-to-counselor ratio who live in a family with income below the official poverty threshold. is 411:1, considerably higher than Traditionally disadvantaged race composition: The percentage of the American School Counselor non-white/non-Asian students in a district. Association’s (ASCA) recommended ratio of 250:1.11 In fact, Urbanicity: The U.S. Census generates urbanicity coding for U.S. b only 17.8 percent of districts meet school districts using four major types: city, suburb, town, and rural. or exceed this recommendation. Region: A district falls into one of four regions in the country (Northeast, There is considerable variability South, Midwest, and West), determined by U.S. Census designations. across districts, with those at the 25th percentile reporting a 292:1 a. Ultimately, the establishment of recommended ratios is based on a confluence of factors, includ- ratio and those at the 75th reporting practitioner perceptions, the efficacy of lower ratios, and political factors. For this reason, it us understandable that recommended ratios are more akin to rules of thumb than they are precise ing 642:1. Additionally, districts’ requirements. We argue that the most important conclusion to take from this is that the evidence student-to-counselor ratios vary regarding lower caseloads is fairly convincing, and that examining the ratios recommended by pro- across states, with nearly 10 per- fessional organizations serves as a reasonable benchmark in a study such as this. cent12 of the total variation in ratios b. See https://nces.ed.gov/ccd/rural_locales.asp for complete definitions. being found between rather than within states. Figure 1, which shows the median student-to-counselor TABLE 1. ACCESS TO SCHOOL COUNSELORS IN THE UNITED STATES, BY REGION ratio for districts in each state, illus- trates the range in school counselor access: in only five states is the median ratio for school districts at or below the ASCA-recommended 250:1; in eleven states the median ratio is more than double that. Regional trends are apparent, too: 25.1 percent of districts in the Source: 2013–2014 Civil Rights Data Collection Northeast meet the ASCA recommended ratio; they have a median ratio of 340:1. The comparable sta- all examined measures (Table 2). size of many rural districts, those tistics in the West are 15.2 percent A slightly more complicated trend districts that have at least one and 632:1, respectively. emerges across urbanicity. We find counselor generally exhibit bet- Poor districts and districts that rural districts are less likely ter ratios: the median ratio for with higher rates of traditionally than districts in cities, suburbs, or rural districts is 381:1, and over a disadvantaged races exhibit less towns to employ a school coun- quarter of rural districts meet the access to school counselors across selor. However, due to the smaller recommended 250:1. CARSEY SCHOOL OF PUBLIC POLICY 3

FIGURE 1. MEDIAN STUDENT-TO-COUNSELOR RATIO OF SCHOOL DISTRICTS IN EACH STATE

Note: The ranges for each color category on this map may be interpreted with respect to the ASCA’s recommended counselor-to-student ratio: a median ratio of 250:1 or lower (the lightest color) meets the ASCA’s recommendation; 251:1 to 350:1 “nearly” meets the recommendation; 351:1 to 500:1 is approaching twice the recommended ratio; 501:1 to 750:1 is more than double the recommended ratio; more than 750:1 is an extremely high median ratio. Source: 2013–2014 Civil Rights Data Collection

TABLE 2. ACCESS TO SCHOOL COUNSELORS ACROSS DISTRICT POVERTY, RACIAL Discussion COMPOSITION, URBANICITY, AND REGION Despite the importance of school counselors and the trends which suggest that too few students have adequate access to them, school counselor caseloads have increased in the past decade.13 District budgetary concerns have caused some schools to shed counselor positions. But unlike some more visible instances of belt tightening, such as increased class size, reduc- tions in school counselors may be at greater risk of going unnoticed.14 Yet there is reason for optimism: public policy can affect access to school counselors. Research has shown that states can influence Source: 2013–2014 Civil Rights Data Collection 4 CARSEY SCHOOL OF PUBLIC POLICY

the ratios of school health profes- little.18 In addition, the ASCA actu- Endnotes sionals,15 and that states with more ally recommends lighter caseloads 1. For a description of whole child progressive policies toward school for counselors in such schools, as approaches, see http://www.ascd.org/ counselor staffing show improved the level of student need there is whole-child.aspx. For an account of student outcomes.16 It is important often greater. Ultimately, the mod- conveyor belt services, see P. Tough, Whatever It Takes: Geoffrey Canada’s that states acknowledge the role erate disparities in ratios shown Quest to Change Harlem and America that school counselors play and here may actually underestimate (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, work toward policy solutions to the true disparities in unmet needs. 2009). For an overview of the Let’s ensure adequate access to these Finally, research suggests that low Move! initiative, see http://www. professionals. Given the tremen- student-to-counselor ratios are letsmove.gov/. dous range across U.S. states in most effective in high-poverty 2. See Carmen DeNavas-Walt and 19 terms of access to school counsel- schools, and so the high ratios Bernadette D. Proctor, “Income and ors, it seems that some states have found here reveal an acute lost Poverty in the United States: 2014,” more work to do than others. opportunity for some of our most Current Population Reports P60–252 The most obvious steps that states desperate schools. (Washington, DC: U.S. Census can take to improve school coun- Bureau, 2015). selor access are to establish maxi- Data 3. See http://www.apa.org/pi/ses/ mum caseload requirements and resources/publications/violence.aspx. Data analyzed here are merged from ensure that schools have adequate 4. The National Institute of Mental three sources: the 2013–2014 Civil funds to meet such requirements. Health (NIMH) estimates that 10 The relationship between these Rights Data Collection (CRDC), percent of students suffer from a mental policy levers and a state’s median the 2014 Small Area Income and illness severe enough to significantly school counselor ratio is striking. Poverty Estimates (SAIPE), and data impair their functioning (see NIMH, For instance, of the seven states collected by the National Center for Blueprint for Change: Research on with the highest median ratios Education Statistics (NCES) and the Child and Adolescent Mental Health [Washington, DC: Department of (least access), none have mandated U.S Census on the urban-centric locale of school districts. Districts Health and Human Services, 2001]). a maximum student-to-counselor In addition, roughly 13 percent ratio. Conversely, of the six states are merged using NCES district identification codes. The district of public school students have an with the lowest median ratios identified disability (see National serves as the ideal level of analysis in (greatest access), all either have a Center for Education Sciences [NCES], mandated student-to-counselor this study, as school counselors may The Condition of Education 2015: ratio or a recommended ratio with split time between multiple schools Children and Youth With Disabilities dedicated state funding to help sup- within a district, especially in the [Washington, DC: Institution of 20 port counselor access.17 case of smaller schools. We exclude Education Sciences, NCES, 2015], Our finding that districts with all schools that are juvenile justice https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/ indicator_cgg.asp); this represents a more students in poverty and/ facilities, serve only special-education students, or enroll fewer than 10 group of students that is at heightened or of a disadvantaged race have likelihood of requiring additional less access is particularly trouble- students. When we merged CRDC data with SAIPE and NCES data we services from counselors. Another some, for a number of reasons. report argued that a quarter of students dropped 655 districts that lacked First, in many states, poor schools are at risk of failure in school due to may not have the necessary fund- either poverty or urbanicity esti- social, emotional and/or health factors ing to support the hiring of school mates. Our final sample consists of (see J.G. Dryfoos, Full Service Schools: A counselors, so simply highlighting 12,891 districts in the United States, Revolution in Health and Social Services this lack of disparity may do very representing roughly 95 percent of for Children, Youth, and Families [San traditional districts in the country. Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1994]). CARSEY SCHOOL OF PUBLIC POLICY 5

5. For instance, research suggests 9. R.T. Lapan et al., “Missouri 16. For instance, Reback (2010a) found that students with unmet emotional Professional School Counselors: Ratios that the state adoption of such policies needs may prove especially Matter, Especially in High-Poverty as a counselor subsidy or a minimum disruptive in schools (see R. Kobak Schools,” Professional School Counseling counselor-student ratio reduces teacher et al., “Attachment Disruptions in 16, no. 2 (2012a): 108–16; and R.T. reports of numerous deleterious student Seriously Emotionally Disturbed Lapan, S.A. Whitcomb, and N.M. behaviors, including physical fights, Children: Implications for Aleman, “Connecticut Professional cutting class, stealing, and using drugs. Treatment,” Attachment & Human School Counselors: College and Career 17. For more information on Development 3, no. 3 (2001): 243–58, Counseling Services and Smaller Ratios state policies pertaining to school doi:10.1080/14616730110096861), Benefit Students,” Professional School counselor access, see https://www. and that disruptive students negatively Counseling 16, no. 2 (2012b): 117–24. schoolcounselor.org/school-counselors- impact their peers (D.N. Figlio, “Boys 10. R. Reback, “Noninstructional members/careers-roles/state-school- Named Sue: Disruptive Children and Spending Improves Noncognitive counseling-mandates-and-legislation. Their Peers,” Working Paper 11277 Outcomes: Discontinuity Evidence From 18. While overall per-pupil funding [Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of a Unique School Counselor Financing Economic Research, 2005]). for higher- and lower-income System,” Education Finance and Policy 5 schools is nearly equal, on average, 6. According to Civil Rights Data (2010a): 105–37; and R. Reback, “Schools’ across the United States, there Collection, a school counselor is “a Mental Health Services and Young remains tremendous variability in professional staff member assigned Children’s Emotions, Behavior, and this relationship across states (see specific duties and school time for any Learning,” Journal of Policy Analysis and B.D. Baker and S.P. Corcoran, “The of the following activities: counseling Management 29, no. 4 (2010b), 698–725. Stealth Inequities of School Funding: with students and parents, consulting 11. ASCA, “The Role of the Professional How State and Local School Finance with other staff members on learning School Counselor,” https://www. Systems Perpetuate Inequitable Student problems, evaluating student abilities, schoolcounselor.org/asca/media/asca/ Spending” (Washington, DC: Center assisting students in making education home/RoleStatement.pdf. for American Progress, 2012), https:// and career choices, assisting students 12. Calculated using one-way random cdn.americanprogress.org/wpcontent/ in personal and social development, uploads/2012/09/StealthInequities.pdf). providing referral assistance, and/or effect ANOVA on the inverse of student-to-counselor rates (as otherwise States that provide a greater proportion working with other staff members in of state aid—and thus avoid a heavy planning and conducting guidance districts without a counselor would be undefined). reliance on local property taxes to pay programs for students.” Thus, “school for public education—typically have counselor” in this brief is used broadly, 13. Authors’ own calculations using the more equitable school funding. and can include the more specific NCES table generator; see https://nces. positions of guidance, mental health, ed.gov/ccd/elsi/tableGenerator.aspx. 19. Lapan et al. (2012a). and adjustment counselors. 14. See R.J. Wright, “Great Expectations 20. Charter-only Local Education 7. S.E. Carrell and S.A. Carrell, “Do for Middle School Counselors,” Kappa Agencies (LEAs) are excluded from Lower Student to Counselor Ratios Delta Pi Record 48, no. 2 (2012): 78–81. this analysis for two reasons. First, the Reduce School Disciplinary Problems?” Others have found a similar fate met majority of these LEAs lack poverty Contributions to Economic Analysis and by school nurses; see M. Hall, “School and urbanicity estimates. Second, Policy 5, no. 1 (2006): 1–24. Nursing: Before and After Budget Cuts charter LEAs reported very low access to school counselors (only 51 percent 8. J.C. Carey and K.M. Harrington, in the Juneau School District,” Alaska Nurse 64, no. 1 (2014): 8–11. have any access); it may be the case “The Impact of School Counseling that typical counseling duties are on Educational Outcomes in High 15. See E. Maughan, “Part 1—Factors performed by other professionals School: What Can We Learn About Associated With School Nurse Ratios: within their school (for example, Effectiveness From Statewide An Analysis of State Data,” Journal of “Dean of Students”), or if many charter Evaluations in Nebraska and Utah?” School Nursing 25, no. 3 (2009): 214–21. school students do, in fact, lack access (Amherst, MA: University of This study found that per-pupil funding to many of the services typically Massachusetts-Amherst, 2010), https:// and laws mandating specific school performed by school counselors. www.umass.edu/schoolcounseling/ nurse-to-student ratios to be related to uploads/Research-Brief-8.2.pdf. school nurse ratios within a state. 6 CARSEY SCHOOL OF PUBLIC POLICY

About the Authors Acknowledgments Douglas J. Gagnon is a vulnerable families research This work was supported by the Annie E. Casey associate at the Carsey School of Public Policy and a Foundation and anonymous donors. The authors PhD recipient in education at the University of New thank Loan Phan at the University of New Hampshire Hampshire ([email protected]). Department of Education; Curt Grimm and Michele Marybeth J. Mattingly is the director of Research on Dillon at the Carsey School of Public Policy for feed- Vulnerable Families at the Carsey School of Public back on earlier drafts of this brief, Laurel Lloyd and Policy and a research assistant professor of sociology Bianca Nicolosi for their layout assistance; and Patrick at the University of New Hampshire (beth.mattingly@ Watson for editorial contributions. unh.edu).

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