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Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior: a Review of Research Findings

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Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior: a Review of Research Findings Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 23:181–192, 2011 Copyright c 2011 Marieke de Mooij and Geert Hofstede BV ISSN: 0896-1530 print / 1528-7068 online DOI: 10.1080/08961530.2011.578057 Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior: A Review of Research Findings MariekedeMooij Geert Hofstede ABSTRACT. Most aspects of consumer behavior are culture-bound. This article reviews the cultural relationships with the self, personality, and attitude, which are the basis of consumer behavior models and branding and advertising strategies. The Hofstede model is used to explain variance. Other consumer behavior aspects reviewed are motivation and emotions, cognitive processes such as abstract versus concrete thinking, categorization and information processing, as well as consumer behavior domains such as product ownership, decision making, and adoption and diffusion of innovations. Implications for global branding and advertising are included. KEYWORDS. Culture, dimensions, personality, self, emotion, global branding, communication INTRODUCTION the person refer to what people are (the who) and the processes refer to what moves people Recent years have seen increased interest in (the how). The central question is “Who am I?” the influence of culture on consumer behavior and in what terms people describe themselves as well as increased research. In this article we and others—their personality traits and identity. review studies of the influence of culture that are Related to the who are attitudes and lifestyle relevant to international marketing. We discuss because they are a central part of the person. the various areas of research following the com- How people think, perceive, and what motivates ponents of human behavior as structured in our them—how the aspects of “me” process into Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior Framework behavior—are viewed as processes. (figure 1), which was inspired by a conceptual Much research on cross-cultural consumer model by Manrai and Manrai (1996). In this behavior has used the Hofstede dimensional framework we structure the cultural components model of national culture. Although the country of the person in terms of consumer attributes scores originally were produced in the early Downloaded by [T&F Internal Users], [Rebecca Davis] at 06:42 01 August 2011 and processes, and the cultural components of 1970s, many replications of Hofstede’s study behavior in terms of consumer behavior do- on different samples have proved that the coun- mains. Income interferes. If there is no income, try ranking in his data is still valid. In the there is little or no consumption, so income second edition of his book Culture’s Conse- is placed in a separate box. The attributes of quences (2001), Hofstede shows more than 400 Marieke de Mooij is affiliated with Cross-Cultural Communications Consultancy, Burgh-Haamstede, the Netherlands. Geert Hofstede is affiliated with the Center for Economic Research at the University of Tilburg, Tilburg, the Netherlands. Address correspondence to Marieke de Mooij, PhD, Cross-Cultural Communications Consultancy, Westerenban 44, NL-4328 Burgh-Haamstede, the Netherlands. E-mail: [email protected] 181 182 JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER MARKETING FIGURE 1. Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior Framework (Adapted from Manrai and Manrai 1996) Processes Attributes Income “How” “Who” • Social processes Personality Motivation, Emotion Self-concept Consumer Group processes Identity The Person Image Values • Mental processes Attitude Cognition, learning Lifestyle Culture Language, perception Information processing Communication Decision making Consumer Behavior Domains Product ownership and usage Adoption/diffusion of innovations Complaining behavior Brand loyalty Responses to advertising Media usage significant correlations between his index scores The contrast individualism/collectivism can and data from other sources that validate them. be defined as people looking after themselves Many data on product ownership and related and their immediate family only versus people behavior (De Mooij 2004, 2010; Hofstede 2001) belonging to in-groups that look after them in appear to correlate with Hofstede’s dimen- exchange for loyalty. In individualistic cultures, sions. Sometimes a configuration of two di- one’s identity is in the person. People are mensions explains differences in product usage “I”-conscious, and self-actualization is impor- or other consumption-related phenomena even tant. Individualistic cultures are universalistic, better. assuming their values are valid for the whole world. Universalism may explain why generally individualistic U.S. marketing managers focus HOFSTEDE’S FIVE DIMENSIONS OF more on standardizing global marketing strategy than for example collectivistic Japanese do (Tay- NATIONAL CULTURE lor and Okazaki 2006). Individualistic cultures are also low-context communication cultures Hofstede found five dimensions of national with explicit verbal communication. In col- culture labeled Power Distance, Individualism/ lectivistic cultures, people are “we”-conscious. Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Uncer- Their identity is based on the social system to tainty Avoidance, and Long-/Short-Term Orien- which they belong, and preserving harmony and tation. In the description of the dimensions we avoiding loss of face are important. Collectivistic include items that are most relevant to consumer cultures are high-context communication cul- Downloaded by [T&F Internal Users], [Rebecca Davis] at 06:42 01 August 2011 behavior. tures, with an indirect style of communication. The power distance dimension can be defined In the sales process in individualistic cultures, as the extent to which less powerful members parties want to get to the point fast, whereas of a society accept and expect that power is in collectivistic cultures it is necessary to first distributed unequally. In large power distance build a relationship and trust between parties. cultures, everyone has his or her rightful place This difference is reflected in the different in a social hierarchy. The rightful place concept roles of advertising: persuasion versus creating is important for understanding the role of global trust. brands. In large power distance cultures, one’s The masculinity/femininity dimension can social status must be clear so that others can be defined as follows: The dominant values show proper respect. Global brands serve that in a masculine society are achievement and purpose. Marieke de Mooij and Geert Hofstede 183 success; the dominant values in a feminine CONSUMER ATTRIBUTES: THE SELF society are caring for others and quality of CONCEPT, PERSONALITY, IDENTITY life. In masculine societies, performance and AND IMAGE achievement are highly valued; and achieve- ment must be demonstrated, so status brands Brands are augmented products. Values or or products such as jewelry are important to personal traits are added through communica- show one’s success (De Mooij 2004, 247). In tion strategy. This is a practice developed in masculine cultures male and female roles are the Western world. Differences in values and differentiated, whereas in feminine cultures roles personal traits are found both at the company’s overlap. In masculine cultures, household work side and the consumers’ side. If they do so is less shared between husband and wife than in at all, consumers tend to attribute different feminine cultures. Men also do more household personalities to one and the same brand. A host shopping in the feminine cultures. Data from of knowledge from cross-cultural psychology Eurostat (2002) show that low masculinity is now available that helps understand the explains 52% of variance1 of the proportion differences between the concepts of self and of men “who spend any time on shopping personality across countries that lie at the basis activities.” of many consumer behavior differences. Uncertainty avoidance can be defined as the extent to which people feel threatened by The Concept of Self uncertainty and ambiguity and try to avoid these situations. In cultures of strong uncertainty The concepts of self and personality as avoidance, there is a need for rules and formality developed in the individualistic Western world to structure life. This translates into the search include the person as an autonomous entity for truth and a belief in experts. People are less with a distinctive set of attributes, qualities, or open to change and innovation than people of processes. The configuration of these internal low uncertainty avoidance cultures. Members attributes or processes causes behavior. People’s of high uncertainty avoidance cultures express attributes and processes should be expressed in their behavior a need for purity related to consistently in behavior across situations. Be- several product categories. Members of low havior that changes with the situation is viewed uncertainty avoidance cultures have a more as hypocritical or pathological. active attitude to life and play more active In the collectivistic model the self cannot sports. be separated from others and the surrounding Long- versus Short-Term Orientation is the social context, so the self is an interdependent extent to which a society exhibits a pragmatic entity who is part of an encompassing social future-oriented perspective rather than a con- relationship. Individual behavior is situational; ventional historic or short-term point of view. it varies from one situation to another and from Values included in long-term orientation are one time to another (Markus
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