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POLICY SERIES FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011 P OLICYS ERIES FRONTIER CENTRE FOR PUBLIC POLICY • POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011

The Muddle of Multiculturalism A Liberal Critique

About the Author

Salim Mansur is an Associate Professor in the faculty of social sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, and teaches in the department of political science. He is the author of Islam’s Predicament: Perspectives of a Dissident Muslim and co-editor of The Indira-Rajiv Years: the Indian Economy and Polity 1966-1991 and has published widely in academic journals such as Jerusalem Quarterly, The Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, Arab Studies Quarterly, and Middle East Quarterly. Mansur writes a weekly column for Toronto Sun and his Sun columns are published across Canada in newspapers owned by the Sun Media. He wrote a monthly column for the magazine Western Standard (Calgary), and periodically for National Post (Canada), and has published in the Globe and Mail (Toronto), the National Review Online and FrontPageMagazine.com and has also written for the PajamasMedia.com in the United States. Mansur was born in Calcutta, India and moved to Canada, where he completed his studies receiving a doctorate in political science from the University of Toronto. Before joining the University of Western Ontario he worked as a Research Fellow at the Canadian Institute for International Peace and Security in Ottawa. Mansur is a member of the Board of Directors of Center for Islamic Pluralism located in Washington, D.C., and an academic consultant with the Center for Security Policy also based in Washington, D.C. Mansur remains active in public affairs, is a frequent analyst and commentator on radio and television, invited as a panelist in PBS Jim Lehrer Hour and has participated in the Doha Debates held in Doha, Qatar, broadcast on the BBC World Forum from London, England. Mansur was presented in September 2006 with the American Jewish Congress’s Stephen S. Wise “Proﬁle in Courage” award.

FRONTIER CENTRE www.fcpp.org FOR PUBLIC POLICY MB: 203-2727 Portage Avenue, SK: 2353 McIntyre Street, AB: Ste. 1280–300, 5th Avenue SW Winnipeg, Manitoba Canada R3J 0R2 Regina, Saskatchewan Canada S4P 2S3 Calgary, Alberta Canada T2P 3C4 Tel: 204-957-1567 Tel: 306-352-2915 Tel: 403-995-9916 The Frontier Centre for Public Policy is an independent, non-proﬁt organization that undertakes research and education in support of economic growth and social outcomes that will enhance the quality of life in our communities. Through a variety of publications and public forums, the Centre explores policy innovations required to make the prairies region a winner in the open economy. It also provides new insights into solving important issues facing our cities, towns and provinces. These include improving the performance of public expenditures in important areas like local government, education, health and social policy. The author of this study has worked independently and the opinions expressed are therefore their own, and do not necessarily reﬂect the opinions of the board of the Frontier Centre for Public Policy. Copyright © MMXI by the Frontier Centre for Public Policy.

Date of First Issue: February 2011. Reproduced here with permission of the author. Any errors or omissions and the accuracy and completeness of this paper remain the responsibility of the author. ISSN 1491-78

FCPP Policy Series No. 100 • February 2011

The Muddle of Multiculturalism

A Liberal Critique

By Salim Mansur

Co-published with

Atlantic Institute for Market Studies

2000 Barrington Street, Suite 1302, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3J 3K1 Telephone: (902) 429-1143 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.AIMS.ca

The Atlantic Institute for Market Studies (AIMS) is an independent, non-partisan, social and economic policy think tank based in Halifax. The Institute was founded by a group of Atlantic Canadians to broaden the debate about the realistic options available to build our economy. Table of Contents

Executive Summary 4 Background 5 Problems with the existing legal framework 7 Frontier Centre survey on women’s rights 12 Necessary reforms 13 Conclusion 19

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Executive Summary

Sometime in the mid-1990s, when Pierre I am not quite certain if it is proper to Trudeau made a rare visit to the Parlia- infer from the measured response of the ment in Ottawa, the speaker of the House prime minister who initiated multicultural- of Commons arranged for a private ism as a policy for Canada that he had luncheon attended by a dozen selectively come very close to renouncing the same. invited Liberal members. Each guest Trudeau died a year before the terrorist was given the opportunity to pose one attacks in New York City and Washington question to the former prime minister. on September 11, 2001, that opened a Chris Cobb, writing in the Ottawa Citizen new period in world politics―the “clash of nearly a decade later, recalled the civilizations”—of which Samuel Huntington, exchange between Trudeau and invited a distinguished professor of political guests as some of those present recollect- science at Harvard, had warned (Hunting- ed it. After several relatively routine ton 1996). Doubts about multiculturalism, questions, former Liberal MP John Bryden as Trudeau expressed, and warnings remembered asking Trudeau about the about a new and troubling period in world multiculturalism policy his government politics following the end of the Cold War introduced in the early 1970s. In Cobb’s and the disintegration of Soviet Union retelling, Bryden asked, in 1991, compels us to reconsider the “Mr. Trudeau, you were one of the appropriateness of multiculturalism as a key architects of multiculturalism and set of ideas and policies within a liberal now we are in a situation where many democratic country such as Canada some newcomers to Canada consider their forty years on. ethnicity before being Canadian. Is The world at the end of the ﬁrst decade of this the outcome you wanted?” the twenty-ﬁrst century is much different There was silence around the table as from the world at the end of the 1960s, the former prime minister thought before as the promises of the earlier times have replying: “No, this is not what I wanted.” been severely shaken. The same is true about politics in Canada: the cheerful According to Mr. Bryden, Mr. Trudeau made optimism of the centenary year has been no attempt to hide his disappointment that jolted by the politics of separatism in Canada and the federal presence had all Quebec, by the demographic changes but disappeared in Quebec. through immigration in the main urban “It was fascinating to hear,” said Mr. centres, by the forces of globalization Bryden. “It was clear that he was deeply and free trade agreements, and by the disappointed that under the Mulroney insidious nature of security threats from government and driven by a fear of international terrorism—in particular, separatism, the whole multiculturalism radical Islam or Islamism—to an open, policy had been twisted to celebrate a liberal, democratic society. To those newcomer’s country of origin and not a forces have been added the economic celebration of the newcomer becoming uncertainties of a global recession that part of the Canadian fabric” (italics came quite unannounced in the late added).1 summer of 2008.

When Trudeau initiated multiculturalism as public authority. In 1968, these move- a federal policy, Canada was still basking ments came to a head when anti-war in the glow of the centennial celebrations, protests forced President Lyndon Johnson even though the “strains of affluence,” in to abandon a second-term in the White the words of historian Desmond Morton, House; and civil rights protests turned were being felt across the breadth of the violent following the murder of Martin country (Morton 2000). The strains Morton Luther King, Jr. In Europe, discontent with described resulted from the pressures of the existing political order burst out with the transition from the old Dominion of student rebellion in the streets of Paris Canada to the broadly felt need by Cana- in May 1968. The generation of 1968 had dians, as they celebrated their country’s come of age in the two decades after the centenary, to become a self-assured end of the Second World War riding the modern state with an increasing global most profound technological, economic, presence of its own. The arrangements of and social changes in world history. A old Canada were felt to be too constrictive decade earlier, in 1958, the Soviet Union to meet the demands of new Canada that had put a satellite into orbit around the had begun to emerge following the end of earth, signalling that the rivalry among the Second World War. nation-states, especially the great powers, Canada had risen to new prominence as would be exported into space. The Soviet an important ally and contributor to the challenge was picked up by the United winning of that war. And as Canadian States and in 1969 an American, Neil soldiers returned home from fighting Armstrong, descended from his spacecraft abroad, they found a new urban Canada in on to the surface of the moon. From the the making with the country shifting from perspective of man on the moon, Earth an agricultural to an industrial economy. In appeared as a fragile planet on which the Quebec the transition from the old to the political arrogance of the human species new became so marked in every aspect of to fence it off with national boundaries the economy, politics, and culture of the made no sense. For students in Europe province that the changes came to be and North America in rebellion against referred to as the Quiet Revolution. Quebec’s authority, the spirit of the time went awakening, beginning in the first half of beyond questioning the existing dominant the past century, to the demands of a political arrangements. Instead, for them modern society; and the evolving effort John Lennon’s song Imagine with its lyrics by the French-speaking majority to attain —“Imagine there’s no countries… And no independent statehood; would be the most religion too,”—became a sort of anthem. serious internal challenge pushing the old The depth and speed of change people Dominion to remake itself into the new felt at the end of the 1960s were just Canada. Yet these internal strains paled in about unprecedented. The best-selling comparison to events in the United States sociologist Alvin Toffler captured the sense and Europe; Canada, in contrast to the of this hurtling locomotive of change in world outside, appeared as a peaceful, his hugely successful book Future Shock orderly, and stable democracy of much (1970). Change can be both exhilarating civility. and discomforting. For those caught In the United States, the anti-Vietnam War in the accelerating transition from the movement joined with the civil rights old certainties of the past to the new movement in 1967 to gravely undermine uncertainties of the future, there would 5 © 2011 PUBLIC SECTOR WAGE GROWTH FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY THE MUDDLE OF MULTICULTURALISM POLICY SERIES

made during Canada’s century from 1867 The loss of faith in such a world to 1967 in terms of discoveries made in science, advances in technology, and is centrally a religious problem, creativity in arts and literature and the cumulative unintended effect of these but it has a political dimension changes on the human condition in terms of breeding anxiety and alienation. He as well, and one which includes observed that alienation arose from the the question we have been “sense that man has lost control, if he “ ever had it, over his own destiny” (Frye: revolving around all through: 24). Alienation from the existing order of things paradoxically also fuelled the desire what is it, in society, to which for change as it was felt by the 1968 we really owe loyalty? generation. And so the political realm in Canada was primed for change. But, as — Northrop Frye Frye looked around and took the measure also be alienation from society, most of his country, he commented, “The loss of acutely felt by the student generation of faith in such a world is centrally a religious 1968. Around this time, two of Canada’s problem, but it has a political dimension greatly respected academic scholars, one as well, and one which includes the a philosopher and the other a literary question we have been revolving around critic, George Grant and Northrop Frye, all through: what is it, in society, to which drew attention to how their” country was we really owe loyalty?” (121). being affected by events and things in Frye’s question was aptly phrased. ways that meant, for better or worse, It struck at the heart of the matter, the demise of the old order. politically speaking, for a generation In 1965 Grant published a little book, caught in the crosscurrents of change. Lament for a Nation, in which he For the past few centuries, as European expressed himself somewhat “angrily” ideas were transported across the ocean about the passing of English-Canadian to North America, political loyalty was nationalism as the country was being demanded by, and belonged to, the drawn into a tighter embrace of American territorially demarcated nation-states that capitalism. He wrote, “those who loved the emerged in the seventeenth century. In older traditions of Canada may be allowed the second half of the twentieth century, to lament what has been lost, even though a new idea, the “global village,” found they do not know whether or not that loss expression. The man credited with the will lead to some greater political good” coining of this expression was a Canadian, (Grant: 96). In 1967, Canada’s centennial Marshall McLuhan, professor of English year, Frye was invited to give the Whidden literature and communication theorist Lectures at McMaster University in at the University of Toronto. Though the Hamilton, Ontario, and he chose for his expression at its origin had a negative lectures the theme “The Modern Century” connotation, by the end of the 1960s (later published as a book with the theme the idea of the “global village” captured as title) to reﬂect on the period of history the mood of the time. The world was during which Canada came of age. Frye shrinking in terms of distance, given contemplated the journey the world had rapid developments in the means of 6 © 2011 FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011 FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY POLICY SERIES FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011

transportation and communication, and began to feel uneasy about state-pro- in this shrunken world, as the older moted nationalism―and in this respect arrangements of nation states in Europe they were at one with Europeans troubled and North America were being skeptically by their own violent history―French- re-examined, Frye’s question of where, speaking Quebecers began to respond how, and to whom people owed loyalty positively to nationalism that sought at in a global village became moot. a minimum a revision of the existing In retrospect, the latter half of the past powers of Confederation. It was under century was the second “golden age” of these circumstances that the Liberal liberal capitalism in the modern history government of Prime Minister Lester of the West. The first “golden age” was Pearson announced the making of the the period between the Congress of Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Vienna in 1815 and the outbreak of the Biculturalism in 1963. First World War in 1914. During the five Pearson’s B & B Commission (as it came decades following the Second World to be called) was launched, according War, liberal capitalism in the West went to the historian Kenneth McNaught, in through renewal, innovation, and strains response to the “deepening crisis of of affluence and expansion as it spurred French-Canadian aspirations, and of globalization, eventually beating off the Anglophone reluctance to contemplate challenge posed by communism. No substantial changes of policy” that would society in human history had ever been as affect the federal arrangements; and productive and rich as the West became the task set for the Commission was “to in this second “golden age” of liberal document the sources of the crisis and capitalism. The West’s success in raising to suggest paths to a federal future of the standard of living of its citizens was equality between the ‘two founding races’” matched by the expansion of freedom (McNaught: 308). It was from the labours for individuals in society recognized as of the B & B Commission that the idea of fundamental human rights to be respected multiculturalism as a policy for Canada and protected by authorities. Canada, as was born in the new Liberal government of an integral part of the West, contributed Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau after he won to and benefited from the success of majority power in the 1968 election. Since liberal capitalism during this period. And then, multiculturalism has spread to other the growth of the Canadian economy liberal democracies of the West, including made it possible to smooth the rough Australia. edges of liberal capitalism―to respond Though the official policy of multicultural- to the strains of affluence―through the ism as set forth by Ottawa was initially introduction of social welfare benefits and well received, in time critics from both universal health care as common goods the left and the right of the political for the whole society. spectrum seemed to agree that it was More difficult, however, was how to setting ethnic groups apart rather than respond to the strain on the idea of nation- bringing them closer in the building hood that was unsettling Canadians. of a more cohesive national identity. Indeed, Canada’s situation was rather Among the critics on the left, one of the unusual among the Western liberal demo- most prominent voices was that of Neil cracies. As English-speaking Canadians Bissoondath, an immigrant from Trinidad,

whose book Selling Illusions: The Cult of Multiculturalism in Canada (1994) was a hard-hitting inquiry into the reality of what multiculturalism actually meant in the lives of Canadians. On the right were voices such as that of William Gairdner, author of The Trouble with Canada (1991), who was concerned about how multiculturalism was diminishing the traditional conservatives values of the majority European population that built Canada. In this study my main concern is with some of the unintended consequences of multiculturalism that are weakening the basic principles of a liberal democracy, such as Canada. The events of September 11, 2001 showed, I believe, how multiculturalism has become an instrument of extremist political ideology, such as Islamism, and can work against the values and interests of liberal democracies. I am a skeptic of multiculturalism as an official state-directed policy, but I am realist enough to recognize that this official policy will not be reversed or dismantled, as it has become deeply entrenched in the politics of Canada and other Western democracies. But I do believe there is room for constraining any further growth of multiculturalism at the expense of the liberal values of freedom and individual rights. The events of September 11, The events of September 11, Since my critique of multiculturalism 2001 showed, I believe, is from a small-l liberal perspective distinct from the animating spirit of the multiculturalism has become contemporary Liberalism with a big-L of the Liberal party in Canada or Britain, an instrument of extremist a few words here on what I mean by political ideology, such as liberalism will be useful. My education “ and thinking on the subject of liberalism Islamism, and can work against have been influenced by the writings of Friedrich Hayek, Karl Popper, John the values and interests of Stuart Mill, and Isaiah Berlin. In their liberal democracies. work, liberalism is about liberty, about liberal democracies. the freedom of the individual from any untoward coercion by the collective in 8 © 2011 FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011 ” FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY POLICY SERIES FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011

society, and can be traced back “to the its quest to favour equality over freedom. theme of the links between the rights to Increasingly in the twentieth century, personal property and individual liberty” therefore, social liberals moved to that first found expression in John Locke’s embrace some variant of socialism and writing in the seventeenth century (Gray: succeeded in engineering a social welfare 14). Locke’s theme would be refined state that is intrusive in the lives of and advanced later in the works of individuals in return for state-provided Montesquieu, Adam Smith, David Hume, benefits. My use of the terms liberal and and others, and it would be carried with liberalism refers to classical liberalism. other ideas of the Enlightenment through And this reference to classical liberalism, the eighteenth into the nineteenth century as Hayek notes in his essay “Why I am in what John Gray calls “the liberal era”. not a Conservative” appended to his For Hayek, liberalism as an idea meant, great work The Constitution of Liberty, he recalled, how Lord Acton always used is related to “the fact that the belief in “‘liberal’ in its true and comprehensive integral freedom is based on an essentially sense,… one to whom individual liberty is forward-looking attitude and not on of supreme value and ‘not a means to a any nostalgic longing for the past or a higher political end’” (Hayek 1992: 209). romantic admiration for what has been” This meaning of liberalism might now (2006: 354). best be referred to as classical liberalism, or classical liberty, with its emphasis on individual freedom in a society ruled by law. This meaning of liberalism Implicit in classical liberalism is the belief that all men are created equal and deserv- might now best be referred ing of equal treatment under the law. But to as classical liberalism, towards the end of the nineteenth century, another strain of liberalism emerged with or classical liberty, with its emphasis on equality. The social liberals argued that for a truly equitable society to “emphasis on individual freedom emerge it was necessary for the state to in a society ruled by law. treat different groups of people differently. This would be the slippery slope for the argument to expand the powers of the state over the people, and to make the case that experts in the various social sciences possessed knowledge and insight on how to create a social order that would be more equit-able and just than the social order that worked on the basis of ” the “invisible hand” of markets organized voluntarily and spontaneously by free individuals coming together of their own accord. It meant for social liberals that, if equality required attenuating freedom, then the state should not be inhibited in 9 © 2011 PUBLIC SECTOR WAGE GROWTH FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY THE MUDDLE OF MULTICULTURALISM POLICY SERIES

The Paradox of Multiculturalism

Between 1967 and 2001 the tempo and “Typical” in terms of the evolving substance of social change in the West ethnic mix of a people is quite correct was deeper and more intensive than in describing, as Ignatieff does, how in any period of similar length during greatly Canada as a representative liberal the previous century. The list is long. democracy in the West visibly changed in The cumulative effect of the civil rights these years. movement, the feminist revolution and I observed the change from the inside the gay rights movement, anti-Vietnam as I was part of the process that turned War protests, revolutions in transportation Canada “from a society of almost uniform and communications, the global spread of colour to one that is multi-hued; from a the market economy, the making of the society that was of almost uniform religion worldwide web, the tearing down of the to one that is multi-faithed” (Bissoondath: Berlin Wall, the unification of Europe, and 45). I arrived in Toronto a few years after the collapse of Soviet communism made the centennial year as an immigrant/ liberal democracies in the West more refugee from war torn South Asia. I witnes- open, accommodating and responsive to sed a civil war and genocide as Pakistan public demands. But the change that grew tore itself apart in 1971, and was lucky upon the West in these years and held to escape in the midst of the killings with the potential to affect politics adversely my mother and younger siblings from was the nature of immigration from the what is now Bangladesh for shelter in my Third World countries to Europe and North grandparents’ home in my native city of America. The West in general and western Calcutta, India. My parents’ generation Europe in particular, during this period had been uprooted by the great partition “became a multiethnic society in a fit of of India in 1947, and within a generation absence of mind” (Caldwell: 1). my family was again thrown into the Immigration made the modern West maelstrom of ethnically driven politics. more or less what it is becoming: nations The memory of the terror and savage of migrants and cultures, especially in killings that I witnessed and that nearly the urban centres, increasingly hybrid, struck me and the male members of my polyglot, fluid and cosmopolitan. Michael family down―it is a mystery to me how we Ignatieff in reflecting on the circumstances survived the rapidly changing currents of of his family in The Russian Album writes, organized killings by the Pakistani military This century has made migration, expa- and the enraged response of mobs out triation and exile the norm, rootedness for revenge―has remained vivid with me the exception. To come as I do from a despite the passage of many years. hybrid family of White Russian exiles In Canada I found safety, support and the who married Scottish Canadians is to be opportunity to begin a new life with all the at once lucky―we survived―and typical promise my adopted home held forth for (Ignatieff: 1). me. In time I came to feel uncomfortable with the notion of being a hyphenated Canadian.

The part of me that belonged to the wider Indian culture I inherited at birth without ...the West represents the idea any effort on my part. But the part of me, the much greater part, through the of a civilization nurtured by the university education I acquired and the air I breathed as I mingled with the people values of the Enlightenment... around me at school, in work, and in politics, became by choice and conscious ...these values uniquely defines effort Canadian. I am a naturalized citizen the West in terms of liberal of a Canada that is an integral part of “ the West as a civilization distinct from democracy; and freedom other civilizations and cultures. It is this awareness of choosing to be Canadian and affirms... that man as a free what this implies that has grown within me agent and a rational creature since I landed in Toronto in 1974. To be Canadian in the fullest sense means, is an end in himself and must I believe, to embrace the West and freely assimilate its distinctive culture. It means never be treated as a means to to recognize, as I did with a mixture of awe someone else’s ends. and gratitude, that the West represents the idea of a civilization nurtured by the values of the Enlightenment that Kant the rise and fall of political dynasties, and famously defined as “dare to know,” its embracing the notions of individual liberty genealogy traced back to ancient Greece, and freedom of conscience that Mill later its faith tradition anchored in Judeo- most compellingly defended and that are Christian ethics, its politics shaped by the at the foundation of politics and culture of democratic impulse of revolutions against the West. hereditary rule, its philosophy influenced ” “The struggle between liberty and authori- by the development of the scientific ty,” Mill wrote at beginning his essay On method of controlled experiments and Liberty, “is the most conspicuous feature tests, its culture open and embracing of in the portions of history with which we new ideas. The sum total of these values are earliest familiar, particularly in that of uniquely defines the West in terms of Greece, Rome, and England” (1974: 59). liberal democracy; and freedom affirms This struggle is the oldest and most the Kantian principle that man as a free persistent in all of human history, and agent and a rational creature is an end it is tilted in favour of the collective over in himself and must never be treated the individual. as a means to someone else’s ends. My own journey from the East to the West In our time this struggle has been given a has been an education that encourages new edge by the aggressiveness of those putting aside those ideas and values that who insist on group identity over the right confine an individual to the requirements of the individual to be free of any coercion of collective identity and group solidarity, that limits his freedom. which Ibn Khaldun, the great Arab philoso- Across the world, as globalization has pher of the fourteenth century from North accelerated, the collectivist demands of Africa, described as asabiyya to explain jihad are pushing hard against the values 11 © 2011 PUBLIC SECTOR WAGE GROWTH FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY THE MUDDLE OF MULTICULTURALISM POLICY SERIES

of liberalism. This is the return of the advances the collective interest. Koestler primitive and the denial of the view that describes this conflict in a fictional setting progress in history results from the daring representing Stalinist Russia to unmask of the few to question the consensus of the reality of totalitarian politics: “The the many; it is bending to the wishes of infinite was a politically suspect quantity, the crowd and its unwillingness to protect the ‘I’ a suspect quality. The Party did the minority from the tyranny of the not recognize its existence. The definition majority; it is the jihad of the tribe, of the of the individual was: a multitude of one class-based or ethnic-based or religiously- million divided by one million” (1964: 204). organized party against the ultimate In other words, an individual is a cog in minority, the solitary individual, standing a machine and, contrary to Kant’s liberal alone against the weight of the many. ethics, a means to an end as defined by In this most primordial struggle between the collective. This is the politics of jihad, liberty and authority, the irony is that which has been the normal condition for what is universal blossoms in the life humankind in history, and only for brief of an individual as a free agent and tantalizing moments has the promise what is particular is expressed in the of liberty as what ought to be the true dogmatic defended by the collective. condition for humankind appeared on Arthur Koestler’s novel Darkness at history’s stage. It is in this sense that Noon captures this essential dilemma liberalism, it might be said, is a fighting of human existence between ends and creed devoted to protecting freedom means, between the individual’s struggle as the necessary condition for securing for freedom of conscience and the party human dignity against the politics of jihad. principle that truth is what secures and II.

If the West has become multi-ethnic in a went to the polls, and the Liberal party fit of absent-mindedness, as Christopher under Trudeau barely managed to cling Caldwell has suggested, then the cure to power. For Trudeau the electoral result proposed and turned into an “official” was a moment of catharsis, an awakening policy of multiculturalism increasingly to the brutal reality that politics, as most appears to have been hastily conjured out things in life, is driven by passion, not of bad faith in response to the political reason. It is surprising that Trudeau as needs of the moment. In Canada the a political philosopher of some merit had Trudeau initiative of October 1971 to not paid sufficient attention to this reality, promote multiculturalism as an official which the Scottish philosopher David policy was merely an initiative once we Hume (1711-76) addressed by pointing out strip away the words of the prime minister that human action is a product of passion delivered in Parliament as a feel-good or desires, and that reason is at best the public pronouncement that would do no slave of passion, directing it once man has harm, an afterthought to the more urgent been moved to act. need to quell the nationalist fervour of the Trudeau had entered politics with the French-speaking population in Quebec. reputation of possessing a rational Six months later, in April 1972, Canada intellect for cool, dispassionate, and tough

analysis to handle the most delicate file wrote Gwyn, “a history-making precedent, in Canadian politics: the pressures on with Trudeau at her side every step of the the federation as a result of the growing royal progress. So he had been accused alienation of Quebec from English Canada. of sloughing off the ethnics; up sprang Multiculturalism as an idea was not on his a trebled multiculturalism program that mental horizon. But the 1972 election sent functioned as a slush fund to buy ethnic a tremor through him as he stared at the votes” (1980: 139). real likelihood of losing power, which would Politics, especially in a liberal democracy amount to a personal defeat in public. In and generally under normal circumstances, an extended and privately revealing post- occurs on the grounds where broad election interview with Patrick Watson in consensus exists among the people on December 1973, Trudeau said: most issues publicly discussed; therefore, I’d almost say that my faith in politics, smart politics that makes for electoral my faith in the democratic process victories tends to be opportunistic. has changed a bit. I used to think it Elections are won or lost on how political would be sufficient to put a reasonable leaders can exploit the passion of the proposition to a person, for the person moment among the voting public; but to look at it reasonably, without passion, passion disallows serious contemplation but that’s obviously not true. Nine- of what is on offer to the public, and how tenths of politics―debate in Parliament, any set of policies proposed by political speeches in the hustings, commentary leaders for what they are worth should be by the media, nine-tenths of it appeals weighed by considering their unintended to emotion rather than to reason. I’m a effects as positive or negative rather than bit sorry about that, but this is the world the immediate benefits as promised. we’re living in, and therefore I’ve had to Multiculturalism was clearly a policy change (Quoted in Gwyn 1980: 138-9). on offer in the early 1970s in Canada And so Trudeau emerged in the period aimed at the requirements of a political after 1972, in the words of one of his bio- party, the Liberal party, and similarly it graphers, Richard Gwyn, as a “northern would be on offer by centre-left parties magus,” a leader who would relate to in other liberal democracies of the West, his party and his country by responding to capture for the long term in politics to the political needs of the moment, by marginal votes in electoral districts of appealing to emotions that moved people. the newly arriving immigrants. It is the It was out of such political calculations difference in marginal votes in closely that the vaguely conceived multicultural contested electoral districts that accounts initiative of 1971 was made into official for winning or losing in elections, and policy of the government of Canada, while by securing the ethnic-immigrant votes it became an electoral switch for the in the urban centres where immigrants Liberal party to secure immigrant votes settled on arrival, the Liberal party―as permanently for itself and place it at a would the Democratic party in the United commanding advantage in national politics States, the Labour party in Britain, the over its main political rivals, the Tories Socialist and social-democratic parties and the New Democrats. “Trudeau had in France, Germany, and other western been criticized for ignoring the Queen; in European countries―arranged for itself an 1973, the Queen came to Canada twice,” electoral advantage that its rivals would 13 © 2011 PUBLIC SECTOR WAGE GROWTH FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY THE MUDDLE OF MULTICULTURALISM POLICY SERIES

find increasingly difficult to overcome in in terms of group identity as citizens, or the polls. Political opportunism set aside was actively discouraged to do so, and the consideration that multiculturalism those who did were liable to be accused would give sanction to group identity of promoting “white supremacist” or and political demands on the basis of racist politics. The inherent bad-faith what serves the collective interest of an aspect of multiculturalism in Canada was identifiable group based on ethnicity, further underscored by the Citizenship religion, and, later, sexual orientation in a Act of 1977, which reduced the residency liberal democracy that presumably stands requirement for citizenship from five for protecting individual rights ahead of to three years.2 With citizenship, new collective rights. immigrants acquired the right to vote Multiculturalism thus was a policy born after living in the country for less time of bad faith that undermined liberal than the normal life of an elected majority democracy by deliberately creating a in Parliament. The provision, in fact, wedge between new immigrants from smacked of rank political opportunism to Third World countries and the settled secure the immigrant vote for the Liberal population that no longer viewed itself party. III.

The world is naturally diverse in being of the politics of jihad within a liberal multi-ethnic and multicultural. This democracy. Until 9/11 the fundamental diversity is also naturally respected as contradiction between multiculturalism a given wherever the liberal democratic and liberal democracy remained obscure. arrangement in politics is strong and This was due to the inherent bad-faith institutionalized. But the moral strength politics of multiculturalism, which exploits of liberalism comes from its refusal to genuine feelings of generosity toward the make a fetish of this diversity. The liberal disadvantaged in our world and the guilt vision sees above and beyond diversity feeling that troubles the liberal conscience in respecting individual rights, and by when confronted with the agony of others. defending liberty on the basis of securing Multiculturalists disarm and seduce individual rights liberalism acknowledges liberals with the argument that “we” that the naturally given diversity finds are responsible for the “other,” that the its best unfettered expression through advantages the West enjoys come at the the lives of individuals as free agents in expense of those who are disadvantaged history. in the less-developed non-European Official multiculturalism, however, muddies countries that were once colonies and the core liberal principle that, in a conflict, dependencies of the European colonial however it arises, between the right of powers. This reading of history suggests the individual to exercise his freedom of the West is culpable for the wrongs done conscience and the collective demand to the people of the Third World and their that the individual bend to the wishes cultures, and even though those wrongs of the group, the right of the individual cannot be entirely undone, the West can takes precedence over that of the group. begin to meet its responsibility to make Multiculturalism is the slippery slope that amends for those wrongs by recognizing leads to the acceptance or appeasement this history. Paradoxically, however, this 14 © 2011 FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011 FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY POLICY SERIES FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011

recognition of past wrongs by the West The problems of the world are, however, absolves Third World people and cultures immense, and the thought of finding of their own responsibility in history; it solutions can also lead to a paralysis of tells them that their disadvantages relative the individual will to act. Governments to the West are mostly, if not entirely, can do better, and Western governments the result of colonial exploitations by the have been driven by a complex of reasons European powers, and that their historical such as prudence, self-interest, and progress in keeping with their own cultural compassion, and prodded by liberal guilt values was denied them as a result of the feeling to provide economic, technological West’s colonial-imperial aggression against and other sorts of assistance to Third them. World countries. But to what extent Guilt feeling can be cathartic for individuals such assistance has helped developing and societies jolted by the information countries is another matter―some and images of the inequalities in the economists have raised serious doubts world and by the sheer absurdity of the about the contribution of foreign aid overabundance of commodities available to economic growth in the Third World to the people in the West. French writer (see, for example, Easterly 2006; Moyo Pascal Bruckner describes what this means: 2009). The generosity of the West has been substantial: over the past 50 years, These images clearly describe the failures according to the World Bank, US $2.3 of our age. Their horror leaves no place trillion has gone from advanced industrial for hope. Rather than broadening human economies to the developing countries of possibilities, the dying hundreds of Asia, Africa and South America (Easterly: thousands in the Southern hemisphere 4). defy the plans of others with their end- less agony, deflating the values we hold While the West has shared its own develop- dearest, ridiculing the greatest scientific mental experience, it is reluctant to and artistic achievements of the interna- provide any critical assessment of how the tional community. We feel that our moral prevailing cultures in Third World countries faith in mankind will not recover from this might be holding them back. The past wound. And, because every day the media weighs heavily on the liberal mind, and give the human race the knowledge of its the resulting guilt forbids any suggestion own misfortune, an apocalyptic vision of that might undermine the multiculturalist the universe begins to spread. By setting doctrine that all cultures are essentially of forth daily the balance sheet of suffering equal merit and deserving of equal respect. around the globe, radio and television This is the conundrum that silences liberals networks give our planet a terrible image― who are otherwise open to reasoning and that it is unquestionably the worst of all analytical judgment. The multiculturalist possible worlds (Bruckner 1986: 44-5). thus wins the argument by default. The liberal mind is readily disposed to The Islamist assault on the liberal West, see injustice when confronted with such however, has exposed the hollowness of disparity, and in becoming riddled with multiculturalism as an official policy of shame over that portion of history in Western governments and the mainstream which Europeans ruled over the non- political parties that refuse to question it. Europeans for their own benefit, the liberal The overt assault in the form of terrorism mind seeks atonement. can be effectively dealt with by appropriate 15 © 2011 PUBLIC SECTOR WAGE GROWTH FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY THE MUDDLE OF MULTICULTURALISM POLICY SERIES

security measures, but it is the covert cultural norms of the time and place when attempt to undermine liberal democracies this effort was formally initiated and from within by infiltrating their institutions closed between the first century (seventh that poses the more serious long-term century C.E.) and the third century of Islamist threat. Islam (tenth century C.E.). Shari’ah, Like dope addicts, however, Western govern- therefore, in the view of liberal-minded ments and the ideologues of multicultural- Muslims, is contextually bound to the ism insist that the answer to defusing value system of the ancient and medieval the Islamist jihad by stealth is more world. This is how Mohamed Charfi, multiculturalism, including appeasement professor emeritus in the law faculty in by incrementally conceding to Islamist Tunis and a former minister of education demands to accept shari’ah as a parallel in Tunisia, describes shari’ah: legal norm for Muslim populations in the Muslim law is based on three fundament- West alongside the rule of law that is al inequalities: the superiority of men secular and based on the hard-won prin- over women, of Muslims over non-Muslims, ciple of the separation of church and state. and of free persons over slaves. It recog- It is because of their self-imposed inhibition nizes the maximum advantages in the that liberals in the West will not publicly case of a free and rich Muslim male, and state the obvious that shari’ah is incompa- the fewest rights in the case of a non- tible with the workings of the modern Muslim female slave…. Muslim law is world. But no such inhibition constrains therefore fundamentally discriminatory. modern liberal Muslims. They recognize, It might be said that this is a harsh as the modern scholarship of Islam and judgment. Indeed it is―an unfair judg- Muslim history illustrates, that “the classical ment even. But what makes it necessary, theory of Shari’a law was the outcome unfortunately, is the existence of a funda- of a complex historical process spanning mentalist movement that demands a a period of some three centuries,” that return to the sharia and therefore com- “the growth of Islamic law was linked to pels us to measure the past by the the current social, political and economic standards of the present. An objective conditions,” and that this “classical expo- evaluation would require us to place sition represents the zenith of a process Muslim law in its historical context and whereby the specific terms of the law to compare it with the legal systems of came to be expressed as the irrevocable other old civilizations. It then takes on a will of God” (Coulson: 4). In other words, rather different aspect (Charfi: 78-9). while traditionalist-minded Muslims and It is likely true that, in the post-9/11 world Islamists insist that the shari’ah is the of Islamist rage, most Muslims who have divine ordinance, irrevocably complete and seriously considered such matters might “embodying norms of an absolute and not defend publicly Professor Charfi’s eternal validity, which are not susceptible view. But it is another matter when non- to modification by any legislative author- Muslims in the West shun or deny the view ity” (ibid.), modern liberal Muslims see Professor Charfi expresses and when such shari’ah as a human effort to construct a a view is at the heart of the struggle for religion-based (Islamic) legal system from reform of Islam among Muslims. When the piecemeal nature of pronouncements political leaders and public figures in the taken as legislative decrees found in the West openly engage in discussing how to Qur’an that were in keeping with the make room for shari’ah based provisions 16 © 2011 FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011 FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY POLICY SERIES FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011

in liberal democratic societies, then that country, as well as the appearance of undeniably such discussions are evidence shari’ah tribunals within the wider Islamic of appeasement of Islamists-in-the-making community in Britain dealing with family disguised as multiculturalism. disputes, marriages, divorces, child In giving the foundation lecture in February custody, inheritance and property rights. 2008 at the Royal Courts of Justice in One US critic of the archbishop and the London, Archbishop of Canterbury Dr. Anglican hierarchy observed, “The prob- Rowan Williams raised the likelihood that lem, shared by much of the Anglican Britain might need to consider the partial establishment, is a culture of political adoption of shari’ah. The main concern he correctness that is at once too generous expressed was around the issue of how and too stingy: an eagerness to overlook civil and religious law should be reconciled the staggering problems in Islamic in a manner that preserves the rule of law thought with regard to democratic rights, while accommodating different religious but a reluctance to claim any decisive role norms that reflect the pluralist nature for biblical religion in the formation and of a modern multi-ethnic and multi-faith defense of those rights” (Loconte 2008). society. He suggested that “we have to But the archbishop’s remarks on shari’ah think a little harder about the role and rule were in keeping with the goals of multicul- of law in a plural society of overlapping turalism to accommodate in the politics identities” and he offered the view that and law of a liberal democracy the group- “[i]t would be a pity if the immense based identities of people belonging to advances in the recognition of human immigrant communities, and to accept rights led, because of a misconception the cultural norms by which these com- about legal universality, to a situation munities live. Such recognition also would where a person was defined primarily as be consistent, he suggested, with the the possessor of a set of abstract liberties expansive meaning of human rights that and the law’s function was accordingly had evolved in a liberal society such as seen as nothing but the securing of those Britain. liberties irrespective of the custom and A similar effort was made in Ontario by conscience of those groups which concre- a former attorney-general, Marion Boyd, tely compose a plural modern society” with the release of a report in December (Archbishop’s Lecture 2008; italics added). 2004 counselling the Liberal government The archbishop’s remarks ignited a fury of Premier Dalton McGuinty to adopt of discussions in the British media over provisions of shari’ah for the purpose whether or not he had called for the of arbitration in family and inheritance adoption of shari’ah. His predecessor, matters. Lord George Carey¸ responded that the McGuinty declined to accept Boyd’s recom- archbishop had “overstated the case for mendation given the public unease with accommodating Islamic legal codes. His the post-9/11 reality, yet the push for conclusion that Britain will eventually recognition of shari’ah in a Canadian juris- have to concede some place in law for diction remains a priority for Islamists in aspects of sharia is a view I cannot Canada. A Muslim activist-lawyer writing 3 share.” The context for the controversy in the magazine for the legal profession in was the militancy of a growing portion Ontario, The Lawyers Weekly, observed: of the Muslim immigrant population in Britain and Islamist attacks carried out in Boyd’s report merely affirms our Consti- 17 © 2011 PUBLIC SECTOR WAGE GROWTH FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY THE MUDDLE OF MULTICULTURALISM POLICY SERIES

tutional right to religious freedom, liberal values. As the French political equal treatment under the law, [and] philosopher Jean-François Revel remarked, multiculturalism and ensures that we “Democratic civilization is the first in are in compliance with our international history to blame itself because another obligations. Indeed, Article 27 of the power is working to destroy it…What International Covenant on Civil and distinguishes it is its eagerness to Political Rights, to which Canada acceded believe in its own guilt and…is zealous in on May 19, 1976, imposes a positive devising arguments to prove the justice duty on a state to assist its minorities of its adversary’s case and to lengthen to preserve its [sic] values by allowing the already overwhelming list of its own them to enjoy their own culture and to inadequacies” (Revel: 7-8). profess and practise their own religion. In the post-9/11 world, guilt feeling in (Kutty 2005.) the West has been debased into political It is the vulnerability of liberal democra- correctness that frowns on any critical cies that the tools by which liberals have inquiry into the validity of the general advanced the principles of individual assumptions of multiculturalism. rights and secured them in law are equally Political correctness comes wearing the available, and often provided by liberals garment of anthropologists whose training themselves, to those who either do not in studying the minute details of different believe in such principles or subordinate cultures and faithfully rendering them as them to collective rights on the basis Clifford Geertz, a distinguished member provided for, as Kutty claims in making his of the discipline, calls for through “thick case for recognition of shari’ah provisions, description” prevents them from assessing by multiculturalism and international cultures on the basis of some objective covenants on human rights. If this were and independent standard (see Geertz, only a matter of bad faith to be held up chap. 1). for ridicule, a critic of multiculturalism writes, about a political philosopher of Cultures are inherently different from one Indian origin whom Prime Minister Tony another, but the important question is not Blair made life peer in 2000 plainly to how cultures differ but what do such differ- secure ethnic Indian votes, as follows: ences indicate in terms of their past “One professor of race relations, Bikhu achievements and current ability to contri- Parekh, has even suggested that Britain bute to the advancement of our increas- should change its name, which has so ingly shared history. Since such a question many negative historical connotations for invariably points to the objective reality millions around the world. Now that Britain that all cultures are not equal in terms has become so ineradicably multicultural, of either past achievements or current he says, there is no justification for it to viability according to some agreed be ‘British’ any more” (Dalrymple: 216). independent standard of measurement, political correctness forbids asking it. This vulnerability was acute during the Instead, multiculturalism promotes the Cold War years, when the internal ene- notion of cultural relativism, which states mies of liberal democracy on the left that since each culture is by definition (communists) and on the right (fascists) unique, any independent standard to dis- made claims for their right to espouse tinguish among cultures would itself anti-democratic views on the basis of represent cultural bias nullifying the objec- 18 © 2011 FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011 FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY POLICY SERIES FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011

tivity of any test applied. The syllogism liberate us from culture. Openness used of the proponents of multiculturalism is to be the virtue that permitted us to seek therefore a closed loop where differences the good by using reason. It now means among cultures amount to the proof that accepting everything and denying reason’s all cultures are equal, and the questioning power. The unrestrained and thoughtless of this syllogism then indicates racism the pursuit of openness, without recognizing dreadful “R” word, the scarlet letter in the the inherent political, social, or cultural politically correct world of multiculturalism problem of openness as the goal of nature, that disarms liberals and prevents critical has rendered openness meaningless. thought. Cultural relativism destroys both one’s own Moreover, the claim that cultural relativism and the good. What is most characteristic reﬂects an openness of mind to connect of the West is science, particularly under- with and learn about other cultures para- stood as the quest to know nature and the doxically has the opposite effect that this consequent denigration of convention― politically correct openness is shallow in the i.e., culture or the West understood as a absence or prohibition of critical thinking culture―in favour of what is accessible to on matters related to cultures. Allan all men as men through their common and Bloom discusses this paradox as follows: distinctive faculty, reason. Science’s latest attempts to grasp the human situation― Men cannot remain content with what is cultural relativism, historicism, the fact- given them by their culture if they are to value distinction―are the suicide of be fully human. science. Culture, hence closedness, reigns This is what Plato meant to show by the supreme. Openness to closedness is what image of the cave in the Republic and we teach (Bloom: 38-9; italics added). by representing us as prisoners in it. In the post-9/11 world, the indiscriminate A culture is a cave. He did not suggest openness of cultural relativism that leads going around to other cultures as a to tolerating the politics of jihad reveals solution to the limitations of the cave. the absurdity of multiculturalism. Political Nature should be the standard by which correctness in such circumstances is a we judge our own lives and the lives of death wish by denying our critical faculty, people. That is why philosophy, not history the mind, through reasoning to discrimin- or anthropology, is the most important ate among things, circumstances, opinions, human science. Only dogmatic assurance dogmas, people, institutions, and so on in that thought is culture-bound, that there liberating us from superstition and from is no nature, is what makes our educators the closed circle of tribal politics. so certain that the only way to escape the limitations of our time and place is to study other cultures. Men cannot remain content This point of view, particularly the need to with what is given them by know nature in order to have a standard, is uncomfortably buried beneath our their culture if they are to be human sciences, whether they like it or not, and accounts for the ambiguities and fully human. contradictions I have been pointing out. They want to make us culture-beings with “ the instruments that were invented to 19 © 2011 PUBLIC SECTOR WAGE GROWTH ” FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY THE MUDDLE OF MULTICULTURALISM POLICY SERIES

IV.

The politics of multiculturalism works in Conservative government of Prime tandem with the politics of immigration. A Minister Brian Mulroney raised immigra- generation after the immigration reforms tion levels despite evidence of an econo- of the 1960s―whether resulting from the mic down-turn. This was the signal that rising liberal optimism about the future the Conservative party was determined as the West, repaired the terrible wounds to win ethnic votes by supporting high of the Second World War or from the immigration levels. In 1990, the then tumbling birth rates and the need for Minister, Barbara McDougal, convinced workers in low-end jobs the population of her cabinet colleagues to raise the the West has undergone a visibly changed levels to 250,000, by arguing that higher ethnic proﬁle. By the 2001 census, 18.4 levels would help the party to establish percent of Canada’s population was born stronger ties with ethnic communities. outside the country; in Australia, the Later, the Minister said in an interview foreign-born accounted for 22 percent that a political party was not doing its of the population (Statistics Canada job if it failed to reach out to ethnic 2003: 5). But any critical examination groups. There was political capital to be of immigration policy in Canada, as in gained by high numbers whether they the rest of the West, is taboo due to the were needed or not (2009: 4). politics of multiculturalism. There is a Since the immigration tap, once opened, public consensus that Canada as a country creates its own pressures that will not of immigrants should be welcoming of allow for it to be closed easily, making immigrants, as they contribute to its the West more multi-ethnic and multi- economic well-being and are an answer faith likely will remain irreversible. This to the problem of an aging population. fact should not necessarily be a cause for This is a view that no one in politics or the alarm, except for the reality of the post- mainstream media is willing to question or 9/11 situation. examine objectively. Since 9/11 the Muslim population in the There was a time, however, between the West has not shown forthrightness and end of the Second World War and the determination in repudiating Islamism immigration reforms of the 1960s when as an ideology that increasingly makes a immigration into Canada, as in most mockery of Islam as a peaceful religion countries of the West, was controlled tolerant of other faith-traditions or in on the basis of prevalent economic isolating the Islamists. In Europe, in conditions. This changed in the 1970s particular, there is concern about what and 1980s, as James Bissett, a retired the growth of Muslim immigrants means Canadian diplomat and senior public for the continent’s culture and for liberal servant in Ottawa, explains. Once democracy. Muslims in Europe are now immigration was politicized, all political estimated to number in around 38 million, parties sought electoral advantage by or about 5 per cent of the population. supporting open immigration with higher As Caldwell writes, “In the middle of the numbers of immigrants granted entry. twentieth century, there were virtually According to Bissett, no Muslims in Western Europe. At the [in] 1985 the newly elected Progressive turn of the twenty-ﬁrst century, there 20 © 2011 FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011 FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY POLICY SERIES FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011

were between 15 and 17 million Muslims” as official policy that tolerates the (2009: 12). intolerant and lethally undermines a In contrast, Muslims account for less than civilization from the inside. Or in the 1 percent of the total population of Canada words of Arnold Toynbee, the historian of and the United States (Pew Research civilizations, as Mark Steyn reminds us, Center 2009: 32-3). These numbers will “Civilizations die from suicide, not murder” increase relatively quickly through immi- (Steyn 2006). gration, especially under the family re- The paradox of multiculturalism was unification policy, and a higher fertility unavoidable and predictable once a rate within the Muslim immigrant commun- liberal democracy, such as Canada, ities compared than among the native non- willingly embraced an idea that was a Muslim population. It is the meaning of concoction of loose thinking and bad faith. these numbers projected into the future It also turned out to be a sort of soft that raises alarm, especially among those bigotry―“a racism of the anti-racists: it Europeans who fear their culture is being chains people to their roots” (Bruckner undermined by the twin forces of immigra- 2007)―disguised as the high-minded tion and multiculturalism. virtue of being open to diversity and The European dilemma as a cautionary respecting differences among cultures note for North America is in how its but that amounted to viewing immigrants liberal democratic culture is becoming from the Third World not as individuals but increasingly relativistic by adopting the as people confined within the particulars politics of multiculturalism and contending of their birth cultures. This meant that with immigrant cultures, particularly that such immigrants were neither expected of Muslims, confident of their values. There nor asked to make the passage from is the easy conflict-avoidance path of their traditional cultures and embrace appeasement based on the hope that the modernity with its liberal values. more Europe accommodates Islam, the This is also the paradox of multiculturalism, more Muslims will respond by respecting according to Bruckner, as “it accords the European values and resisting demands same treatment to all communities, but that make a mockery of European liberal- not to the people who form them, denying ism. Islamists, however, are not ideologic- them the freedom to liberate themselves ally motivated to seek coexistence on from their own traditions. Instead: recog- terms set by others; for them, coexistence nition of the group, oppression of the means setting the terms for others on the individual” (ibid.). In celebrating diversity basis of shari’ah values that are incompat- on the basis of cultural relativism and ible with liberal values. In the end, the pushing political correctness, multicultural- European dilemma means, as Caldwell ism has done its share to weaken the summarizes, “[w]hen an insecure, malleable, confidence of the West in its own cultural relativistic culture meets a culture that inheritance by undermining critical is anchored, confident, and strengthened thinking about cultures when most needed by common doctrines, it is generally the to push back the politics of global jihad. former that changes to suit the latter” (2009: 349). A Europe turned into a “Eurabia” then would be the legacy of immigration joined with multiculturalism

Summing Up

In an April 23, 2010, newspaper column, Similarly, conflicts in the Middle East, Ujjal Dosanjh, former premier of British in South Asia, in Africa, and elsewhere Columbia and Member of Parliament for have generated tensions among ethnic Vancouver South, called on Canadians minorities in Canada, Europe, the United to “ask the tough question”: “What will States, and Australia. The effect of Canada look like in 50 years? Will we still such politics, as Dosanjh notes, brings have a country that is fair, compassionate, increasing stress on tolerance in a society just, integrated and socially cohesive, with a rapidly changing demography, bound by fundamental core values? Or will as is Canada. This unpleasant fact was we live separately, in communities that are discussed in a cover story by Maclean’s islands unto themselves? Could there be magazine in its May 4, 2009 edition. separatist voices rising from communities The Maclean’s story investigated “What in Canada, so extreme and so violent that Canadians think of Sikhs, Jews, Christians, we may long for the days of the peaceful Muslims…” based on a poll that asked advocacy of the Parti Québécois and Bloc respondents about religion and faith-based Québécois?”4 Dosanjh’s words carried identity. The findings were disturbing for the weight of his own harrowing personal a country that has made multiculturalism experiences as a victim of political its credo. The report indicated that 72 violence. He had been physically beaten, percent of Canadians thought favourably and was fortunate to escape with his life, of Christianity, while only 28 percent for publicly opposing extremists in the viewed Islam favourably and 30 percent Sikh community to which he belongs. viewed Sikhism positively (the figures for In his column, Dosanjh contends, that Hinduism, Buddhism and Judaism were, minority communities―that is, mostly respectively, 41 percent, 57 percent and those of non-European origin―by being 53 percent). When asked how far govern- “obsessively focused on injustices” in their ments should go to accommodate minor- native countries and thereby importing ities, 62 percent agreed with the state- quarrels from distant lands, threatened ment “Laws and norms should not be social harmony within Canada. modified to accommodate minorities.” In It was the obsessive focus on injustices Quebec, “74 per cent were against chang- faced by Sikhs in India―irrespective of ing laws or norms, the highest negative the fact that the Sikh community is one of response rate on the accommodation the most successful minority groups in the question in the country.” Divisiveness Hindu-majority country and, as I write, within Canada emanating from cultural Manmohan Singh, the prime minister of differences as the Maclean’s poll revealed, India, happens to be a Sikh―that led Sikh was a surprise for those Canadians who extremists in Canada to plan and execute had convinced themselves of the virtue the worst terrorist act before 9/11 when of multiculturalism and that it made their they blew up an Air India plane, killing all country “a model for the world of how all passengers on a flight from Toronto to sorts of people can get along together.” New Delhi in June 1985. Multiculturalism is based on the premise that, because the world is culturally

diverse, this diversity needs to be demands no form of obedience except acknowledged and promoted as public to the universal precepts of morality. To policy within liberal democracies, since worship him is to bow in private towards these societies as a result of immigration the unknowable (2002:43). increasingly reflect that diversity within Thus, the unique transmutation of Western their respective state boundaries. As culture and civilization brought about by Bhikhu Parekh notes, the multiculturalist the Enlightenment and the new scientific perspective takes into consideration method pioneered by Galileo led to the “the cultural embeddedness of human separation of church and state, religion beings, the inescapability and desirability and politics, and a new form of association of cultural plurality, and the plural and and membership or belonging―that multicultural constitution of each culture” is, one of citizenship―within the state. (2001). But exponents of multiculturalism Membership is the prerequisite of ignore, or deliberately set aside, the every society, giving an identity to the unique nature of the culture that evolved individuals who belong to it; in this sense, in the West and flourishes in the liberal such an identity is pre-political, and the democracies of Europe and North America, culture it produces becomes instrumental the progeny of the Enlightenment that in the making of political institutions and fundamentally altered man’s conception politics of that society. Again Scruton: of God and nature and his relationship to both. The modern West shaped by the Membership is defined in different ways Enlightenment did not repudiate religion, at different times and places. For many but instead subjected religion to the societies, religion is an important part scrutiny of reason. The result was the of it, so that the infidel is cast out or making of the secular conscience based marginalized, as in traditional Islamic on the universality of reason in contrast to society. Although religion has been an religious conscience based on the dictates important part of European identity, it of religion and the authority of the church was gradually, under the influence of the (Dacey: esp. 8-22). Secularism, as the Enlightenment, pushed into the back- conservative philosopher Roger Scruton ground by nationality, and subsequently explains, is a sort of religious belief and by the rise of the nation state. And it is duty where worship of an abstract God is thanks to the nation state that we enjoy a private affair and tolerance of religious the freedoms and secular jurisdictions and other differences is the cardinal that are so attractive to immigrants―and virtue. He writes: especially to those immigrants who define their pre-political membership Voltaire and the Encyclopedists, Hume, in religious, rather than national, terms. Smith, and the Scottish Enlightenment, For national loyalty is a form of neighbour- the Kant of Religion within the Limits of liness: it is loyalty to a shared home Reason Alone―such thinkers and move- and to the people who have built it. It ments had collectively remade the God makes no specific demands of a religious of Christianity as a creature of the head or ideological nature, and is content rather than the heart. God retreated with a common obedience to a secular from the world to the far reaches of rule of the law, and a common sense infinite space, where only vertiginous of belonging to the land, its customs thoughts could capture him. Daily life and its habits of peaceful coexistence. is of little concern to such a God, who Communities founded on a national 23 © 2011 PUBLIC SECTOR WAGE GROWTH FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY THE MUDDLE OF MULTICULTURALISM POLICY SERIES

rather than a religious conception of demarcated state to which he belongs, membership are inherently open to to the liberal democratic or republican newcomers, in the way that religious constitution of that state which he is communities are not. An immigrant to a sworn to uphold and defend, and to the religious community must be prepared laws of the state in whose sovereignty he to convert; an immigrant to a national has a share. And the identity provided by community need only obey the law citizenship in a modern liberal democratic (2006; italics added). state takes precedence over all other The notion of citizenship is what brings identities, those of the political left and people together in a liberal democracy right or of overlapping ethnic, religious, and binds them in a relationship of mutual cultural, and professional identities that obligations. The sense of belonging as proliferate in an open society. a result of membership in a modern Multiculturalism, however, works to state is qualitatively different than one weaken or dissolve citizenship identity in a tribe, a family, or a club, since the by suggesting that the cultural identities obligations that come with membership, which immigrants bring with them are to strangers with whom an individual deserve to be recognized and treated shares in common the association of with equal respect. As I have indicated, belonging to that state. Citizenship is the tolerance is the virtue esteemed in liberal identity by which an individual claims he democracy and its inherent characteristic has a country to call his own and shares is acceptance of other cultures. But this in its sovereignty (Dunn: 117). A citizen, acceptance cannot mean a denial of its as one writer on the subject has noted, is own historically evolved civic culture “someone who possesses rights which are represented by the modern and secular denied in a legally stratiﬁed or segmented idea of citizenship. society to non-citizens and in all societies The problem arises and persists when to resident aliens and foreigners” (Heater: multiculturalism demands that liberal 247). In his judgment in Perez v. Brownell democracy recognize in law cultural (1958), US chief Justice Earl Warren practices that are not merely different, wrote, “Citizenship is man’s basic right for but contrary and oppositional to its it is nothing less than the right to have core values of citizenship rights and rights. Remove this priceless possession responsibilities, individual freedom, and and there remains a stateless person, democracy. Any concession to group- disgraced and degraded in the eyes of based identity for instance, recognizing his countrymen” (quoted in ibid; italics in in law the status of women in accordance original). with Islamic practice based on shari’ah But this idea of citizenship is modern would undermine the principle of gender and secular. It is the fruit of the Western equality in a liberal democracy. civic culture, and while other cultures Increasingly multiculturalism, in espousing have borrowed this idea, it is only in the acceptance of other cultures, irrespective West that citizenship is vested in a free of how such acceptance diminishes liberal individual with rights and responsibilities. democracy’s unique set of values―most The animating spirit of a free individual importantly the place of the individual as citizen is the loyalties he shares in citizen as a minority of one protected by common with others to the territorially the full panoply of the state’s power based 24 © 2011 FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011 FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY POLICY SERIES FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011

on the rule of law―has turned out to be an Bruckner’s apt description of those who insidious assault on freedom in the West. reflexively fault the West for most, if not This espousal by proponents of multicul- all, of the world’s problems―to tear down turalism is motivated in part from a sense the West. of both generosity given the immensity of II. capitalist wealth, and guilt of the West’s history of colonialism and imperialism; Multiculturalism as public policy in Canada it is also motivated by a loss of faith and in other liberal democracies is not in the legacy of the Enlightenment and likely to be disowned and dismantled by opposition to the idea of the nation-state governments in the immediate future. as it originated and evolved in the West. It has acquired a momentum of its There are enemies of the West who hate own, and those who have invested in its civic culture, its freedom and democ- propagating it since the early 1970s have racy, as do the Islamists who organized succeeded in entrenching it within all the the terrorist strikes on 9/11. And ironically major institutions of the country. Hence these enemies find that multiculturalism multiculturalism as a doctrine, much like increasingly in the post-9/11 world works the socialist creed, is resistant to the test in tandem with their interests to weaken of falsification: no matter how compelling the West politically and culturally from is the contrary evidence to the claims of the inside. The reason multiculturalism multiculturalism, no matter how insidiously gives comfort to the enemies of the West it corrupts the core values of liberal is explained, Robert Fulford says, by lack democracy, there is the “progressive” of self-confidence: “Since the success of appeal for social justice derived from the Martin Luther in the sixteenth century, notion of equality ahead of liberty, and the West has revered self-criticism. We adorned in a contrite language pushing all know that the states in North and for reform as atonement for past wrongs, South America established themselves that makes multiculturalism an attractive by violence and that Europe grew rich notion to many members of an open through its colonies. In the universities society. the young learn one central belief: We The best that might be done under these are guilty! In comparing ourselves with circumstances to oppose multiculturalism other forms of society, our first self- and to seek its eventual repudiation both hating instinct is to adopt a perverse in the realm of ideas and in legislation moral disarmament.”5 This self-hating is to contain its further spread into the instinct, Pascal Bruckner reminds us, is workings of liberal democracy. The rise also uniquely Western. “Europe against and spread of militant Islamism with the itself: anti-Occidentalism, as we know,” success of the Islamic revolution in Iran he writes, “is a European tradition that ―ironically, this movement coincided with stretches from Montaigne to Sartre and the push for adoption of multiculturalism instills relativism and doubt in a serene as public policy in Canada―and its combat- conscience sure that it is right” (2010: 9). iveness against the West poses the most Whatever once were the good intentions serious challenge to the proponents and behind multiculturalism, it has become, defenders of multiculturalism in govern- in the post-9/11 world as a post-modern ment, in schools and institutions of higher ideology, the tool of “guilt peddlers”― learning, in the media, and in mainstream 25 © 2011 PUBLIC SECTOR WAGE GROWTH FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY THE MUDDLE OF MULTICULTURALISM POLICY SERIES

political parties. This Islamist assault on face except for the eyes―when Quebec the West provides the opening to question immigration minister Yolande James the basis of multiculturalism and to contain approved the expulsion from class in a its further spread. Montreal school of a student, an Egyptian Since 9/11 there has been a growing sense woman, for refusing to bare her face and of alarm in the West among people at insisting that male students in the class large that their open, tolerant society and refrain from facing her. In the weeks its unique civic culture are under siege by following this incident Premier Charest their own governments, which are seen as introduced Bill 94 in Quebec’s National excessively sensitive to the cultural needs Assembly in March 2010 requiring anyone of new immigrants instead of defending employed by the government and publicly their ways of living. In Quebec, residents funded institutions―Crown corporations, of Hérouxville, a small township outside hospitals, schools, universities, daycare of Montreal, brought this alarm to a head centres, libraries, and other municipal when they published a charter that called facilities―or receiving their services to for anyone moving into their township to uncover their face for the purposes of abide by its terms. The Hérouxville char- identification. For multiculturalists, Bill 94 ter resonated among the majority popula- is a violation of the rights of minorities tion of French-Canadians in Quebec, and in to maintain their respective cultural order to be seen as a responsive govern- precepts, and if the bill becomes law it ment, Quebec’s Liberal premier Jean very likely it will be taken to the human Charest set up the Bouchard-Taylor Com- rights commissions in both Quebec and mission to look into the grievances and Ottawa and appealed in the courts. come forward with recommendations. The Quebec is not alone in demanding that commission’s report, released in 2008, Muslim women unveil in public the called for “reasonable accommodation” issue has become even more volatile in between the native-born population and Europe. The linguistically divided Belgian the growing numbers of newly arriving parliament voted overwhelmingly to ban immigrants from non-European cultures. face covering in April 2010, setting a The commissioners conceded, “Our society precedent for France and now possibly is sufficiently divided at present and we the Netherlands to follow. Jean-François must seek to reduce splits and tensions Copé, the majority leader in the French instead of exacerbating them. The time National Assembly and the mayor of has come for compromise, negotiation and Meaux, explained, “This is not an article balance” (Bouchard and Taylor: 10). of clothing―it is a mask, a mask worn Yet the dilemma with “reasonable accom- at all times, making identification or modation” is how the majority population participation in economic and social life can insist that new immigrants adopt the virtually impossible.” In anticipating civic culture of liberal democracy when opposition similar to the condemnation by government-approved multiculturalism Amnesty International of the Belgian ban rejects the need for assimilation in favour as “an attack on religious freedom,” he of extending equal recognition to other then continued, cultures. This contradiction was exposed ...in both France and the United States, we in the controversy surrounding the subject recognize that individual liberties cannot of the niqab―the practice by some Muslim exist without individual responsibilities. women of fully covering of their body and This acknowledgment is the basis of all 26 © 2011 FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011 FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY POLICY SERIES FCPP POLICY SERIES NO. 100 • FEBRUARY 2011

our political rights. We are free as long Canadian, but a Canadian…. as we are responsible individuals who A person may derive his or her identity can be held accountable for our actions from many things, including occupation, before our peers. But the niqab and sex, race, religion, class, nationality and burka represent a refusal to exist as a citizenship. Not all identities are exclusive. person in the eyes of others. The person Some can obviously overlap or may even who wears one is no longer identifiable; be complementary…. she is a shadow among others, lacking individuality, avoiding responsibility.6 Other identities are exclusive. They cannot be hyphenated. If you are, or choose It is quite proper that people in liberal to be one thing, by definition you cannot democracies and their representatives be the other. It would be difficult to in government remain wary about describe a person as a “Canadian woman- defending individual rights and freedoms man” (even if you think someone you without breaching the same of others in know fits the definition). What about society. The niqab controversy illustrates, hermaphrodites, someone may ask. Well, however, the difficulties when the principle what about them? They have a category of citizenship is set aside or not given of their own. precedence over cultural norms as basis of identity that are inconsistent with modern The point is, there are identities that secular values. don’t exist in multiples. Genders, citizenships, marital statuses, and the like In resisting the corrosive effects of multi- cannot be stacked without altering their culturalism on a liberal democracy, the essence…. principle of citizenship with its rights and responsibilities needs to be reaffirmed and A citizen is a spouse. He or she can be protected. People need to be reminded attracted to several countries, but repeatedly what it means to be a citizen married to only one. There are Turks in a modern secular state, and why any living in Denmark, and Danes with mem- form of multicultural citizenship or dual ories of Turkey, but no Danish Turks. I’ve and multiple citizenship that most liberal many memories of Hungary, including democracies, including Canada, have some fond ones, and feel enriched by adopted in practice is a contradiction in knowing something of its language, terms, weakening and diminishing the literature, music, customs and geography, identity of citizens who are joined together but find patriotism as indivisible as in commonly shared loyalty to their state. Solomon’s baby. My reservoir of patriotic In his usual trenchant style, George Jonas feelings is exhausted by Canada, and dissects this contradiction as follows: citizenship without patriotic feelings is a sham. I’m often called a Hungarian-Canadian. It doesn’t bother me, but it’s inaccurate. I’d Dual citizenship appears to me a loveless only be a Hungarian-Canadian if I were a marriage, a marriage of convenience. citizen of both countries, and I’m not. I’ve fond memories of previous wives and know something of their geography I was born and raised in Hungary, and music, but my current wife exhausts survived it and when an alternative my reservoir of spousal feelings. She’s opened up, I became a Canadian. That entitled to my unhyphenated commit- was about half a century ago. I’ve been ment. So is my country.7 a Canadian ever since. Not a Hungarian- 27 © 2011 PUBLIC SECTOR WAGE GROWTH FRONTIERFOR CENTRE PUBLIC POLICY THE MUDDLE OF MULTICULTURALISM POLICY SERIES

Jonas is certainly not alone in his patriotic III. sentiment, in his affection for and singular loyalty to his country that comes with an An open society, liberal democracy, and awareness of the meaning of citizenship. the rule of law are not the natural state of My sentiments are similar to those of man but historical achievements that have Jonas, and it would be with most people come about at great expense. Though who value their citizenship, whether they their values are universal, they have been are native born or naturalized. These realized, if not in their entirety, at least sentiments are in the best sense deeply in great measure only in the West against felt and nurtured, are as natural as is the indefatigable opposition of those who familial affection or love between two decry the role of reason over religious people and not merely some sort of doctrines, loathe openness and freedom convention, utilitarian, artificially rigged, in favour of the closed circle of tribal and bureaucratically supervised. But dual and collectivist values, and denounce and multiple citizenships make a mockery democracy as a recipe for anarchy. The of patriotic sentiments and reduce the enemies of open society are vast in principle of citizenship with its rights and number and, like tidal waves relentlessly obligations to a matter of convenience. beating down on dykes that, if not Together with multiculturalism, dual and regularly attended, would break and be multiple citizenships work to hollow out washed away, they remain unforgiving and the modern secular state and turn it into tireless in their effort to wreck the open an attractive hotel, a comfortable and society and freedoms that distinguish convenient way station for people on the liberal democracy from any other form of move in the age of mass migration, of political arrangement in the history of man globalization of finance and commerce, and society. and of rapid transportation and instant communication. But as a result, whatever The first and most important line of gains or profits are declared in the audited defence of freedom as the foundation for annual reports of national treasuries the open society and liberal democracy and multinational corporations, the on which rest the historical achievements incremental loss of individual freedom in of the West is education. It means first a liberal democracy over time becomes learning and then being repeatedly irreversible and the future of open society reminded of how Canada’s founding values becomes increasingly bleak. are those of the open society and liberal democracy. Brian Lee Crowley writes, “Central to this view of the character ...dual and multiple citizenships of Canadians and their institutions was a notion of individual freedom and make a mockery of patriotic responsibility, a belief that each of us sentiments and reduce the was endowed with a nature that required us to be responsible and accountable for principle of citizenship with our choices. The corollary was that if we deprived men and women of their freedom “its rights and obligations to a and responsibility for themselves, we matter of convenience. prevented people from being fully free and fully human” (2009: 44).

Crowley cites as a reminder the inspiration- the twenty-first century live under some al words of Richard Cartwright, spoken sort of authoritarianism of one-party in the legislature of the United Province rule headed by leaders without humour of Canada in 1865: “I think every true or any other redeeming qualities, such reformer, every real friend of liberty, will as kindness, humility, intelligence, wit, agree with me in saying that if we must that free people instinctively recognize erect safeguards, they should be rather and respect. A liberal democracy such as for the security of the individual than Canada is inherently open and accepting of the mass, and that our chiefest care of the other, and whenever and wherever must be to train the majority to respect there is an impediment to such acceptance the rights of the minority, to prevent the it can be met with and overcome through claims of the few from being trampled reasoning and dialogue. There is, moreover, underfoot by the caprice or passion of in a liberal democracy no basis for ethno- the many. For myself, sir, I own frankly I centric prejudice by the majority popula- prefer British liberty to American equality” tion to reject the cultural norms of ethnic (45). minorities. There is in Cartwright’s speech a resound- But when any aspect of such cultural ing echo of Mill’s liberalism and Tocqueville’s norms collides with the core values of a concern over the tyranny of the majority; liberal democracy, then that aspect needs and there is the clarity of understanding to be reformed or rejected accordingly. In that the strength of a liberal democracy order for this to occur, for any reasonable comes from its unbending defence of accommodation to work in an ethnically freedom in which the “security of the diverse Canada, there needs to be a clear individual”―the ultimate minority of one understanding without any ambiguity against a majority that can turn into a among all Canadians, irrespective of mob―is its defining virtue as the good their ethnicity, that there is a unifying society. This understanding of why a Canadian culture deeply embedded in the liberal democracy cannot be improved values of the West and shaped by the on by the flawed logic of multiculturalism Enlightenment. This Canadian culture is needs to be re-discovered, restated and open and inclusive, embracing of others, reaffirmed without apology or equivocation tolerant and generous and deserving if freedom and democracy are to remain of the unapologetic support of all who secure against the scheming of their cherish freedom as God’s most precious enemies. gift. Finally, and one more time, it needs stating that the worm inside the doctrine ...our chiefest care must be to of multiculturalism is the lie that all cultures are worthy of equal respect and train the majority to respect equally embracing of individual freedom and democracy. The concerted assault the rights of the minority... by the Islamists on the essential and life- — Brian Lee Crowley affirming values based on individual rights and freedoms is proof of this lie. A large portion of the world’s population, quite “ likely the majority, at the beginning of

Acknowledgements

This liberal critique of multiculturalism was for being willing and sometime eager to commissioned by the Atlantic Institute for provide their insights as we discussed Market Studies (AIMS) in Halifax, Nova the subject over many wonderful cups of Scotia, and I want to thank Brian Crowley, coffee; to Adrienne Dain for her help in its former president, Charles Cirtwill and finding reference materials; to my wife, Barbara Pike, its current president and Yasmina, without whose kindness and vice-president, in addition to Ian Munro, love I would not be able to function; and, Bobby O’Keefe, and Lori Peddle for their I mention him last only because he has kindness, patience, and support through been so special during the period I worked the preparation and writing of it. on this study, to Ben Singer, a former I also want to recognize and thank a colleague at the University of Western number of friends with whom I discussed Ontario and a friend, to whom I dedicate the subject as I worked on the study. I am this study in gratitude for the sort of indebted to Naresh Raghubeer and David support he has always extended to me. Harris for their insights; to Munawar Karim It is needless to state that, without the and Joydeep Mukherji for all the time we intellectual support and personal kindness have spent together in discussing this of friends mentioned, and many who subject and many other related matters remain unmentioned, completing this work over some time; to Robert Addington, would have been tedious. I am, however, Mary Lou Ambrogio, Bessie and David solely responsible for this study, the Borwein, Susan Cassan, Chris Essex, Rory arguments made, the conclusion reached, Leishman, John Palmer, Alan Perlmutter, and any flaw that discerning readers may Rénald Richler, Alex Ross, and Eva Ryten find. in our Saturday morning Starbucks club

References

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Heater, D. 1990. Citizenship: The Civic Ideal in World History, Politics and Education. London and New York: Longman. Huntington, S. P. 1996. The Clash of Civilizations: Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Schuster (Touchstone Book 1997). Ignatieff, M. 1987. The Russian Album. New York: Viking Penguin. Koestler, A. 1964. Darkness at Noon. London: Penguin. Kutty, F. 2005. “Boyd’s recommendations balance needs of religious communities with rights of vulnerable.” The Lawyers Weekly (Toronto), January 21. Loconte, J. 2008. “Allah, Queen, and Country: Sharia gets an unlikely boost in the UK,” The Weekly Standard. February 13. McNaught, K. 1969. The Pelican History of Canada. London: Penguin Books. Mill, J.S. 1974. On Liberty. London: Penguin Books. Morton, D. 2000. “Strains of Afﬂuence,” in Craig Brown (ed), The Illustrated History of Canada, pp. 469-570. Toronto: Key Porter Books. Parekh, B. 2001. “What is multiculturalism?” in Seminar (web-edition). New Delhi: http://www.india-seminar.com/1999/484/484/mahajan.htm. Pew Research Center. 2009. Mapping the Global Muslim Population. October (www.pewresearch.org). Revel, J.F. 1983. How Democracies Perish. New York: Doubleday. Scruton, R. 2006. “Immigration, Multiculturalism and the Need to Defend the Nation State,” in The Brussels Journal, June 24; http://www.brusselsjournal.com/node/1126. Scruton, R. 2002. The West and the Rest: Globalization and the Terrorist Threat. Wilmington, DE: ISI Books. Statistics Canada. 2003. 2001 Census: analysis series. Canada’s ethnocultural portrait: The changing mosaic. Ottawa. Steyn, M. 2006. “It’s the Demography, Stupid,” in The New Criterion (New York), January 2006. Young, M. 1998. “Canadian Citizenship Act And Current Issues.” Ottawa: Depository Services Program, Government of Canada.

Endnotes

1. C. Cobb, ‘Canada’s lost promise of multiculturalism,’ Ottawa Citizen, July 4, 2005. 2. The legislation passed by the Trudeau Liberals, was long required, since Canadian citizenship until then had been an undeﬁned category, and technically Canadians were by statute native-born or naturalized British subjects: see Young (1998). 3. Quoted in R. Butt, “Gordon Brown backs archbishop in sharia law row, ” Guardian, February 11, 2008. 4. Ujjal Dosanjh, “Ask the tough questions,” National Post, April 23, 2010. 5. R. Fulford, “The West has work to do,” National Post, December 26, 2009. 6. J.-F. Copé, “Tearing away the veil,” New York Times, May 4, 2010. 7. G. Jonas, “Dual citizenship : A contradiction in terms, ” National Post, June 9, 2010.

July 2010 Culturally-driven Violence Against Women A growing problem in Canada’s immigrant communities Aruna Papp h�p://www.fcpp.org/publica�on.php/3351

October 2010 Abusing Canada’s Generosity and Ignoring Genuine Refugees An analysis of current and still-needed reforms to Canada’s refugee system James Bissett h�p://www.fcpp.org/publica�on.php/3466