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Evolution of Variation and Variability Under Fluctuating, Stabilizing, and Disruptive Selection

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Evolution of Variation and Variability Under Fluctuating, Stabilizing, and Disruptive Selection ORIGINAL ARTICLE doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2010.00979.x EVOLUTION OF VARIATION AND VARIABILITY UNDER FLUCTUATING, STABILIZING, AND DISRUPTIVE SELECTION Christophe Pelabon,´ 1,2 Thomas F. Hansen,3,4 Ashley J. R. Carter,3,5 and David Houle3 1Department of Biology, Center for Conservation Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway 2E-mail: [email protected] 3Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306 4CEES, Department of Biology, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066, 0316 Oslo, Norway 5Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, California 90840 Received September 16, 2009 Accepted February 3, 2010 How variation and variability (the capacity to vary) may respond to selection remain open questions. Indeed, effects of different selection regimes on variational properties, such as canalization and developmental stability are under debate. We analyzed the patterns of among- and within-individual variation in two wing-shape characters in populations of Drosophila melanogaster maintained under fluctuating, disruptive, and stabilizing selection for more than 20 generations. Patterns of variation in wing size, which was not a direct target of selection, were also analyzed. Disruptive selection dramatically increased phenotypic variation in the two shape characters, but left phenotypic variation in wing size unaltered. Fluctuating and stabilizing selection consistently decreased phenotypic variation in all traits. In contrast, within-individual variation, measured by the level of fluctuating asymmetry, increased for all traits under all selection regimes. These results suggest that canalization and developmental stability are evolvable and presumably controlled by different underlying genetic mechanisms, but the evolutionary responses are not consistent with an adaptive response to selection on variation. Selection also affected patterns of directional asymmetry, although inconsistently across traits and treatments. KEY WORDS: Canalization, directional asymmetry, disruptive selection, Drosophila melanogaster, fluctuating asymmetry, fluctu- ating selection, stabilizing selection, variational properties. Phenotypic variation and the relative contribution of its different organism’s capacity to respond to or regulate the effects of various components vary enormously across populations and characters internal (genetic) or external (environmental) differences. Genetic (Houle 1998). Traditionally, attempts at explaining this diversity variation is caused by genotypic differences among individuals. have focused on patterns of selection and levels of mutation. More Environmental variation is caused by exposure to different macro- recent work has investigated the possibility that variational poten- or microenvironments, as well as stochastic perturbations during tial itself may be an evolvable character. This work stemmed from the development that results in developmental noise (Nijhout and Wagner and Altenberg’s (1996) conceptual distinction between Davidowitz 2003). Organisms may differ in their response to ge- variation and variability, where the latter refers to variational po- netic or environmental differences, some being relatively robust tential, that is, the ability to vary. Population variation has both and able to produce similar phenotypes in the face of genetic genetic and environmental components. These are affected by the (mutational) or environmental changes, and others being more C 2010 The Author(s). Journal compilation C 2010 The Society for the Study of Evolution. 1912 Evolution 64-7: 1912–1925 EVOLUTION OF VARIATIONAL PROPERTIES sensitive, or perhaps plastic, in their responses. The variability of 1971, 1980; Sorensen and Hill 1983; Burger¨ 2002; Gavrilets 2004; an organism or genotype is thus determined by its sensitivity or ca- Spichtig and Kawecki 2004; Kopp and Hermisson 2006), but the pability to respond to genetic and environmental differences. Tra- effects of disruptive selection on genetic canalization are largely ditionally, the buffering of genetic and environmental differences unknown. The evolution of the environmental components of vari- between individuals have been referred to as genetic and environ- ance under selection for variation is even less well understood, but mental canalization, respectively (Wagner et al. 1997; Flatt 2005), Zhang and Hill (2005; Zhang 2005) found a tendency for the evo- whereas mechanisms buffering against stochastic perturbations of lution of environmental canalization under stabilizing selection individual development have been referred to as developmental and a tendency for the evolution of environmental decanalization stability (Waddington 1957; Debat and David 2001; Klingenberg under fluctuating selection. 2003). Individual and population differences in developmental There are several problems with the idea that variational stability and canalization suggest that these properties may be properties can be selected as adaptations. One is that selection for quite evolvable. Although selection acts on the realized variation, variational properties is most often a weak second-order effect it is unclear how efficiently it can act on the variational potential, (Proulx and Phillips 2005), susceptible to being overshadowed by and the relationship between selection on variation and selection indirect selection (Hansen 2010) or genetic drift (Lynch 2007). on variability is far from simple (Hansen 2006). The question also remains whether variational properties are suf- The direct effect of selection on variation depends on the ficiently evolvable to respond to whatever selection pressures convexity of the fitness function (Layzer 1980). Concave fitness they encounter. For example, it is generally thought that genetic functions (negative second derivatives) reduce variance, whereas canalization is not evolvable under an additive genetic architec- convex fitness functions (positive second derivatives) increase ture (e.g., Flatt 2005; but see Hansen 2003, 2010 for a proposed variance over an episode of selection. Thus, variance is expected mechanism based on “heritable allelic effects”). With epistasis, to decrease under stabilizing selection and increase under dis- several studies have found that a degree of genetic canalization ruptive selection. The direct effect of linear directional selection can evolve under stabilizing selection, but that this is a relatively on variance depends on the skew of the trait distribution (e.g., weak and slow process sensitive to the genetic architecture and Burger¨ 1991; Hansen 1992), but with polygenic traits where near- strength of selection (Wagner et al. 1997; Hermisson et al. 2003; Gaussian distributions are generated by recombination, we do not Alvarez-Castro et al. 2009). The most likely mechanism for the expect strong selection on variance. It has recently been shown, evolution of genetic canalization may in fact be as an indirect however, that rapid changes of additive genetic variance can oc- effect of selection for environmental canalization (Gavrilets and cur under linear selection in the presence of directional epistasis, Hastings 1994; Wagner et al. 1997; de Visser et al. 2003; Rifkin that is, when genes systematically modify each other in particular et al. 2005). Empirically, much effort has been devoted to studying directions in the morphospace; positive directional epistasis leads the evolvability of developmental stability. Most of these studies to an increase in additive variance, whereas negative directional have found that fluctuating asymmetry has low additive genetic epistasis leads to canalization (Hansen and Wagner 2001; Carter variation, but whether this translates into a similar low evolvabil- et al. 2005; Hansen et al. 2006a). Prolonged directional selection ity of developmental stability is less clear (Van Dongen and Lens is, however, unlikely to be common in nature, and it is unclear 2000; Santos 2002; Fuller and Houle 2003; Pelabon´ et al. 2004a; what general effects fluctuating directional selection may have Leamy et al. 2005; Leamy and Klingenberg 2005). on genetic variance components (but see Burger¨ 1999; Kawecki Although the theoretical results paint a complex picture of 2000; Jones et al. 2004, 2007; Draghi and Wagner 2008 for some the evolution of variational properties under different selective results from specific models). The short-term response of genetic regimes, we can identify some general hypotheses that can be variance to stabilizing selection is also complicated and depends tested against data by answering the following questions: (1) Can strongly on many different aspects of genetic architecture (e.g., variational properties be changed within the time scale of a se- Barton and Turelli 1987; Turelli and Barton 1990; Burger¨ 1991, lection experiment, and if these changes occur, are they pre- 2000; Wagner et al. 1997; Hermisson et al. 2003). Over longer dictable from the expected effects of selection on variation? time scales, epistatic genetic architectures may have a tendency (2) Alternatively, are canalization and developmental stability to evolve a degree of genetic canalization under stabilizing selec- generally optimized under natural selection, so that we may tion (Hermisson et al. 2003; Alvarez-Castro et al. 2009), but it is expect decanalization and increased developmental noise under unclear whether this can have significant effects on shorter time most artificial-selection regimes?
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