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Topic 1: History

Lectures: Jan 30: The and Feb 1: Swahili Coast - from ‘colonialisms’ to revolution Feb 3: Guest Lecturer (Nader Hashemi) Feb.6: Slave trades and their legacies Feb. 8: European Colonialism and its legacies

Seminars: Feb 10: TBA Feb 13: TBA Feb 15: TBA Feb 17: Guest Lecturer January 30 The Ottoman Empire and Africa: seeking the links, living the legacies Early Medieval Empires in Africa and 12-15th Centuries Early Medieval Empires West Africa 12-16th Centuries Western : 1258-1405 ”

Mamluk State c.1400: “The Golden Age” Ottoman Empire 14th c. through 17Th c. Early Medieval Empires West Africa 12-16th Centuries Kanem –Bornu

• origins in 7th century • became Muslim between 11th c. and 13th c. • known for extensive trade with the north: exporting ivory, slaves, ostrich feathers; imported horses used in warfare • gift-giving with Sultans of the north also common – evidence of a giraffe having been given as a gift by the ruler of Kanem to the Sultan of Tunis in the 13th c •14th century moved centre of kingdom south-east to Bornu • closer contacts with the Muslim world to the east established • became centre of Islamic learning • latter part of 16th c. army Borno modernised and expanded: firearms were imported from ; Turkish mercenaries were recruited • palace life and ‘etiquette’ came to mirror that of Istanbul Kanem –Bornu

• IDOLATRY

•"The inhabitants of Kanem are idolatrous Sudan. It is said that there exists in those parts a clan descended from the Umayyads, who took refuge there when they were persecuted by Abbasids. They dress in the fashion of the Arabs and follow their customs."

•The Spanish muslim scholar Al-Bakri. Kanem –Bornu

•BEDOUIN KING

•"The King is a wandering Bedouin. When he sits on his throne, his subjects make obeisance to him and fall on their faces. His armies, including cavalry, infantry, and porters, number 100,000. Between Aljama and Yalamlam there dwell a great many unbelievers…the king of Kanem has five minor kings under his sway. His horses are small. Kanem is a vast region through which the blessed flows."

14th century Egyptian Al-Maqrizi. Kanem –Bornu

•POET FROM AFAR

•"Kanem …is part of the land of the Berbers in the farthest west in the land of the Sudan. Some say that the Kanem are a people of the Sudan. At the present day there is a poet at Marrakesh in Maghrib known as al- Kanimi (the one from Kanem) whose excellent work is attested to, but I have never heard any of his poetry nor learnt his proper name."

12th century Greek bookseller and scholar Yaqut. Born in Greece, he was sold into slavery to a Syrian merchant. He was later freed and travelled widely. Early Medieval Empires West Africa 12-16th Centuries Hausa States – ‘Kano’

• theories of origin vary:

• many connect earliest states with Kanem Bornu– shared traditions of horsemanship, music, religion (Islam)

• others to various places ‘north’, including (sacred sword, for example, said to have come from the

• most interesting is the ‘Baghdad’ connection Hausa States – ‘Kano’

• the King of Baghdad's son, Bayajidda or Abuyazidu, quarrelled with his father, left Baghdad and ended up in the state of Daura (directly north of Kano in present day northern Nigeria). There, the people were terrorised and deprived of water by a snake which lived in a well.

•Bayajidda gained the gratitude of the king of Daura by killing the snake. In return the king gave his daughter's hand in marriage. Bayajidda and his wife had a son, Bawo, who married and in turn had six sons who then became rulers of Kano, Zazzau (Zaria), Gobir, Katsina, Rano and Daura; a seventh state Biram is added to the list. These are the Hausa Bakwai, the seven Hausa states.

• Bawo is said to have had a further seven sons by his concubine. These became rulers of the Banza Bakwai, or seven 'illegitimate' Hausa states: Zamfara, Kebbik, Nupe, Gwari, Yauri, Yoruba and Kororofa Early Medieval Empires West Africa 12-16th Centuries Ancient Mali

• Empire of Mali rose in the 13th C., encompassing much of West Africa • most famous for ruler Mansa Musa:

MANSA MUSA'S PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA

"It is said that he brought with him 14,000 slave girls for his personal service. The members of his entourage proceeded to buy Turkish and Ethiopia slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that the rate of the gold dinar fell by six dirhams. Having presented his gift he set off with the caravan." born historian al-Maqurizi.

• returned with architects from ‘’ built famous mosques Gao, Jenne among others; attracted scholars to Timbuktu; established long-standing intellectual connections with Fez (Morocco) Songhay

• Songhay rose to prominence from shadow of Mali, in 15th C. • end of century a particularly religious ruler (Muslim) promoted Songhay in the Muslim world: went to Mecca and visited the Caliph of Egypt, who in turn made him Caliph of the whole of Sudan (area embracing Mali, Chad, north west Nigeria, and Niger ) • early 16th c. description by Moroccoan Travelle Leo Africanus to Timbuktu::

"Here there are many doctors, judges, priests and other learned men, that are well maintained at the king's cost. Various manuscripts and written books are brought here out of Barbarie and sold for more money than any other merchandise.

The coin of Timbuktu is of gold without any stamp or superscription, but in matters of small value, they use certain shells brought here from Persia, four hundred of which are worth a ducat and six pieces of their own gold coin, each of which weighs two-thirds of an ounce." Songhay

Shows interesting similarities with Ottoman Music (Listen at http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4ch •Traditional apter4.shtml , bottom of page) Sonahqy ‘griots’ (top)

•Ottoman Jannissay musicians (bottom)

(Listen at http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~amcdouga/Hist323/default.htm Click on ‘Ottoman music’)

“The Mamluks (from an word meaning "the owned") were non-Arab, mostly Turkish or Kurdish slaves owned by men who had themselves once been slaves. After being purchased in the slave markets as young boys, they were raised in special segregated barracks in Spartan fashion, their education consisting almost wholly of military and religious training. When they reached adulthood, they were freed, issued a horse and weapons, and then admitted into the service of their amir ("commander"), their former owner, whom, almost without exception, they served until the end of their lives with fierce loyalty and devotion. The emphasis on youth and vigor is reflected in the fact that their salaries decreased as they grew older. When the reigning sultan, himself a former slave raised in this manner, died, one of the amirs replaced him, but usually not without a bloody power struggle between himself and other ambitious amirs.” http://www.nmhschool.org/tthornton/mehistorydatabase/mamluks.htm Mamluks

• mamluk ‘sultan’ built up army Turkish, Kurdish slaves – established garrison on island near Cairo, replaced existing Sultan • leader married Sultan’s wife, established ‘mamluk dynasty’ • commander of army was Baybars I • 1260 became ruler or ‘emir’ himself • brought uncle of former Sultan from Baghdad to Cairo • re-established the there • power remained in Mamluk hands – major opposition to both Ottomans and Europeans • 1798 Napolean invaded, conquered much of Egypt (attempt to take Palestine unsuccessful) • Short-lived control (returned to France 1799) but ‘loosened’ ties of Mamluk rulers with Ottomans • Remained formally part of empire until British victory 1882 but effectively autonomous Rise of the Ottomans

•

Mamluks and Ottomans c. 1405 Rise of the Ottomans

• Ottoman Emperor defeated Mamluks of Egypt and

• took Cairo (1517) and assumed succession to the caliphate

• Under Suleyman ‘the magnificent’ empire reached largest geographical expanse – Ottoman administration, law and culture spread with his conquests

Suleyman 1: ‘The Magnificent’ (1520-1566) Rise of the Ottomans

• Mediterranean commerce fell to gazi fleet of admiral Khayr ad-Din (c. 1483–1546) – ’s “Barbarossa”

• Algiers taken from Spanish (1518)

• 1533-44 control extended to other ‘Barbary’ (North African) states

• from there, regulary attacked Spanish, Italian, Greek coasts/fleets

"Mohammed! Reveal good news to the believers that the conquest is soon."

“Barbarossa’s Standard” Rise of the Ottomans

The Empire in 1520 Rise of the Ottomans

The Empire in 1566 Rise of the Ottomans

The Empire in 1566 Rise of the Ottomans

Expansion Into North Africa Enabled Significant Extension of Trading and Commercial Interests Into the Sahara and West Africa Rise of the Ottomans

• North Africa: vassal relations since 16th C.

• Morocco never under Ottoman control: ongoing issue because Morocco had extensive commercial and political relations in and across the Sahara – direct competitor with Ottoman interests further to east (Sudan, Bornu) for trade in gold, ivory, slaves

• Tunisia, Algeria, Libya tied into both Saharan, Mediterranean trade: frequent tensions with Morocco – Ottomans served as mediators The Ottomans in the 19th C.

Shrinking boundaries: 1815 (left) to 1914 (right) The Ottomans in the 19th C.

• Two Major ‘African’ Challenges: Egypt and Sudan • Egypt: Albanian soldier Mehmet (Mohammed) Ali Pasha (1769-1849): • Trained fighting 's armies • played off Mamluk factions against Ottoman governor • declared ruler 1804/5

First real Egyptian national flag. Three crescents/stars may symbolize victory of his armies in Europe, Asia, and Africa or his sovereignty over Egypt, Nubia, and Sudan

[http://www.crwflags.com/fotwflags/eg- ott.html#ott] The Ottomans in the 19th C.

• Extended rule into northern Sudan • Drew slave troops from there loyal to him (following Ottoman tradition) • Established control of capital, continued to extend power to interior - Uganda • Built , used the Nile to aid expansion • Used European weapons • Established extensive commercial relations • Played fundamental role in the carving up of 1880s-1890s The Ottomans in the 19th C.

• Sudan: rise of ‘The Mahdi’, Muhammed Ahmad • Sudan under Egyptian control – by extension Ottoman rule • Argued that both constituted the ‘infidel’ – bad Muslims • Attracted followers from all over northern Sudan and into Egypt - jihad • Sought independence Egyptian rule, began to challenge Egyptian power • British interests in region guided by protecting • Drawn into battle • When Mahdi defeated, became martyr throughout Muslim World The Ottomans and World War 1

• all of empire implicated in war: Egypt-Sudan, , Fertile Crescent, Iran (because of British-Russian rivalry there)

• Entry Ottomans on side of threatened British imperial line communication to India: from their bases in Egypt, Persian Gulf, British tried to secure that lifeline.

• Germans wanted to harass British in their bases all the way to India: asked for Turks to curtail shipping through the Suez Canal, proclaim a jihad against the Entente

• British concern was Suez canal: declared Egypt formal protectorate December 1914, imposed martial law and treated region as large army base The Ottomans and World War 1

"I think this (the Muslim invasion of North Africa in 639) is an historical and strategic matter. No one can be in Palestine and Syria without being concerned about Egypt…and vice versa.

Egypt is the threat or the potential threat to those who are in Palestine or in Syria and those in Palestine and Syria are also a potential threat to Egypt.

Those who wanted to control the whole area of the Levant or the eastern Mediterranean must control Egypt. It is a historical must. We know from the time of the Pharaohs."

Dr Kassem Abdou Kassem, Professor of Medieval History at Zagazig University, North of Cairo. The Ottomans and World War 1

• believed that outcome of war (Wilson’s 14 points, including ‘self-determination’) would guarantee independence

• Harsh treatment during war led to rise of nationalist movement Wafd, led by Sa'd Zaghlul The Ottomans and World War 1 The Ottomans and World War 1

• Impact and Legacies: see the following ‘Readings’ on webpage

• Sati al-Husri (1880-1968) [rise of 'Arabism' from Young Ottoman origins] • The Young Turks: Proclamation for the Ottoman Empire, 1908 • Young Turks (encyclopedia article) • The (including copy of original letter) • The (July 24, 1922) • Arab Opposition to Mandates • From President Wilson's Fourteen Points •:"Egyptian " "Wounded Spirits in a Promised Land“ (also video) • "The Palestinian Crisis"