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University of Oklahoma Graduate College Cultural UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE CULTURAL LAG, ANOMIE, AND SINGLE WOMEN IN JAPAN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By AKIKO YOSHIDA Norman, Oklahoma 2010 CULTURAL LAG, ANOMIE, AND SINGLE WOMEN IN JAPAN A DISSERTATION APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY BY Dr. Loretta E. Bass, Chair Dr. Ann M. Beutel Dr. Thomas Burns Dr. B. Mitchell Peck Dr. Elyssa Faison © Copyright by AKIKO YOSHIDA 2010 All Rights Reserved. For Brian and Mia ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Increased singlehood among Japanese women was the subject I wanted to study when I enrolled in the Sociology Master‟s program at the University of Wyoming in 1992. I left Japan to do my master‟s that year, myself being single and in my late-20s – past tekireiki, or the age by which Japanese women were expected to marry. My parents opposed my plan to study abroad, wishing I would have just “settled down.” Many of my female friends in Japan were also staying single at that time. We were what I refer to in this study as “women of the boom cohort” – the cohort of women for which marriage rates drastically declined. Despite my initial interest, I did not choose this subject for my master‟s thesis. But ten years after completion of my master‟s degree, marriage rates in Japan continued to fall, and all my single friends in Japan were still single (though I had by then married my current husband, whom I met in the States). Some sociologists, as well as the popular media, gave explanations for the phenomenon of increased singlehood in Japan, but I was not satisfied with any of these explanations. I began my doctoral program at OU in 2005, determined this time to take on the subject of marriage decline for my dissertation. Because I began my doctoral program with this determination, most courses I took directly or indirectly influenced my project, shaping research questions, theoretical framework, and research design. Working with some of my professors gave me opportunities to explore literature on relevant subjects. For their helpful suggestions along these lines, I would like to thank Dr. Loretta Bass, Dr. Ann Beutel, Dr. Thomas Burns, Dr. Martin Piotrowski, Dr. B. Mitchell Peck, all from the OU Department of iv Sociology, as well as Dr. Elyssa Faison from the OU Department of History, Dr. Wilbur J. Scott from the Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, who retired from the OU Department of Sociology in 2005, and Dr. Krystal K. Beamon from the University of Texas at Arlington, who left OU in 2008. I also wish to thank Dr. Harold Kerbo at California Polytech University for reading early and final versions of my dissertation proposal. I was fortunate to become acquainted with Dr. Kerbo during his stay at OU as a visiting professor in 2006. I would like to give special thanks to all of my doctoral dissertation committee members – Dr. Loretta Bass, Dr. Ann Beutel, Dr. Thomas Burns, Dr. B. Mitchell Peck, and Dr. Elyssa Faison – for their productive comments, suggestions, and criticisms as well as encouragement. Their input strengthened my research project and the final outcome of my dissertation. In particular, I thank Dr. Beutel for helping me tie my research to gender literature from the U.S., Dr. Burns for his critical eye on my theoretical arguments, Dr. Peck for patiently answering all my inquiries on statistical techniques, and Dr. Faison for sharing her extensive knowledge on gender history in Japan. Together, they made a truly great team. As my committee chair, Dr. Bass spent many hours going through my early drafts, and provided many important suggestions. She excelled at pushing just hard enough to move me to complete good work in a timely manner. She was also one of my biggest supporters and cheerleaders as I undertook a job search. Further, thanks to Dr. Bass‟s support, encouragement, and stimulation, I was able to complete many other research projects and win awards. I cannot thank her enough for all of this help. v I would like to express my gratitude to the OU Graduate College for funding my field research in Japan with a generous grant. The field work was costly and the grant was a definite help. I also want to express appreciation to the OU College of Arts and Sciences, and the Department of Sociology, for funding my conference trips on numerous occasions. I was able to discuss my research projects with other attendees and build valuable and necessary networks through these conferences. These experiences undoubtedly contributed to my dissertation. The qualitative portion of my research would not have materialized without the cooperation of my forty interviewees, as well as friends and acquaintances who provided referrals to these informants. Unfortunately, these individuals must remain anonymous either because they are interviewees or are connected socially to them, and thus I am unable to thank them individually here. I appreciate my interviewees‟ willingness to cooperate with my research in such a serious and humble manner. I thank them for trusting me and sharing life stories that often touched on very private matters. I am still concerned by the distress and sadness expressed by some interviewees, and I wish all of them happy lives. Some of the individuals who gave me referrals went to great lengths to find interviewees and arrange meetings. As friends from days gone by, some went through great trouble even though all were busy with work or family, and one was dealing with a health problem. I was moved to rediscover these enduring friendships so many years after leaving Japan. As typical Japanese parents of their generation, my parents expected me to graduate from high school, work a few years, marry, and become a stay-at-home vi mother. Obviously, I defied their expectations, and I am aware that this caused much worry and stress for them. I would like to thank them for putting up with it all. I would also like to thank my mother for her quiet support during my field work. She prepared nutritious meals when I was pressed for time with interviews and transcriptions and thus neglectful of my own health. My father – a typically stubborn Japanese man from the wartime generation and tightfisted with compliments – recently told me how proud he was of me. As a stubborn Japanese daughter who was raised by parents of the wartime generation, it was too embarrassing and awkward for me to react to his compliments with gratitude. I would like to express here, though, how much his words meant to me. Finally, the biggest thanks go to my husband, Brian, and our daughter, Mia. When I began my doctoral program, Mia was seven, and I swore to myself I would not allow the stress of graduate work and long commuting to spill into our family life. But I know I was often a grouchy mother, and sometimes unable to be there for Mia when she needed me to be. She, however, did a great job putting up with all the negatives, and on many occasions even cheered me up with her beautiful, big, happy smiles. Thank you, Mia, for everything you are. The support I received from Brian is beyond anyone‟s imagination, and I cannot thank him enough in words for everything he has done. As a husband, he was always my biggest advocate, believing in my abilities, listening whenever I felt discouraged or stressed, and taking on extra house chores and childcare on numerous occasions. As a fellow sociologist with a deep understanding of the field, he always stimulated my thoughts and impacted my research on countless occasions. An excellent writer, his vii guidance helped me become a better writer, and he read the entire draft of my dissertation, patiently correcting errors I continue to make as a non-native English speaker/writer. Recently, he made the very difficult decision to leave his tenured, associate professor position in order to give me the chance to have an academic career. I am more than thankful for the sacrifice he made, and very grateful for his faith in me and his positive attitude towards this new phase in our lives as we head for Wisconsin. I feel I would not have earned my doctoral degree without the support I received from Brian and Mia, and I dedicate this dissertation entirely to these two beautiful persons whom I dearly love and admire. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Chapter One: Introduction……………………………………………………………….1 Chapter Two: Literature Review………………………………………………………...4 Chapter Three: Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses………………………………37 Chapter Four: Methods………………………………………………………………...50 Chapter Five: Results Part I……………………………………………………………75 Chapter Six: Results Part II…………………………………………………………….85 Chapter Seven: Results Part III……………………………………………………….113 Chapter Eight: Results Part IV………………………………………………………..144 Chapter Nine: Conclusions and Discussion…………………………………………..176 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………..208 Appendix……………………………………………………………………………...222 ix LIST OF TABLES Page Table 2-1 Percentages of Women Never-Married by Year: Japan, 1950-2005……………6 Table 2-2 Intention of Marriage among Single Men and Women Ages 18-34: Japan, 1982-2005……………………………………………………………………….9 Table 2-3 Percentage of Women in Higher Education: Japan, 1960-2005……………….20 Table 4-1 List of All Variables and Frequencies………………………………………….72 Table 5-1 Frequency and Percentage Crosstabulation of Views toward Wife‟s Traditional Role by Gender by Cohort………………………………………....77 Table 5-2 Summary of Logistic Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Rejection of Traditional Wife‟s Role…………………………………………..79 Table 9-1 Definitions of Theoretical
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