An Ethnobotanical Study on Capsicum Peppers in Maluku Province, Indonesia

Trop. Agr. Develop. 65（1）： 1 － 9，2021

Sota YAMAMOTO1, * and Wardis GIRSANG2

1 International Center for Island Studies, Kagoshima University, Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagoshima 890-8580, Japan 2 Faculty of Agriculture, Pattimura University, Jl. Ir. M. Putuhena, Poka Campus, Ambon, Maluku 97233, Indonesia

Abstract We conducted an ethnobotanical survey on Capsicum peppers on the islands in Maluku Province, Indonesia to investigate the local nomenclature for, and distribution and usage of, Capsicum peppers. Two species, C. annuum and C. frutescens, are distributed in Maluku Province. A general name for Capsicum peppers on Ambon Island is“ cili”, which is probably derived from“ chile” in Spanish. However, other general names, which have unknown origins, are used on the other islands. On Buru Island, the C. frutescens cultivar with small fruit that are green when immature (GR type) has a specific local name“ arbasina”. Furthermore, many people think that the GR type is native to their region. It is possible that the GR type was the first to be widely distributed across islands in the Pacific region. The GR type is commonly thought to be the spiciest and have a pleasing aroma. Fresh, dried, and salted fruit, as well as fruit soaked in palm vinegar or lime juice are widely used as spices and condiments. Fresh fruit are also added to palm wine or liquor to make it spicier and stronger-tasting. Few people use Capsicum leaves as a vegetable. In terms of medicinal usage, leaves are used to treat boils and swellings, and fruit are applied to wounds. These two remedies are commonly applied throughout Maluku Province. Regarding popular beliefs, fruit are used to stop rain events and for getting rid of snakes from houses or fields. Key words: Capsicum frutescens, Dispersal routes, Leaves as a vegetable, Local nomenclature, Medicinal use

found that C. chinense is distributed widely in Indonesia Introduction with several morphologically different fruit types on Capsicum peppers are native to tropical and temper- Java, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi islands and it was likely ate regions of the Americas (Eshbaugh, 1993). Of the introduced before World War II. This species is an im- approximately 35 species currently recognized (Carrizo portant spice in South Sulawesi Province, as well as an García et al., 2016), five species are economically impor- ornamental plant throughout three islands. tant; C. annuum, C. frutescens, C. chinense, C. baccatum, Maluku Province is located in the eastern part of and C. pubescens. Capsicum peppers are thought to Indonesia, and Ambon Island is the center of the prov- have been introduced to Europe in 1493 by Columbus ince and where the capital city is located. Capsicum pep- (Boswell, 1949) and to Asia, via Africa and India, in the pers are very important economically in Indonesia, with late sixteenth century (Sturtevant, 1885; Kumazawa et 2,542,358 t of “chillies and peppers, green” produced in al., 1954; Andrews, 1995). However, the details of how 2018, making Indonesia the fourth largest producer of Capsicum peppers were introduced into Indonesia and Capsicum peppers in the world (FAO, 2018). However, dispersed remain unknown. very few studies have been conducted on the local no- In Southeast and East Asia, C. annuum and C. menclature for, and usage and distribution of, Capsicum frutescens are primarily used as food and medicine, and peppers in Maluku Province compared to other regions the distributions of other species were unknown until re- of Indonesia. This is partly because many islands are cently. Yamamoto et al. (2013) revealed that C. pubescens scattered widely throughout the province, and access was introduced to Indonesia before 1916, likely during to each island from Ambon Island is limited, costly, the Dutch Era, and that Bandung and the surrounding and time-consuming; thus, comprehensive surveys of highlands in West Java and the Dieng Plateau in Central Capsicum peppers as well as other crops are difficult Java are the center of the C. pubescens distribution on to conduct. Therefore, as a first step, we carried out Java Island. In addition, C. pubescens is cultivated in an ethnobotanical survey of Capsicum peppers in the some highland areas on Sumatra and Sulawesi islands major islands in Maluku Province to investigate the (Yamamoto et al., 2016). Yamamoto et al. (2014) also distribution of Capsicum peppers in this region and to compare the local nomenclature and usage with those in

Communicated by K. Matsushima other areas in the Asia-Paciﬁc region for understanding Received Mar. 23, 2020 the relationship between Maluku people and Capsicum Accepted Aug. 11, 2020 peppers. * Corresponding author [email protected] 2 Trop. Agr. Develop. 65（1）2021

Study Sites and Data Collection Results and Discussion

Fieldwork was conducted between 2015 and 2019 Local nomenclature for Capsicum peppers and on Ambon Island, Seram Island, Buru Island, the Kei perceptions of pungent Capsicum peppers Islands, the Aru Islands, the Tanimbar Islands, and the According to the survey results, C. annuum and C. Leti Islands, Maluku Province, Indonesia (Fig. 1). The frutescens are cultivated and used in Maluku Province work consisted of interviews and visual observations of but C. pubescens and C. chinense are not. A general name Capsicum peppers in local markets, home gardens, and for Capsicum peppers on Ambon Island is “cili” (Table ﬁelds. A total of 73 people (40 males and 33 females; 1). The local names for Capsicum peppers in Cebuano 13 on Ambon Island, 13 on Seram Island, 9 on Buru and Tagalog, two major languages in the Philippines, Island, 10 in the Kei Islands, 9 in the Aru Islands; 14 in are “sili” and “siling”, which were probably derived from the Tanimbar Islands, and 5 in the Leti Islands) were “chile” in Spanish (Santos, 1988). Similar names are also interviewed regarding the local nomenclature for, and used in nearby areas: “sili”, “karisi”, and “sini” in the use of, Capsicum peppers, in terms of perceptions of Batanes Islands, Philippines and in Taiwan (Yamamoto pungent Capsicum peppers; knowledge of weedy forms and Nawata, 2009b); and “sele” and “jeli” in Pohnpei of C. frutescens; bird behavior toward Capsicum fruit; State, the Federated States of Micronesia (Yamamoto, usage as a condiment, vegetable, and/or medicine; and 2011). It is likely that “cili”, the local name used on popular beliefs and rituals related to this genus. The Ambon Island, was also derived from “chile” in Spanish. interviewees ranged in age from 21 to 92 years, with a On the other islands in Maluku Province, other gen- median age of 53 years. eral names are used on each island in addition to “cili”

Indonesia 0 1000km

Seram Buru Island Island Ambon Island

The Aru Islands

The Kei Islands

The Leti Islands

Maluku Province The Tanimbar Islands 0 200 km

Fig. 1. The study sites (●) in Maluku Province, Indonesia. Fig. 1. The study sites (●) in Maluku Province, Indonesia. Yamamoto and Girsang: Ethnobotanical study on Capsicum peppers in Maluku 3

Table 1. Local names for Capsicum peppers in Maluku Province, Indonesia. Mainly C. frutescens Area Mainly C. annuum Immature fruit color Green Greenish-yellow Ambon Island cili besar (=big) cili kecil (=small) cili bugis (=Bugis people) cili bunga (=ﬂower) cili padi (=dry land rice) cili padi cili cengkeh (=clove) cili padi kecil cili padi besar cili keriting (=curly) cili putih (=white) cili lombok cili putih kecil cili panjang (=long) cili putih besar Seram Island araputa araputa cili garos (=bigger level) cili belimbing (=starfruit) cili padi cili putih cili kenop (=button) karatupa karatupa cili keriting katupa katupa putie (=white) cili sayur (=vegetable) maisa wata maisa kutile (=white) cili tomat (=tomato) nisa karatupa panjang karatupa une tain (=goat droppings) katupa hatute maisa ila Buru Island cili arbasina cili cili besar cili padi cili sedang (=medium level) cili panjang pasat kastena putih kastena besar pasat fuan emdoing tain pasat kastena panjang pasat fuan roin (=small fruit) pasat fuan hat (=big fruit) pasat pasat mdoing tain (=cockroach fece) pasat fuan roit pasat fuan rema (=long fruit) pasat roin pasat huan hat pasat fuan reman (=long fruit) pasat mentifu The Kei Islands cili bangkok (=Bangkok) baresan cotocot cili ambon (=Ambon) cili jambu (=fruits of Myrtaceae) baresan ketkut cili lombok cili kaki ayam (=chicken leg) cili padi cili kenop cili keriting cili nona (=Miss) cili thailand (=Thailand) The Aru Islands cili besar cili padi cili putih cili keriting maresan maresan cili panjang maresan bontombi (=small) maresan delai cili sayur maresan gegade (=small) cili thailand maresan italengai (=small) maresan bari (=big) maresan kokli maresan borin (=big) maresan kwauwa (=small) maresan debariye maresan sisiai (=small) maresan gambundi (=big) maresan ucul maresan gnginai (=big) maresan jinjinai (=big) maresan keriting The Tanimbar Islands cili besar cili padi cili ambon cili botol (=bottle) maresan cili manado (=Manado) cili bulat (=round) maresan anak (=child) cili padi sedang cili kaki ayam maresan fase cili putih cili keriting maresan gagangge (=ﬁne) maresan lange (=big) cili sayur maresan kakange (=small) maresan wuan dawan cili tongka langit (=up to the sky) maresan mefanas (=spicy) maresin aruwalu lombok maresan wuan kou (=small fruit) maresin yabun maresan as utin (=dog penis) maresin maresan kabal (=big) maresin batyawik maresan silai maresin kayanik maresan tabadiri (=up to the sky) maresin batyarwal maresin wak The Leti Islands cili besar kaimulake prurute (=small) cili sedang cili keriting kamlaka ana (=small) kamlaka wawarsa (=white) cili panjang kamlaku luwu (=small) kaimulake laulaune (=big) cili sayur kamlaku propete (=small) kamlaka sapona (=big) kamlaku sine (=Chinese) kamlaku lavne (=big) kamlaku lawan (=big) 4 Trop. Agr. Develop. 65（1）2021

(Table 1): “araputa”, “karatupa”, “katupa”, or “maisa” than the GY type. Of the remaining respondents, one in- by the Wemale ethnic group and “nisa” by the Alune dicated that “cili thailand” (referring to Thailand; C. an- ethnic group on Seram Island; “kastena” or “pasat” on nuum, fruit length 5-7 cm and fruit width ∓1 cm) was the Buru Island; “baresan” in the Kei Islands; “maresan” in hottest pepper and two thought that there were no dif- the Aru Islands; “maresan” or “maresin” in the Tanimbar ferences in spiciness among cultivars. Regarding aroma, Islands; and “kaimulake”, “kamlaka”, or “kamlaku” in the 49 people thought that C. frutescens smelled better (GR, Leti Islands. We were unable to determine the origins of 39; GY, 10), 10 thought that C. annuum smelled better, these local names in this survey. and 13 thought that there was no difference in aroma Among the 73 interviewees, four recognized one to between the two species. As for eating preferences, 57 two kinds of pungent Capsicum peppers, 53 recognized respondents preferred C. frutescens (GR, 38; GY, 19), three to four kinds, and 16 recognized five to six kinds eight preferred C. annuum, and seven had no prefer- (Table 2). In general, people living in the more remote ence. Respondents who preferred spicy flavors tended to areas of each island recognized fewer types of pungent prefer the GR type, whereas the others tended to prefer Capsicum peppers. Local terms such as “besar”, which the GY type or cultivars of C. annuum. These percep- means “big” (fruit length 10-15 cm and fruit width 1.5-2 tions and preferences are very similar to those reported cm), “keriting”, which means “curly” (fruit length 10-15 from Cambodia (Yamamoto and Matsumoto, 2008) and cm and fruit width ±1 cm), and “panjang”, which means the Federated States of Micronesia (Yamamoto, 2011; “long” (similar to the “besar” type), are commonly used 2012; 2013). to describe C. annuum fruit in Maluku Province (Table 1). Additionally, “padi”, which refers to dry land rice Weedy forms of C. frutescens and bird behavior (fruit length 1-3 cm and fruit width <1 cm), and “puti”, toward Capsicum fruit which means “white” (fruit length 2-5 cm and fruit width Weedy forms of Capsicum peppers, especially ≤1 cm), are used to describe C. frutescens fruit. those of C. frutescens, are often found along forest Some older people in Maluku Province said that only edges, in fields or orchards, and along the roadside the C. frutescens cultivar with small fruit that are green in the Asia-Pacific region. Some accessions of C. when immature (which is regarded as the “GR type” in frutescens in Southeast and East Asia are considered this study, the same hereinafter) was present when they semi-domesticated; these plants are characterized by were young and that the other cultivars were introduced seed dormancy, small fruit size, slow growth, deciduous 20-40 years ago. Several people on Buru Island also said fruit, and inhibited flowering under prolonged illumina- that only the GR cultivar was present when they were liv- tion (Yamamoto and Nawata, 2006; 2009a; Yamamoto ing in their old settlement deep in the mountains, before et al., 2007; 2008). Among the 73 interviewees, 58 have they moved to their present settlement near the coast. seen weedy forms of C. frutescens (Table 3). Among Further, there is a specific local name “arbasina” associ- 41 interviewees who grew C. frutescens plants in their ated with the GR type on Buru Island. Interestingly, the home gardens, 32 started seedlings from available C. frutescens cultivar with fruit that are greenish-yellow fruit by themselves or obtained seeds (or plants) from when immature (GY type) is occasionally called “bugis” other villagers or markets, and nine transplanted (referring to the Bugis people) on Ambon Island and weedy forms of C. frutescens growing in the villages “ambon” (referring to Ambon Island) on other islands or fields to their home gardens. More than 90% of the in Maluku Province. In Micronesia, people consider the interviewees knew that birds eat Capsicum fruit or have GR type to be native to their region (Yamamoto, 2012). observed such behavior, and almost all interviewees This perception is present in Maluku Province as well. stated that common domestic fowl exhibit a preference It is possible that the GR type was the first to be widely for eating Capsicum fruit. Common domestic fowl are distributed in the Pacific islands, including those in known dispersers of Capsicum seeds in the Batanes Maluku Province, a long time ago. Islands in the Philippines (Yamamoto, 2010b), and in The 72 people who recognized more than two types Cambodia (Yamamoto and Matsumoto, 2008) and the of pungent Capsicum peppers were asked to comment Federated States of Micronesia (Yamamoto, 2011; 2012; on each pepper’s spiciness and smell, and which pepper 2013). Other birds that were observed to eat Capsicum they preferred (Table 2). Among all respondents, 69 fruit were the “burung mata merah” (which probably considered C. frutescens to be hotter than other peppers, includes several species of birds such as Aplonis spp.), and all of them reported that the GR type was hotter “tekukur”, and “pombo”. Some respondents said on their Yamamoto and Girsang: Ethnobotanical study on Capsicum peppers in Maluku 5 1 2 1 0 0 2 1 7 S 3 1 1 1 2 3 18 2 28 * Others

1 1 0 3 1 2 0 8 C. a. 4 * 7 5 5 4 2 6 0 29 mata Burung merah prefer to eat? Which fruits do you C. f. 11 [GR: 7, GY: 4] 11 [GR: 7, GY: 3] 10 [GR: 7, GY: 3] 8 [GR: 5, GY: 2] 7 [GR: 5, GY: 2] 7 [GR: 5, GY: 4] 10 [GR: 6, GY: 1] 4 [GR: 3, GY: 57 [GR:38, GY:19] What kinds of birds eat its fruit? 13 11 9 6 9 14 5 67 fowl domestic Common S 1 1 2 1 2 4 2 13 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 4 No 1 3 1 1 2 2 0 10 C. a. fruit? birds eat Do you know 13 11 9 8 9 14 5 69 Capsicum Yes C. f. Which fruits smell better? Questions for 72 interviewees 1 * 2 11 [GR:11, GY: 0] 11 [GR:11, GY: 1] 9 [GR: 8, GY: 1] 6 [GR: 5, GY: 3] 8 [GR: 5, GY: 0] 4 [GR: 4, GY: 4] 8 [GR: 4, GY: 1] 3 [GR: 2, GY: 49 [GR:39, GY:10] * 4 1 2 0 1 1 0 9 Weedy Weedy forms 1 * 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 S spp. 1 * 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 C. a. 6 7 1 5 5 4 4 32 Aplonis fruit in Maluku Province, Indonesia. 2 How did you get the plants? * from villagers Seeds or plants Capsicum 1 * Which fruits are hotter? C. f. 3 5 6 5 3 9 1 32 No plants in 12 [GR:12, GY:0] 12 [GR:12, GY:0] 9 [GR: 9, GY:0] 9 [GR: 9, GY:0] 8 [GR: 8, GY:0] 14 [GR:14, GY:0] 5 [GR: 5, GY:0] 69 [GR:69, GY:0] Do you have 10 8 3 5 6 5 4 41 Yes fruit. Multiple answers allowed. 13 13 9 10 9 14 5 73 Capsicum your home garden? Total

and bird behavior toward plants in their home gardens. Capsicum 4 1 0 2 1 7 1 16 5-6 ? 2 2 0 6 3 1 1 15 No Capsicum peppers in Maluku Province, Indonesia. C. frutescens 9 12 9 8 5 7 3 53 C. frutescens 3-4 pungent How many kinds of (=red) probably includes several species of birds such as , and S: same. peppers do you know? C. frutescens Do you know Capsicum weedy forms of 11 11 9 4 6 13 4 58 Yes 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 4 1-2 merah C. annuum (=eye) , C.a.: mata (=bird) C. frutescens : GR: small fruit (fruit fruit length: 1-3 cm) with green immature GY: fruit (fruit color, length: 2-5 cm) with greenish-yellow immature fruit color. Burung 2 : questions for 41 interviewees who had : including transplantation of weedy forms growing in the villages or fields to their home gardens. : questions for 69 interviewees who knew birds eat : * : C.f.: 1 2 3 4 1 Area Ambon Island Seram Island Buru Island The Kei Islands The Aru Islands Islands The Tanimbar The Leti Islands Total * * * * Area Ambon Island Seram Island Buru Island The Kei Islands The Aru Islands Islands The Tanimbar The Leti Islands Total * [] Table 3. Table Perceptions of weedy forms of Table 2. Table Perceptions of pungent 6 Trop. Agr. Develop. 65（1）2021 own initiative that birds eat fruit and seeds germinate Some people mix fresh fruit (occasionally from their droppings. squashed) and salt, and then bottle the preserved fruit (called “maresan pel garam” in the Aru Islands). Others Use of Capsicum peppers soak fresh fruit with salt in palm vinegar (palm wine Fresh, dried, processed, or preserved fruits as spices and becomes palm vinegar when it ferments further) or condiments commercial vinegar. A 74-year-old male from the Leti Fresh Capsicum fruit are added to dishes in many Islands said that he soaks fresh fruit in lime juice and kinds of cuisine to make them spicy. People who prefer salt. He takes this condiment with him whenever he spicy flavors like to bite fresh fruit (occasionally with salt goes fishing and travels a long way from his village. and fresh mature coconut meat) when they eat rice and Fresh Capsicum fruit are soaked in sugarcane vinegar in dishes. They also consume a spicy paste called “sambal” the Amami Islands, Japan and the Batanes Islands, palm (called “sosobu” or “testeske” in the Tanimbar Islands and vinegar in the Philippines and Micronesia, and sour liq- “kalore” or “ksoi kaimulak” in the Leti Islands) that is uids including vinegar and lime juice in the continental made by combining Capsicum fruit with garlic, ginger, region of Southeast Asia (Yamamoto, 2019). Whether shallots, palm sugar, tomatoes, lime juice, and other people in the Asia-Pacific region created these sour and ingredients. “Colo-colo” (also known as “savsou”, “sawu- spicy condiments (for particular cultural reasons) or sou”, “sobsobkwe”, “sobu”, or “sosobu” in the Tanimbar whether the condiments were introduced from outside Islands), a dipping sauce made from lime juice, vinegar, the region is unknown (Yamamoto, 2015). salt, and diced fresh Capsicum fruit, tomatoes, and shallots, is commonly served with grilled or deep-fried Use of Capsicum leaves (mainly those of C. frutescens) fish. In the Leti Islands, there is a special dish known as Capsicum leaves, especially those of C. frutescens, “kalurlure” or “karole”, in which sliced raw fish is mixed are used in soups and mixed vegetable dishes in with fresh Capsicum fruit, shallots, lime juice (and/or Maluku Province. However, among 73 interviewees, vinegar), holy basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum), and salt. only 14 indicated that they still use Capsicum leaves as Palm wine made from the fermented sap of flower food (Table 4). Far fewer people (19.2%) eat Capsicum buds of palms such as Arenga pinnata, Cocos nucifera, leaves in Maluku Province than in Cambodia (95.1%; and Borassus spp., and palm liquor made from distilling Yamamoto and Matsumoto, 2008), the Batanes Islands palm wine are consumed widely in Maluku Province. In (89.7%; Yamamoto, 2010b), and in Pohnpei State (81.3%; this region, squashed fruit are placed into palm wine/ Yamamoto, 2011), Chuuk State (64.5%; Yamamoto, liquor before drinking to make the sweet palm wine or 2012), and Kosrae State (77.3%; Yamamoto, 2013) of palm liquor spicier and stronger-tasting. Some people the Federated States of Micronesia. The frequency of also add squashed fresh fruit into overnight palm wine leaf use was also much lower compared to those in the which is a little sour taste. A 46-year old man from the countries and areas mentioned above. Yamamoto (2009) Tanimbar Islands said that he adds squashed fruit to reported that the indigenous peoples of Taiwan used to freshly collected palm sap and leaves the mixture for a add C. frutescens leaves to gruel or soups as a vegetable, few hours to ferment. but today the leaves are rarely used because other veg- Dried Capsicum fruit are commonly used in the etables can be bought at the market. Some older people Tanimbar and Leti islands, because these islands receive in Maluku Province said that in the old days, they used less rainfall in the dry season compared to northern C. frutescens leaves as a vegetable, but not anymore as parts of Maluku Province. During this period, the island- they have easy access to markets these days. As such, ers sometimes cannot obtain fresh fruit. Dried fruit are C. frutescens leaves may not be used as frequently in made in four ways: 1) fresh fruit are dried under the sun modern society. and then kept in bottles; 2) fresh fruit are dried under In the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java, only the sun and then kept in bottles with salt (this condiment 38.5% of the population still eat Capsicum leaves, and the is called “rakerna” in the Leti Islands); 3) fresh fruit are frequency of leaf consumption was also low (Yamamoto boiled in fresh water, dried under the sun, and then kept et al., 2011), which is consistent with the results of this in bottles; and 4) fresh fruit are boiled in salt water, dried study. The leaves of C. frutescens are sometimes sold in under the sun, and then kept in bottles (this condiment local markets in Cambodia and the Batanes Islands, but is called “maresan mangret lo” or “maresan ear” in the they were not observed in the local markets on islands in Tanimbar Islands). Maluku Province in this survey. Alternatively, Capsicum Yamamoto and Girsang: Ethnobotanical study on Capsicum peppers in Maluku 7

Table 4. Uses of the leaves of Capsicum peppers (mainly C. frutescens) in Maluku Province, Indonesia. Use of leaves of Capsicum Frequency of use per*1 peppers as a vegetable Month Year Several Several Yes No Total Once times times Ambon Island 1 12 13 0 1 0 Seram Island 2 11 13 0 0 2 Buru Island 5 4 9 0 2 3 The Kei Islands 3 7 10 0 3 0 The Aru Islands 2 7 9 0 1 1 The Tanimbar Islands 1 13 14 0 0 1 The Leti Islands 0 5 5 0 0 0 Total 14 59 73 0 7 7 *1: questions for 14 interviewees who eat leaves of Capsicum peppers. leaves may not be a popular food in Indonesia. (three respondents from the Aru Islands, three from the Tanimbar Islands, and one from the Leti Islands) Medicinal uses of Capsicum peppers or squeezed fresh leaves are applied to painful parts Among 73 interviewees, 40 said that Capsicum of the face (one respondent from Seram Island). Fruit leaves are used to treat boils and swellings as follows: are used in Japan (Yamamoto, 2010a), Chuuk State fresh leaves are 1) squeezed or toasted, 2) mixed with (Yamamoto, 2012), and Kosrae State (Yamamoto, 2013), lime (leaves are occasionally toasted beforehand), or 3) and leaves are used in West Java (Roosita et al., 2008) toasted and mixed with coconut oil before application. to treat toothaches. Capsaicin, the pungent ingredient This remedy is well-known in many parts of Oceania in Capsicum peppers, exerts a long-lasting suppressive including Pohnpei State (Yamamoto, 2011), Kosrae State effect on sensory neuron activity; thus, this compound (Yamamoto, 2013), Tonga (Whistler, 1992b), Samoa is used to relieve pain caused by arthritis and pruritus in (Uhe, 1974), the Cook Islands, and Tahiti (Whistler, modern medicine (Craft and Porreca, 1992). 1992a). The Polynesians were reported to have cultivated Capsicum is used in other remedies as follows: fruit several species of Solanum for use as condiments before are mixed with other ingredients (three respondents the Europeans arrived in the region, but this practice from Buru Island) or squeezed leaves are mixed with has been largely neglected and lost, and Capsicum breast milk (one from the Kei Islands) and applied peppers have assumed many of the medicinal uses of to treat eye diseases; the juice from squeezed fresh Solanum spp. (Whistler, 1992a). To confirm this hypoth- leaves is mixed with black tea and drunk (one from esis, further studies on the medicinal usage of Solanum Buru Island) or fruit are eaten (one from the Tanimbar spp. in Maluku Province are needed. In our survey, 14 Islands) as cough medicine; squeezed fresh leaves are people mentioned that Capsicum fruit are used to treat mixed with lime (one from the Aru Islands) or toasted wounds (including dog or snake bites); squashed fresh fresh leaves are mixed with coconut oil (one from the fruit, occasionally mixed with coconut oil and/or salt, Tanimbar Islands) and applied to treat skin diseases are applied to the wound. Similar remedies are used in (e.g., ringworm); squashed fresh fruit are placed on body Southeast Asia, such as in West Java (Ramdhan et al., parts in pain due to gout (one from the Aru Islands) or 2015), the Batanes Islands (Yamamoto, 2010b), and fruit are eaten to manage gout (one from the Tanimbar Cambodia (Yamamoto and Matsumoto, 2008), but they Islands); the juice from roasted Capsicum leaves and are not popular in Oceania because people there usu- shallots is drunk to treat diarrhea (one from Ambon ally use leaves for treating wounds as well as boils and Island); squeezed fresh leaves are mixed with lime swellings. Using leaves to treat boils and swellings and and a little fresh water and applied directly to bruises fruits to treat wounds is common throughout Maluku (one from Buru Island); a decoction of Capsicum root is Province. taken for dysuria (one from the Tanimbar Islands); and a Eight people reported that Capsicum fruit or decoction of Capsicum root, nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) leaves are used to treat toothaches. In this treatment, leaves, clove (Syzygium aromaticum) leaves, and langsat squashed fresh fruit are applied to painful mouthparts (Lansium domesticum) leaves is taken to promote the 8 Trop. Agr. Develop. 65（1）2021 excretion of blood in women who have just given birth Asia-Pacific region, including in Maluku Province, but (one from Ambon Island). Ten people said that Capsicum the preparation method in which fresh fruit are boiled fruit are also used to treat sicknesses or eye diseases in in salt water, dried under the sun, and bottled is unique common domestic fowl. Similar practices have been re- to this region. Few people use Capsicum leaves as food, ported in Japan (Yamamoto, 2010a), Taiwan, the Batanes and the frequency of leaf consumption was also low Islands (Yamamoto and Nawata, 2009b), and Micronesia compared to results reported in previous studies in the (Yamamoto, 2011; 2012; 2013). One respondent from the Asia-Pacific region. However, it is unclear whether this Tanimbar Islands said that gamecocks are thought to be was due to modernization or because using Capsicum more active if they are given Capsicum fruit to eat. leaves as a vegetable is not popular in Indonesia. There are very few studies on Capsicum leaf usage as research Other uses of Capsicum peppers in Indonesia is mainly focused on the fruit. Capsicum Capsicum fruit attached to the tips of sticks are put peppers are a relatively new crop in Indonesia. Thus, on roofs or the ground to stop or prevent rain events additional ethnobotanical research, including investiga- (two respondents from Ambon Island, four from the Aru tions of the use of leaves as food and plant parts as local Islands, and three from the Tanimbar Islands). Capsicum medicines and for rituals throughout Indonesia, are fruit are burnt to remove snakes from roofs or fields, as needed to elucidate how Capsicum peppers have been it is thought that the snakes will leave because of the integrated into traditional Indonesian culture. smoke (eight respondents from the Tanimbar Islands Acknowledgments and one from the Leti Islands). Capsicum fruit placed under lights are also thought to kill insects drawn to the We are very grateful to all the interviewees on the lights at night (one respondent from the Aru Islands). islands in Maluku Province, Indonesia, for their great Fruit are used as decoration at festivals (one respondent hospitality, kindness, and openness. We are also grateful from the Kei Islands). One respondent from Buru Island to the Indonesian government, Maluku provincial gov- said that if a wife runs away with another man and her ernment, and the local government staff on each island husband performs a prayer using nine pieces of fruit, for facilitating the survey process and assisting with the the wife will return home. Another respondent (Buru surveys. This work was partly supported by the Japan Island) said that if one prays while holding Capsicum Society for the Promotion of Science (Project codes: No. leaves, the woman the person likes will accompany him 15K16585 and No. 18H03446). without any need for verbal persuasion. When there is References a conflict between two men, the aggrieved party will smash some fresh fruit with a little fresh water, and the Andrews, J. 1995. Peppers: The Domesticated Capsicums. New perpetrator has to drink the entire mixture as a punish- Edition. University of Texas Press (Austin) p.186. Boswell, V. R. 1949. Garden pepper, both a vegetable and a condiment (one respondent from Buru Island). ment. In our vegetable travelers. Natl. Geogr. 96: 145-217. Carrizo García, C., M. H. J. Barfuss, E. M. Sehr, G. E. Barboza, Conclusions R. Samuel, E. A. Moscone, and F. Ehrendorfer 2016. Phylogenetic relationships, diversification and expansion of On Ambon Island, Capsicum peppers are commonly chili peppers (Capsicum, Solanaceae). Ann. Bot. 118: 35-51. called “cili”, which could have been derived from “chile” Craft, R. M. and F. Porreca 1992. Treatment parameters of desensi- in Spanish, but the origins of the other general names tization to capsaicin. Life Sci. 51: 1767-1775. Eshbaugh, W. H. 1993. Peppers: History and exploitation of a used on other islands in Maluku Province are unknown; serendipitous new crop discovery. In: New Crops (Janick, J. further linguistic studies as well as genetic analyses are and J. E. Simon eds.) Wiley (New York) pp. 132-139. needed to elucidate the dispersal routes of Capsicum FAO. 2018. FAOSTAT. [Online] http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/ (browsed on March 15, 2020) peppers in Maluku Province. Two species, C. annuum Kumazawa, S., T. Ohara, and K. Niiuchi 1954. The differentiation and C. frutescens, are used in Maluku Province. Overall, of varieties of peppers in Japan. J. Jpn. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 23: people in this region preferred to eat C. frutescens fruit, 152-158. (in Japanese with English summary) and some respondents thought that the C. frutescens Ramdhan, B., T. Chikmawati, and E. B. Waluyo 2015. Ethnomedical herb from Cikondang indigenous village, district Bandung cultivar with small fruit that are green when immature is West Java Indonesia. J. Biodiversity Environ. Sci. 6: 277-288. native to their islands. These results suggest that people Roosita, K., C. M. Kusharto, M. Sekiyama, Y. Fachrurozi, and in Maluku Province exhibit a preference for this C. R. Ohtsuka 2008. Medicinal plants used by the villagers of a Sundanese community in West Java, Indonesia. J. frutescens cultivar. Capsicum fruit soaked in vinegar or Ethnopharmacol. 115: 72-81. lime juice are very commonly used as a condiment in the Santos, V. C. 1988. Vicassan’s Pilipino-English Dictionary. National Yamamoto and Girsang: Ethnobotanical study on Capsicum peppers in Maluku 9

Book Store (Manila) p.2677. Yamamoto, S., T. Djarwaningsih, and H. Wiriadinata 2013. Sturtevant, E. L. 1885. Kitchen garden esculents of American Capsicum pubescens (Solanaceae) in Indonesia: Its history, origin. II. Peppers. Am. Nat. 19: 542-553. taxonomy, and distribution. Econ. Bot. 67: 161-170. Uhe, G. 1974. Medicinal plants of Samoa: A preliminary survey Yamamoto, S., T. Djarwaningsih, and H. Wiriadinata 2014. History of the use of plants for medicinal purposes in the Samoan and distribution of Capsicum chinense in Indonesia. Trop. Agr. Islands. Econ. Bot. 28: 1-30. Develop. 58: 94-101. Whistler, W. A. 1992a. Polynesian Herbal Medicine. National Yamamoto, S., T. Djarwaningsih, and H. Wiriadinata 2016. Tropical Botanical Garden (Kauai) p.236. Distribution and cultivation practices of Capsicum pubescens Whistler, W. A. 1992b. Tongan Herbal Medicine. University of on the islands of Java, Sumatra, and Sulawesi, Indonesia. J. Hawaiì Press (Honolulu) p.122. Island Stud. 17: 67-87. Yamamoto, S. 2009. Use of Capsicum frutescens by the indigenous Yamamoto, S., T. Djarwaningsih, H. Wiriadinata, and H. Hidayat peoples of Taiwan. Stud. Indig. Peoples Taiwan 13: 39-75. (in 2011. Use of Capsicum pepper in Karimunjawa Islands, Japanese) Central Java, Indonesia. Res. Trop. Agr. 4(Extra issue2): 29- Yamamoto, S. 2010a. Nihon no Togarashi Hinshu [Japanese 30. (in Japanese) Cultivars of Capsicum Peppers]. In: Togarashi Sanka [Chili Yamamoto, S. and T. Matsumoto 2008. Use of Capsicum by Khmer Hymn] (Yamamoto, N. ed.) Yasakashobo (Tokyo) pp. 247-255. and other ethnic groups in Cambodia. Udaya, J. Khmer Stud. (in Japanese) 9: 29-61. Yamamoto, S. 2010b. Use of Capsicum peppers in the Batanes Yamamoto, S., M. Misumi, and E. Nawata 2007. Effects of various Islands, the Philippines. South Pac. Stud. 31: 43-56. photoperiods on flowering in Capsicum frutescens and C. an- Yamamoto, S. 2011. Use of Capsicum frutescens on Pohnpei nuum. Environ. Control. Biol. 45: 133-142. Island, Mokil Atoll, and Pingelap Atoll, Federated States of Yamamoto, S., M. Misumi, and E. Nawata 2008. Effects of photope- Micronesia. People Cult. Ocean. 27: 87-104. riod on vegetative growth, flowering and fruiting of Capsicum Yamamoto, S. 2012. Use of Capsicum frutescens in Chuuk Atoll, frutescens L. and C. annuum L. in Japan. Environ. Control. Federated States of Micronesia. Trop. Agr. Develop. 56: 151- Biol. 46: 39-47. 158. Yamamoto, S. and E. Nawata 2006. The germination characteris- Yamamoto, S. 2013. Use of Capsicum on Kosrae Island, Federated tics of Capsicum frutescens L. on the Ryukyu Islands and the States of Micronesia. South Pac. Stud. 33: 87-99. domestication stages of C. frutescens L. in Southeast Asia. Jpn. Yamamoto, S. 2015. Chili peppers in the islands of Kagoshima. J. Trop. Agr. 50: 142-153. In: The Islands of Kagoshima, Second Edition (Kawai, K., Yamamoto, S. and E. Nawata 2009a. Effect of root zone on flower R. Terada, and S. Kuwahara eds.) Hokuto Shobo Publishing bud formation and flowering of genus Capsicum. Trop. Agr. (Tokyo) pp. 38-42. Develop. 53: 55-58. Yamamoto, S. 2019. Nansei shotou no tougarashi [Capsicum Yamamoto, S. and E. Nawata 2009b. Use of Capsicum frutescens L. peppers in the Nansei Islands, Japan]. Vesta 115: 48-51. (in by the indigenous peoples of Taiwan and the Batanes Islands. Japanese) Econ. Bot. 63: 43-59.