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Impacts of Lacustrine Groundwater Discharge on Water and Nutrient Budgets

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Impacts of Lacustrine Groundwater Discharge on Water and Nutrient Budgets Groundwater-Surface Water Interactions in a Eutrophic Lake – Impacts of Lacustrine Groundwater Discharge on Water and Nutrient Budgets Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades doctor rerum naturalium (Dr. rer. nat.) im Fach Geographie eingereicht an der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin von Diplom-Landschaftsökologin Karin Meinikmann Präsidentin der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. Sabine Kunst Dekan der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät Prof. Dr. Elmar Kulke Gutachter: 1. Prof. Dr. Tobias Krüger, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Geographisches Institut 2. Prof. Dr. Stefan Peiffer, Universität Bayreuth, Hydrologie 3. Prof. Dr. Henning Jensen, University of Southern Denmark, Dep. of Biology Tag der Einreichung: 20. Dezember 2016 Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 26. Juni 2017 II Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisors Dr. Jörg Lewandowski and Prof. Dr. Gunnar Nützmann who always supported and encouraged me and never lost their faith throughout the years. It is a pleasure and a privilege for me to be a member of their working group. Sincere thanks also go to Michael Hupfer who was an important contact in all questions regarding Lake Arendsee. Thanks a lot for several years of intense and fruitful discussions and collaborations. Franziska Pöschke as my friend and office mate was one of the most important persons in the last years for me. Not only her expertise and active contribution to my work but also her warm and dear character helped me through the ups and downs of this time. I would like to thank her for her help, her patience and friendship and for all the wonderful experiences we had together. Thanks a lot to Christine Sturm, Jörg Fritz Friedrich, and Grit Siegert who supported me on countless occasions in the field, the lab, and as friends. Without them this work would not have been possible. Many thanks also to the whole team of the Department “Chemical Analytics and Biogeochemistry” at the IGB who contributed valuably to this work by analyzing hundreds of water samples. Also their mental support (especially by Elke Zwirnmann and Christiane Herzog) was very much appreciated. A large number of interns and bachelor and students supported my field work especially at Lake Arendsee. Thanks a lot to all of them, especially to Roman, Stephi, and Andrea Sacher. Especially Andrea spent a long time with our working group and contributed substantially to the present work by maintaining, sampling, and analyzing the surface inflows of Lake Arendsee. Her high spirits and humor were a driving force for me and the whole working group. Kirsten Pohlmann as the coordinator of the doctoral programme was a valuable contact regarding many scientific and administrative questions. I would like to thank her for her engagement not only in my work but in the IGB doctoral training and support in general. I am very happy to have made a lot of friends at the IGB during the last years. These acquaintances are of great importance for me. Special thanks go to Sebi, Steffi, Silke, Ani, Bine, Simone, Björn, Maja, and Cris who, among a whole lot of others, accompanied me as friends and colleges. The value of their friendship cannot be put in words. With great empathy my dear family followed the progress of my work. My biggest thanks to them for always being there for and never stopping believing in me. III Summary The present work is a collection of studies on lacustrine groundwater discharge (LGD) and groundwater-borne phosphorus (P) loads. For a number of reasons, groundwater exfiltration (i.e., LGD) is often not considered in water and nutrient budgets of lakes. This is also and especially true for P which was often regarded to be immobile in groundwater until recently. Two chapters review the scientific literature regarding the impacts of groundwater on hydrology and nutrient budgets of lakes, respectively. Both of them present mechanisms and processes of LGD as well as techniques and methods to measure LGD and related nutrient transports. Moreover, numbers of LGD volumes and loads reported in literature are presented. A major issue is the spatial scale on which the approaches can be applied. Point measurements deliver predominantly quantitative results (LGD fluxes) while approaches on larger scales provide qualitative information (identification of exfiltration zones and LGD patterns) but often lack absolute values. The core of the present work is represented by two case studies dealing with the quantification of P loads from LGD to Lake Arendsee in Northern Germany. A combination of the results of groundwater recharge determination at the catchment scale and temperature depth measurements of the lake sediments is applied to overcome the problem of quantitative large scale LGD determination without losing local spatial information. P concentrations in both, groundwater and LGD, are investigated by detailed spatial water sampling from groundwater observation wells, domestic wells, and temporary piezometers directly at the lake shore. The results reveal that P is actually present in concentrations far above natural background concentrations in the urban groundwater. Resulting LGDderived P loads account for more than 50% of the overall external P loads to Lake Arendsee and by that contribute significantly to lake eutrophication. Sources for increased P concentrations could not be identified eventually. Three further studies are devoted to the development and improvement of approaches to determine LGD. They show results of attempts to upscale point measurements of LGD, and the application of thermal infrared radiation to identify hotspots of LGD. Stable isotopes are used to confirm the separation of groundwater in and exfiltration zones which were defined based on hydraulic head contour lines. Critical reviews of the above mentioned studies reveal the need for further research in order to standardize and improve methods for LGD and mass load determination. It is found that the appropriate method for LGD determination depends on the spatial scale of interest. The identification of P introduced by LGD as a main driver of lake eutrophication is an important finding which should encourage scientists, policy makers, and lake managers to consider groundwater as a relevant P source for lakes. IV Zusammenfassung Die vorliegende Arbeit besteht aus mehreren Studien zur Quantifizierung des Grundwasserstroms in Seen (Exfiltration; engl.: lacustrine groundwater discharge, LGD) und damit verbundener Nährstoffeinträge. Die Bedeutung des Grundwassers für Wasser- und Nährstoffhaushalte von Seen wird häufig unterschätzt. Dies gilt insbesondere für Phosphor (P), der lange Zeit als im Grundwasser immobil galt. Das ist einer der Gründe, warum das Grundwasser vor allem im Zusammenhang mit der Gewässereutrophierung häufig ignoriert wurde. In zwei einleitenden Kapiteln dieser Arbeit werden eine Vielzahl weiterer Gründe für die Vernachlässigung der Grundwasserexfiltration in Seen und der daran gekoppelten Nährstoffeinträge identifiziert. Diese Literaturstudien fassen den aktuellen Kenntnisstand zum Einfluss des Grundwassers auf die Hydrologie von Seen und ihre Nährstoffhaushalte zusammen. Dabei werden Mechanismen und Prozesse ebenso wie entsprechende Messtechniken vorgestellt. Außerdem werden in der internationalen Fachliteratur publizierte Daten gemessener Exfiltrationsraten und -volumina präsentiert. Die Wahl der Messmethode zur Erfassung des Grundwasserzustroms ist zum großen Teil vom räumlichen Maßstab des Untersuchungsgebietes abhängig. Zwar steht eine Vielzahl von Methoden zur Verfügung; deren Anwendbarkeit ist aber häufig auf eine bestimmte räumliche Skala beschränkt. Punktmessungen liefern überwiegend quantitative Ergebnisse (z. B. Fluxraten), während Ansätzen, die es erlauben, größere Skalen abzudecken, lediglich qualitative Informationen liefern (z. B. die räumliche Eingrenzung von Bereichen mit Grundwasserzustrom und Muster des Grundwasserfluxes). Den Kern der vorliegenden Arbeit bilden zwei empirische Studien, die sich mit der Quantifizierung der grundwasserbürtigen Phosphor-Fracht in den Arendsee im Nordosten Deutschlands befassen. Das Gesamtvolumen des Grundwasserzustroms wird basierend auf der Grundwasserneubildung im Einzugsgebiet des Sees ermittelt. Lokale Muster der Grundwasserexfiltration werden anhand von Temperaturtiefenprofilen des Seesediments bestimmt. Eine Kombination der Ergebnisse ermöglicht es, die quantitativen Daten mit lokalen Informationen zu unterstützen. Anhand von Grundwassermessstellen, privaten Hausbrunnen, sowie am Ufer installierten Piezometern werden die Phosphor-Konzentrationen im Grundwasser im Einzugsgebiet und in unmittelbarer Ufernähe untersucht. Das Grundwasser im besiedelten Bereich weist Phosphor-Konzentrationen weit oberhalb der natürlichen HintergrundKonzentrationen auf. Als Konsequenz daraus haben die grundwasserbürtigen Phosphor-Frachten einen Anteil von mehr als 50% an der gesamten externen P- Last des Arendsees. Das Grundwasser ist damit eine maßgebliche Ursache für die Eutrophierung des Gewässers. Quellen für die hohen P-Konzentrationen im Grundwasser können nicht abschließend identifiziert und lokalisiert werden. Drei weitere Studien widmen sich der Entwicklung und Optimierung von Ansätzen zur qualitativen und quantitativen Bestimmung der Grundwasserexfiltration in Seen. Vorgestellt werden die Ergebnisse von Versuchen, Punktmessungen von Fluxraten hochzuskalieren, sowie die Anwendung von thermaler Infrarot-Strahlung zur räumlichen
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