Health of the Catchment Report

2002

CONTENTS

SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION 4

SECTION 2 REGIONAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 4

SECTION 3 CLIMATE OF THE GLENELG HOPKINS BASIN 5

SECTION 4 SOILS 9 4.1 Soils of the Glenelg Hopkins Region 9 4.2 Land Use in the Glenelg Hopkins Region 9 4.3 Land Capability 9 4.4 Land Degradation 16 4.5 Water Erosion 16 4.6 Gully and Tunnel Erosion 16 4.7 Sheet and Rill Erosion 16 4.8 Mass Movement 17 4.9 Streambank Erosion 17 4.10 Wind Erosion 18 4.11 Soil Structure Decline 18 4.12 Coastal Erosion 18 4.13 Soil Acidity 18

SECTION 5 WATERWAYS WITHIN THE HOPKINS DRAINAGE BASIN 25 5.1 and its Tributaries 26 5.2 Condition of the Hopkins River and its Tributaries 26 5.3 and its Tributaries 27 5.4 Condition of the Merri River and its Tributaries 27

SECTION 6 WATERWAYS WITHIN THE GLENELG DRAINAGE BASIN 27 6.1 and its tributaries 27 6.2 Condition of the Glenelg River and its tributaries 28

SECTION 7 WATERWAYS WITHIN THE PORTLAND DRAINAGE BASIN 29 7.1 Condition of the Portland Coast Basin Rivers 29

SECTION 8 RIPARIAN VEGETATION CONDITION IN THE GLENELG HOPKINS REGION 30

SECTION 9 GROUNDWATER AND SALINITY 31

SECTION 10 WITHIN THE GLENELG HOPKINS CATCHMENT 37 10.1 Descriptions of Wetlands and in the Glenelg Hopkins Region 37 10.2 Linlithgow Wetlands 37 10.3 Lake Bookaar 38 10.4 Glenelg 39 10.5 Long Swamp 39 10.6 Lindsay-Werrikoo Wetlands 39 10.7 Mundi-Selkirk Wetlands 40

10.8 Lower Merri River Wetlands 41 10.9 Tower Hill 41 10.10 Wetlands 42 10.11 Lake Muirhead 42 10.12 Mount William Swamp 42 10.13 Lake Bolac 43 10.14 43 10.15 Bryan’s Swamp 43 10.16 Myuna Lane Swamp 43 10.17 Chinaman’s Swamp 43 10.18 Lake Buninjon 44 10.19 Nerrin Nerrin Swamp 44

SECTION 11 SURFACE WATER SALINITY EFFECTS IN THE GLENELG HOPKINS BASIN 44

SECTION 12 NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT IN THE GLENELG HOPKINS BASIN 46

SECTION 13 CONDITION OF THE BIODIVERSITY IN THE GLENELG HOPKINS REGION 47 13.1 Biodiversity Condition of the Major Bioregions within the Glenelg Hopkins Catchment 49 13.2 Glenelg Plain Bioregion 49 13.3 Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregion 50 13.4 Dundas Tablelands Bioregion 51 13.5 Greater Grampians Bioregion 51 13.6 Plain Bioregion 52

SECTION 14 CONDITION OF PARKS WITHIN THE GLENELG HOPKINS CATCHMENT 53 14.1 Bay of Islands Coastal Park 53 14.2 53 14.3 Dergholm State Park 53 14.4 Discovery Bay Coastal Park 54 14.5 54 14.6 Lower Glenelg National Park 55 14.7 Mount Eccles National Park 56 14.8 56 14.9 Mount Richmond National Park 57 14.10 Crawford River Regional Park 57 14.11 Tower Hill State Game Reserve 57

SECTION 15 PEST PLANTS IN THE GLENELG HOPKINS REGION 59

SECTION 16 PEST ANIMALS IN THE GLENELG HOPKINS REGION 64

References 66

2 Figure 1 The Glenelg Hopkins Region

SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION

The Glenelg Hopkins region lies to the south of the in south-west and covers 2,660,780 hectares (ha). The boundaries of Glenelg Hopkins Catchment Management Authority (GHCMA) extend from in the east, to the South Australian border in the west, and from the southern coast of Victoria to the townships of Edenhope and Ararat in the north1. The region includes the cities and townships of Hamilton, Warrnambool, Ararat, Ballarat, Casterton, Coleraine, , Beaufort and Portland. Figure 1 shows the area covered by the GHCMA.

SECTION 2 REGIONAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

In broad physiographic terms the Glenelg Hopkins region lies at the foot of the Great Diving Range of Eastern . Compared to the highlands further east, the local range has diminished to a low subdued watershed, punctuated only by several remnant-striking landforms such as the Grampians Ranges2. The divide finally culminates as the low undulating upland of the Dundas Tablelands, west of which the landscape flattens into extensive aeolian and alluvial deposits3. Otherwise the Glenelg Hopkins region is dominated by generally flat volcanic plains that extend to the coast.

Significant upland relief is provided by the north-south strike ridges of the Grampians Ranges, steep sided granitic monoliths of Mt Cole, Mt Buangor and Mt Langhi Ghiran, and the weathered sedimentary slopes of the divide north of Beaufort4. Moderate relief is provided by the gentle and steeply dissected plateaux of the Dundas and Merino tablelands. The Dundas Tablelands marked the shores of the Murray inland sea in the Late Tertiary period5.

Two identifiable periods of vulcanism have occurred. During these periods extensive volcanic deposits were laid down over much of western Victoria. Extensive olivine basalt flows (referred to as ‘newer volcanics’) erupted from volcanos (some 400 existed at various times), fissures and vents6. Flows from Mt. Rouse east of Penshurst extended more than 60km. Eruptions mostly occurred two to four million years ago, although it is estimated that the youngest volcanic activity occurred at Mt. Napier south of Hamilton, some 7,000 years ago7. During volcanic periods, extensive lakes developed when lave flows blocked regional drainage and hundreds of lakes were formed by slumping lava crust. The plains resulting from volcanic activity are mostly flat, to gently undulating. However, major streams such as the Hopkins River and Mt. Emu Creek cut through the basalt rocks creating U-shaped valleys8.

Deposits from later periods of vulcanism consist of scoria cones such as Mt. Napier and Mt. Eccles, maars (now crater lakes) and stony rise basalts9. Scoria cones were active in the southern areas due to interactions between shallow groundwater and magma10. The isolated scoria cones, such as Mt. Shadwell, arising from the second phase of volcanic activity are often steep-sided and reach elevations up to 200m above the surrounding plain11. There were about 40 maar type volcanoes between Colac and Port Fairy12. These volcanoes have very large craters of up to 2km across which are often filled with lakes as in the case of Tower Hill. They were formed as a result of explosive eruptions and resulted in deposition of volcanic ash and some limestone from underlying deposits for several hundred kilometers.

The Dundas and Merino Tablelands are dominant features in the north-west of the region. These elevated plains are underlain by a variety of basement rocks13. The Dundas Tablelands are undulating to rolling hills dissected in places by deep V-shaped valleys. The eastern Dundas Tablelands are dissected by shallower U-shaped valleys. The Merino Tablelands are heavily dissected and little remains of the original plateau surface. In the far west of the region, plains comprising unconsolidated fine or coarse textured sediments have developed14. Dune complexes occur along the coast, often extending several kilometers inland. The southern half of the Grampians extends into the north of the Glenelg Hopkins region.

Moderate to steep sedimentary hills occur along the north-eastern margin of the Glenelg region. Granite outcroppings occur among these hills, east and south of Ararat. Gentle to moderate sedimentary hills also occur in the central part of the region between Hamilton and Lake Bolac15.

Most of the Glenelg Hopkins region is covered in basalt landforms. These landforms range from young stony rise flows and older weathered stony barriers, to Late Tertiary period lava plains with greater or lesser elevation and dissection depending upon age.

Drainage across the basalt plains is mainly provided by the south flowing Hopkins River and Mt. Emu Creek. This is complimented by the Glenelg and systems that receive tributary drainage and snake around either side of

4 the Dundas Tablelands and Grampians Ranges. Drainage is frequently poor and internal resulting in the formation of many lakes and wetlands. Poor and ill-defined drainage in landscapes of low relief which lead to terminal discharge into depressions is characteristic of parts of the basalt plains, northern alluvial districts (east of the Grampians), and in the dune swales of the far west. The most prominent of these lake or swamp systems are at , Woorndoo-Lake Bolac, east of Hamilton and south of Dorodong.

During the Quaternary geological period extending from 1.6 million years ago to the present, a number of ice ages occurred which resulted in fluctuating sea level changes16. At the peaks of the ice ages, sea levels were significantly lower than present and rivers flowed across what is now the continental shelf to a coastline located south-west of the present one17. In interglacial periods the sea level rose to present day levels. During the most recent glacial period the icecap reached its maximum extent about 17,000 to 20,000 years ago18. During this time the sea level along the Victorian coast was some 120m below present day levels19. When sea levels retreated, carbonate rich sediments were exposed and provided the source material for calcareous coastal dunes. During the glacial period arid conditions prevailed and windblown silt and clay deposits were deposited in many areas20.

A feature of the Glenelg Hopkins landscape is the remnants of lateritic type weathering that occurred in the Late Tertiary period. This occurred during a warmer climate that produced deep weathered profiles often with iron enrichment in the near surface21. Such profiles are observed extensively across the Dundas Tablelands and other exposed Palaeozoic surfaces such as the Merino Tablelands and Stavely Hills. Deep weathered profiles have also developed over the earliest of the Late Tertiary basalt extrusions22.

Further information about the geology of the Glenelg Hopkins region, can be found in A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region23.

SECTION 3 CLIMATE OF THE GLENELG HOPKINS REGION

The climate of the Glenelg Hopkins region is generally characterised by hot dry summers and cool, wet winters. Average annual rainfall in the area ranges from 500mm/yr near Lake Bolac to more than 910mm in the Cobboboonee Forest west of Heywood and in the Grampians24. The region has high winter rainfall from April to November. Average annual temperatures range from 4OC to about 27OC in the north, with January and February being the hottest months25. CSIRO climate change predictions suggest that the region will have slightly higher average annual temperatures, with coastal areas being least affected by this change26. Warming will be greatest in spring and least in winter. Overall it is predicted average annual rainfall will decrease slightly with less summer and autumn rain27. Projections also indicate that episodic heavy rainfall events will increase in frequency.

Figures 2, 3 and 428 show the average annual rainfall, average maximum temperature (February) and the average minimum temperature (July) for the Glenelg Hopkins region.

5 Figure 2 Average Annual Rainfall in the Glenelg Hopkins Region

6 Figure 3 Average Maximum Temperature in the Glenelg Hopkins Region

7 Figure 4 Average Minimum Temperature in the Glenelg Hopkins Region

8 SECTION 4 SOILS

4.1 Soils of the Glenelg Hopkins Region Within the Glenelg Hopkins region there are eight main soil groups which vary in texture, structure fertility and drainage characteristics*. Variation is due to different ages, geology of the parent materials and the climatic conditions under which the soils were formed. The different soil types for the Glenelg Hopkins region are shown in Figure 5. This map is currently being reviewed with Australian Soil Classification (ASC) and a new map will be presented early 2003.

4.2 Land Use in the Glenelg Hopkins Region Approximately 81% of the GHCMA region has been developed for agricultural uses*. About 2% of the catchment area comprises pine forest, 16% is native forest with less than 1% used for urban and industrial development*. Agricultural land use is dominated by dryland pasture (over 2 million hectares) and also includes horticulture*. Public land in the region is dominated by national parks, covering over 200,000 ha. The Grampians National Park covers most of this area (167,100 ha). State, Coastal Parks and Reference Areas combine to comprise almost 35,300 ha throughout the region*. Land use within the GHCMA region is shown in Figure 6.

4.3 Land Capability More than 80% of the soils within the Glenelg Hopkins region have chemical or physical limitations affecting their agricultural management for sustainable productivity and maximum recharge control*. Nutrient deficiency, shallow soil profiles and poor soil structure (surface and/or 7sub-soils) are only some of the limitations. The inherent fertility of most soils in the region is low to very low. Some soils however start with initially ‘high’ fertility levels but rapidly deteriorate with intensive use after clearing. Nitrogen and phosphorous applications are commonly required for most soils in the region*.

The Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins Region performed a land capability analysis which identified land with high, moderate and low capacity to support the agricultural enterprises of wine grapes, dairy farming, blue gum plantations, broad acre cropping and areas that would benefit with raised beds*.

Table 1 shows the area of land within the Glenelg Hopkins region that is capable of supporting the various land uses.

Table 1 Land area (ha) capable of supporting identified land uses

Land and Area (ha) Area (ha) Area (ha) % Area of water of high of of low high degradatio capability moderate capability capability in n hazard rating capability rating the Glenelg rating Hopkins region Wine 60,800 1,825,000 330,400 3 grapes Dairy 21,900 1,750,200 444,500 1 Blue gums 15,300 192,600 1,062,100 <1 Broadacre - 1,138,900 2,022,900 - cropping Broadacre cropping with 175,000 8 benefits of raised beds

As Figures 7, 8, 9 and 10 show, particular soil landform units are more suited to specific agricultural enterprises than others. For dairy this includes the basalt and scoria country to the north of Heywood, the dissected country of the Digby soil-landform unit and the Koroit Marl soil-landform unit*. Wine grapes would be suited to land of the Marl soil-landform unit, and Blue gums to the rich red basalts north-west of Portland*.

9 Figure 5 Soil Types of South West Victoria

10 Figure 6 Landuse in the Glenelg Hopkins Region

11 Figure 7 Land Capability for Dairy in the Glenelg Hopkins Region

12 Figure 8 Land Capability for Broadacre Cropping in the Glenelg Hopkins Region

13 Figure 9 Land Capability for Wine Grapes in the Glenelg Hopkins Region

14 Figure 10 Land Capability for Southern Blue Gum in the Glenelg Hopkins Region

15 4.4 Land Degradation 4.5 Water Erosion Water erosion involves the movement of soil particles as sediment. The rate and severity of erosion depends on many factors, particularly climate, soil type, topography, vegetation cover and management practices29. Water erosion occurs when the force of moving water (raindrops or flowing water) is sufficient to disrupt soil aggregates and detach soil particles30. This can occur in a number of forms including sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion, tunnel erosion, streambank erosion and mass movement.

4.6 Gully and Tunnel Erosion Gully erosion occurs where surface and sub-surface water flow is concentrated by topography into drainage lines. Water strips away top and sub-soils, either directly or after detachment by processes such as slumping, block-fall and tunneling31. Soil removal occurs through the deepening of the gully during successive erosion events through action scour points which promote headward erosion along the drainage line and gully side erosion32. The rate and extent of gully erosion depends on subsoil water movement, soil coherence, and critical hydraulic gradients33.

Tunnel erosion results from the action of sub-surface water flow and increased water infiltration along relatively impermeable but susceptible soil strata to form underground pipes or cavities34. These long cavities are difficult to detect and may enlarge for some time until the soil above them is no longer supported and collapses to form an active open gully35. Dispersible soil is particularly susceptible to tunneling as it readily breaks down into transportable particles that can be mobilised by low velocity flows36.

Gully and tunnel erosion are most significant in the Glenelg River basin where 52% of agricultural land is affected to a moderate or severe extent, with severe gullying occurring around Casterton and in the Merino Tablelands37. Tunnel erosion occurs mainly around the Dundas Tablelands.

Gully erosion is one of the main types of erosion occurring in the Glenelg River basin. Gully and sheet erosion release large volumes of sand into the tributaries of the Glenelg River and into the Glenelg River itself. There are between four million and eight million cubic metres of sand trapped Glenelg River and its tributaries38.

In the Hopkins River basin, 13% of agricultural land is moderately affected by tunnel and gully erosion with 3% severely affected39. In the Hopkins basin severe gullying occurs at the headwaters of the , and Hopkins River as well as in an area between the Hopkins River and Glenthompson40. These areas are characterised by sedimentary and metamorphic deposits that are easily eroded.

The Portland basin is generally insignificantly affected by gully and tunnel erosion.

The area of land (ha) subject to high inherent susceptibility risk by gully and tunnel erosion in the Glenelg Hopkins region is 298,00041. Areas that are highly affected include the Dundas Tablelands area, around the Beaufort and Ararat regions, and north of Dunkeld and Glenthompson. The inherent susceptibility to water erosion (gully/tunnel) for the Glenelg Hopkins region is shown in Figure 1142.

4.7 Sheet and Rill Erosion Sheet erosion is driven by the energy of raindrop impact, as well as by running water acting in the absence of protective vegetation cover43. It can generally be difficult to detect and monitor because the rills or small channels are destroyed by subsequent cultivation. Rill erosion occurs if the channels are less than 30cm deep which distinguishes between them and gullies44. Steep and deep incisions may become gullies. The severity of rill erosion increases as slope angle, slope length and the velocity of flow increases45.

Sheet and rill erosion has minor effects on the Glenelg Hopkins region, with less than 10% of agricultural land in both the Glenelg and Hopkins River basins being moderately affected46. Minor segments of the Mount Stavely Block experience sheet and rill erosion. Other areas that are moderately affected are located in the Merino Tablelands and in other areas with undulating country with duplex soils. Sheet erosion is common on the hill crests and upper slopes of Palaeozic sediments and in the granitic soils found in the north eastern section of the region47.

16 The general susceptibility of the Glenelg Hopkins region to sheet and rill erosion is low, with 2700 ha of land at a high inherent susceptibility risk48. This can be seen in Figure 1249. An area of 1,020,300 ha is at moderate risk of being affected by sheet and rill erosion, 1,193,600 ha is at low inherent risk50.

4.8 Mass Movement The mass movement of soils is represented as land slips and mudflows. Land slips occur where sloping soils become unstable and slip downhill. This is usually brought about by an increase in soil mass because of excess moisture in the soil, and as a result of construction activities51. Mass movement is naturally accelerated in wet years, particularly when they follow an abnormally dry period52.

The area of land at high inherent susceptibility risk of mass movement in the Glenelg Hopkins region is 97,400 ha (4% of the region)53. Risk is generally isolated to the agricultural soils of the Glenelg and Casterton land systems and around the edges of the Dundas and Merino Tablelands and old river terraces of the Wannon River54. In the north east of the region land slips occur in the steep hills cleared of vegetation. Sections in the south of the Hopkins Basin are susceptible to mass movement.

The susceptibility of the Glenelg Hopkins region’s soils to mass movement is shown in Figure 1355.

4.9 Streambank Erosion The direct removal of streambanks and beds by flowing water is commonly recognised as streambank erosion56. It contributes greatly to the load of sediment carried in rivers and streams. Clearing of native vegetation cover has led to alterations in catchment hydrology causing accelerated stream erosion. This is due to increased surface run-off particulary during peak flood events. The reduction or elimination of buffering vegetation in the riparian zone also contributed to streambank erosion57.

Waterway stability within the Glenelg Hopkins region has been assessed58. Waterway stability problems have been identified in this report and are listed in Table 159.

Table 1 Glenelg Drainage Basin Waterway Stability Problems

Location Problem Wando Vale and Ponds Creek Headward erosion Koonong Wootong Creek Headward erosion Wennicott & Den Hills Creeks Headward erosion and Tributaries Dwyers Creek Headward erosion Henty Creek Breakaway and bank erosion Bryans Creek Sedimentation and subsequent incision and tributaries Deeepening and headward erosion Dundas Land Zone streams Deepening and headward erosion on tributaries Wannon River Existing structure causing deepening. Isolated bank erosion. Grange Burn, Dwyers Creek, Erosion and sediment inputs in streams Stokes and Crawford Rivers Gullying and erosion

Table 260 identifies the waterway stability problems in the Hopkins Drainage basin.

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Table 2 Hopkins Drainage Basin Waterway Stability Problems

Location Problem/Action Upper reaches of Hopkins, Fiery, Mt Emu Severe gullying and erosion. Creek and Trawalla Creeks Deteriorating older structures. Downstream sedimentation. Tributary streams across the catchment Isolated bank erosion Main trunks of Hopkins, Mt Emu, Fiery Sedimentation inputs from tributaries and Spring Creeks and subseqent incision. Chalcium, Fiery Nekeeya Creeks and Should remove sediment which is parts of Hopkins River and Mt Emu Creek filling channels and causing bank erosion.

Priority areas for streambank stabilistion works within the GHCMA region are shown in Figure 1461.

4.10 Wind Erosion Wind erosion occurs where wind has direct access to bare dry soil and causes soil detachment and removal. The overall susceptibility of the Glenelg Hopkins region to wind erosion is moderately low. There are 51,800 ha of land subject to a high inherent susceptibility risk from wind erosion and 629,500 ha are at moderate inherent susceptibility of being subject to wind erosion62. Figure 1563 shows that the coastal areas from Portland to Cape Bridgewater and Nelson are the most likely areas to be affected by wind erosion. The area west of Heywood to south-east of Dartmoor is also highly susceptible.

4.11 Soil Structure Decline Surface crusts and compaction are the direct result of soil structure decline. Causes of soil structural decline are related directly to agricultural practices such as cultivation and grazing. They also result from changes in soil chemistry and hydrological processes such as acidification, salinisation and watterlogging.

Structural decline is found across most pastoral land. Within the Hopkins basin around 20% of agricultural land is severely affected, with 73% of agricultural land in the basin moderately affected from soil structure decline*. The Portland Coast basin is moderately to insignificantly affected by soil structural decline, with 49% of land in the moderate to low category*. The Glenelg River basin has 65% of agricultural land in the moderate to low category for soil structure decline*.

4.12 Coastal Erosion Coastal dune erosion is the reactivation of sand movement because of loss of surface cover through uncontrolled and/or excessive recreational activity*.

Coastal erosion is evident on the beaches and foreshores on Dutton Way and the Henty Bay Estate near Portland. Beach loss is also occurring at East Beach Port Fairy. Destruction of vegetation on the primary dune has caused another kind of foreshore erosion at Bridgewater Bay*.

Sections of limestone cliffs have been eroded by marine undercutting, causing large sections of the cliffs to collapse. This has occurred at Nelson Bay and also at the Bay of Islands*.

4.13 Soil Acidity Soil acidification is a major land degradation issue. Soil acidification is a natural process through weathering and leaching, however agricultural processes greatly accelerate the rate of acidification*. Soil acidity occurs naturally in higher rainfall areas and can vary according to geology, clay mineralogy, soil texture and buffering capacity. Agricultural production increases acidity through excessive use of nitrogen fertilisers, nitrogen leaching and the continued removal of alkaline plant materials*.

18 Soils within the Glenelg Hopkins region are highly prone to acidification. Between 70% and 80% of agricultural within the GHCMA region has strongly acidic soils*.

Table 3 shows the major soil types and their potential to acidify within the Glenelg Hopkins region.

Table 3 GHCMA - Acidity Threats to the Regions Soil Types*

Soil Types Current Land Acidity Threats Use Yellow Dry land pasture, Most soil moderately to strongly acid (pH duplex 60% uncleared, dry 5-6). Poor quality perennial/annual land cropping, pastures contributing to medium forestry acidification but mediated by high organic matter contents. Change in landuse to broadacre cropping is a major threat on these soils and will accelerate the rate of acidification. Leached Uncleared, Slow rate of acidification that will be sands 15% forestry hastened by forestry activities in this area. The ensuing subsoil acidification through tree regrowth will be difficult to ameliorate. Friable Dryland pasture, Horticulture with high N fertiliser usage leached horticulture could hasten acidification on these soils. earth 5% Loam 5% Dryland pasture, High fertiliser usage in horticultural areas horticulture will more rapidly acidify soils on these soil types if unlimed.

19 Figure 11 Susceptibility of the Glenelg Hopkins Region to Water Erosion (Gully/Tunnel)

20 Figure 12 Susceptibility of the Glenelg Hopkins Region to Water Erosion (Sheet/Rill)

21 Figure 13 Susceptibility of the Glenelg Hopkins Region to Mass Movement

22 Figure 14 Priority Areas for Streambank Stabilisation in the Glenelg Hopkins Region

23 Figure 15 Susceptibility of the Glenelg Hopkins Region to Wind Erosion

24 SECTION 5 WATERWAYS WITHIN THE HOPKINS DRAINAGE BASIN

Figure 16 shows the boundaries of the three drainage basins within the GHCMA region.

Figure 16 Drainage Basins within the Glenelg Hopkins Region

25 5.1 Hopkins River and its Tributaries The Hopkins River Basin is located in the eastern section of the Glenelg Hopkins Catchment. The Basin covers an area of 10, 096 km2 (4.4% of the State)64. The Hopkins River is the major stream in the Hopkins River Basin. The river (259km in length) originates near Ararat in the north of the Basin before flowing south to Warrnambool where it drains into the at Point Ritchie. The Basin is flat to undulating with numerous volcanic cones.

Entirely cleared for pasture and agriculture, except for a small area of forest in the north, the Hopkins River Basin supports agricultural activities like wool and prime lambs, beef cattle grazing, cropping and dairying65. There are two major tributaries of the Hopkins River, these being Fiery/Salt Creek and Mt Emu Creek. Minor tributaries of the Hopkins River include Muston’s Creek and Brucknell Creek.

Like the Hopkins, the Fiery Creek tributary begins in the northern section of the Basin and travels in a south westerly direction to flow into Lake Bolac. Beginning from the outlet of Lake Bolac is Salt Creek which flows south westerly where upon it joins the Hopkins River just below the township of Hexham66. The tributary of Mt Emu Creek begins in the north eastern most section of the basin near Ballarat and flows along the eastern border of the basin where it meets the Hopkins River around 20 km upstream from the Hopkins River Mouth67. The minor tributary of Muston’s Creek begins in the western section of the basin, north east of Penshurst and flows in a south-easterly direction until it joins the Hopkins River, also around the Hexham region. The Brucknell Creek tributary originates on the eastern side of the Hopkins River. The mean annual runoff from the Basin is 405, 600 ML, which represents 2% of the total runoff generated in the State68.

5.2 Condition of the Hopkins River and its Tributaries The Hopkin’s River Basin is one of the most degraded river systems in Victoria, rating in ‘poor’ or ‘very poor’ conditions along 83% of its stream length69. This is largely due to the replacement of native vegetation with introduced pastures and weed through clearing and heavy grazing. With approximately 93% of the catchment used for pastures, there is very little remnant vegetation along the river’s edge70. Table 1 shows the percentages of south-west stream lengths in each environmental rating category.

The 1996 Hopkins Basin Catchment Management Study described the river as ‘in poor condition along much of its length’ and its banks and verge as ‘heavily cleared with tree decline and lack of regeneration causing a loss of trees in many of those areas that were originally left uncleared’. The loss of riparian vegetation is identified as causing ‘severe environmental degradation and loss of all aesthetic values’71. Water quality continues to deteriorate due to factors such as the rising salinity levels, increased sedimentation from erosion and increasing nutrient levels.

The removal of riparian and most deep rooted vegetation within the basin (Framlingham Forest being the only remaining native forest in the basin), has increased the rate of water run-off, increasing river bank erosion. The removal of vegetation and replacement with shallow rooted crops and pastures has contributed to the problem of rising water tables causing widespread salinisation of the land and waterways. Increasing salinity in the upper reaches of the Hopkins River has contributed to remnant tree decline.

Higher nutrient levels from agricultural run-off, compounded by increased nutrients from sewage and waste water discharges within the basin, has led to a highly eutrophic state in sections of the river. Degradation of the basin has resulted in adverse environmental impacts and created social and economic losses for the community. Frequent algal bloom outbreaks have caused concern for watering stock and for leisure activities as certain types of blue green algae are toxic if ingested by cattle and can be a health risk for humans.

Inappropriate and unsustainable farming practices and the fact that there has been inadequate monitoring of licensed and illegal diversions of water from the basin has changed the hydrology of the catchment and disrupted natural river flows72. Inadequate monitoring of river frontage licensing for grazing has contributed to the weed infestations throughout the catchment, which out competes native flora in most cases73.

Problems associated with the degradation of the Hopkins River Basin have reduced water quality in terms of sedimentation, high salinity and nutrient levels. Salinisation leads to the loss of aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity and contributes to the extensive erosion and bank destabilisation, which predominates in the upper reaches of the river. Erosion in the upper reaches of the catchment has led to severe sedimentation and degradation of the Hopkins River and its tributaries74.

26

The Mt Emu Creek tributary also suffers from the effects of salinity, clearing and extensive tree decline75. Continual grazing has prevented regeneration of most native species and weeds have replaced original understorey species, with gorse being a significant weed problem in the area. Although some stretches of native vegetation do exist along the middle and lower reaches of the river, regeneration of this is inadequate due to grazing along the banks. The concern in the lower reaches is that water quality is considered an increasing problem because of the salinity of the catchment and the gorse which is widespread along the banks76. There is a threat to the instream habitat of the creek due to the entry of European carp into Lake Burrumbeet, which could likely spread downstream77. The environmental condition of the Fiery Creek/Salt Creek catchment is poor to very poor conditions. The upper reaches are predominantly characterised as very poor, the middle reaches as poor and the lower reaches as a mixture of good to very poor78.

5.3 Merri River and its Tributaries The Merri River is a minor independent waterway situated in the south-western section of the Hopkins River Basin. It is approximately 50km in length, rises near Penshurst and enters the Southern Ocean at Pickering Point south-west of Warrnambool79.

5.4 Condition of the Merri River and its Tributaries As a result of the extensive grazing and lack of native riparian vegetation almost every reach of the Merri River and its tributaries are in poor condition80. Only a few deep gorge areas around Winslow, which are hard to access have native riparian vegetation along the river edge81. Most of the other reaches have been cleared and consist of introduced pasture grasses and weeds. Around the Woodford area the introduction of exotic species of willows and poplars out compete the riparian vegetation community and their thick dense roots bind the soil and block the waterway82.

The Merri River is considered by to be in moderate environmental condition and water quality, in common with most of the other rivers in the Hopkins Basin, and is poor in terms of salinity83. Nutrient enrichment is a major factor in the Merri River’s poor water quality. Agricultural practices upstream are a major source of excess nutrients through unrestricted stock access, bank erosion and the use of superphosphates which are washed into the river through increased run-off and overland flow84. The is located on the lower reaches of the Merri River and has a distinct detrimental effect on the water quality in the Merri River. Increasing urban development, stormwater run-off and industry waste have caused increased nutrient enrichment in the lower reaches of the Merri. Flows from Russells Creek which feeds into the Merri River have been identified as having high E. coli levels after storm events85.

Salinity is a problem in the Merri River. Heavy salt loads are deposited into the Merri River from its tributaries (particularly tributaries entering Spring Creek in the upper part of the catchment)86. These tributaries drain agricultural land which has little or no native vegetation, is prone to erosion and has no restriction on stock access. Replacement of deep rooted vegetation with crops and pasture has allowed larger amounts of rainfall to leech through to the groundwater and raise the naturally occuring salts to the surface.

SECTION 6 WATERWAYS WITHIN THE GLENELG DRAINAGE BASIN

6.1 Glenelg River and its Tributaries The Glenelg River Basin extends from the Grampians in the north of the basin to the southern coast of Western Victoria and the South Australian Border, covering an area of 11,988 km2, representing 5.3% of Victoria’s total area87. The topography of basin varies greatly from the rugged escarpments of the Grampians in the north-east corner, to the Dundas and Merino tablelands in the central section of the basin, and to the coastal plains in the south-west88. The Glenelg River is the main waterway in this basin and is the largest river in south-western Victoria. It begins in the north- east section of the basin and travels in a westerly direction along the northern border of the basin where it is intercepted by the Moora Moora Reservoir and the Rocklands Reservoir. Two-thirds of the Glenelg Basin has been cleared of its native vegetation of natural grasslands and woodlands and replaced by pasture to graze sheep and cattle, which along with broad acre cropping, makes up 68% of land use in the basin89. Only two forested areas remain within the basin. In 28% of the basin there are significant areas of low forest and heathland90.

27 The Wannon River is a major tributary of the Glenelg River, while the Chetwynd, Stokes and Crawford Rivers are significant tributaries. The Wannon River, like the Glenelg begins in the north east corner of the basin. It travels in a south westerly direction until it reaches the township of Dunkeld, before flowing in generally a westerly direction through the Coleraine district until it meets the Glenelg River just above Sandford. The Grange Burn River which passes through the Hamilton district, and the Dundas River near Cavendish are major tributaries of the Wannon River. The mean annual flow of the Basin is 704 400 ML, which represents 3.5% of the total flow generated in the State91.

6.2 Condition of the Glenelg River and its Tributaries The middle and upper Glenelg River Basin is a highly disturbed system in a moderate to poor condition92. Due to flow regulation, sedimentation and extensive snag removal, 55% of the total stream length is considered to be in very poor condition (sedimentation being the major factor contributing to this) with only 25% in good to excellent condition93. Approximately 60% of minor and tributary streams in the Basin were assessed to be in poor or very poor conditions94. The Glenelg River Catchment is one of the most severely eroded catchments in Victoria and is reported to have one of the longest periods of elevated soil erosion in Victoria95. River regulation plus the clearing of vegetation, which has resulted in sheet erosion and the delivery of sediment to the upper basin has been detrimental to the environmental stability of the basin. Coupled with the removal of riparian vegetation this has resulted in bank instability in the floodplain sections of the lower Glenelg River, also contributing to the large sedimentation levels.

It has been calculated that there is between four and eight million cubic metres of sand trapped in the Glenelg River and its tributaries96. Clearing of land in post European activities has caused severe sand aggradation problems in the regional catchment, but particularly in the Glenelg Basin. Extensive and severe sheet, tunnel, gully and stream bank erosion has supplied large volumes of sand from the Dundas Tablelands and its dissecting valleys to rivers resulting in substantial sand build up. The Glenelg River is still receiving sand sediment from both treated and untreated tributaries. Sand slugs are a major environmental concern. Although they are still contained to the middle and upper reaches of the Glenelg River, slug formation is progressing downstream at a maximum rate of one metre per year 97. If this rate of movement continues the slug will reach the lower Glenelg River beyond Dartmoor, which is listed under the Heritage Rivers Act, in about 204098. Without manual removal of this sand it is likely to be centuries before sand will have moved through the stream network.

The original sequences of deep pools and interspaced ripples in the Glenelg River Basin have now filled up and have consequently reduced the range and diversity of stream habitats. Severe sedimentation has destroyed and buried crevices which provided habitats for a variety of invertebrates. Conservation of several fish species is potentially threatened. Most species are only moderately affected by salinity levels but have been negatively impacted by habitat loss. The sand occupies on average about 40% of the channel cross-section and some reaches of the stream have lost over 80% of their former channel capacity99.

More than 60% of the river’s flows are diverted to the Wimmera and this causes serious water quality and ecological problem in the Glenelg River Basin100. The flow of the Glenelg River downstream of Rocklands Reservoir is highly regulated and water storage and flow is manipulated for agricultural purposes101. The flow below Rocklands is now reduced below historical levels and at other times can rise above historical levels. Completed in 1954, the Rocklands Reservoir is the largest storage in the Wimmera-Mallee water supply system with a total capacity of 348,000 ML102. Its primary purpose is to supply water for domestic stock and to the Wimmera Basin. The Reservoir has had a detrimental effect on the flood regimes and river conditions and there is evidence to suggest that numbers of certain fish species have severely declined over the past few years due to its effects on the rivers conditions.

Clearing of a large proportion of the native vegetation has contributed to dryland salinity, which has resulted in conductivities in excess of 10,000 EC found in some deep holes in the upper river103.

28 SECTION 7 WATERWAYS WITHIN THE PORTLAND DRAINAGE BASIN

The Portland Basin encompasses the south-western coastal region of the Glenelg Hopkins Basin from east of Port Fairy to west of Portland and covers an area of 3,963 km2 (2% of the State)104. It consists of five parallel river catchments, which enter the Southern Ocean at different locations. These waterways include the Surry, Shaw, Fitzroy, Eumeralla and Moyne Rivers as well as Darlots Creek. These waterways extend approximately 50 km inland to drain the entire basin. The topography of the land is generally flat, although interrupted now and then by volcanic outcrops. The mean annual flow of the basin is 231,000 ML which is 1.1% of the States total discharge105.

The is located between Port Fairy and Portland and it rises between Penshurst and Macarthur, flowing down past Macarthur, Bessiebelle, Codrington and then in to the western end of Lake Yambuk. The basin is a flat to undulating coastal catchment which rises in the Cobboboonee State Forest and flows south-east to discharge into the at Narrowong. Much of the catchment has been cleared for agricultural purposes, with significant grazing areas dedicated to wool, meat and dairy production.

7.1 Condition of Portland Coast Basin Rivers The streams of the Portland Coast catchment have been the least studied in the region to date. In existing reports, streams within the Portland Basin were described as physically stable. However 70% of them are in poor environmental condition and water quality is generally poor106. Erosion due to water movement in the waterway channel is generally not evident within the basin and this stability can be attributed to the clay soils and the basalt substrate. Erosion that is present in the Portland Coastal Basin is minor and associated with stock access. Two major erosion problems in the Portland Coastal Basin have been identified at the downstream end of the , and a section of the Eumeralla River south of Bessiebelle107.

The Moyne and Eumeralla Rivers and Darlots Creek have negligible riparian vegetation. In the Fitzroy and Surrey Rivers the riparian vegetation improves in the upper reaches due to an increase in slope and the existence of State forests at the headwaters of many of these waterways. The predominant land use within the Eumeralla River catchment is agriculture which has meant that there is only sparse cover of riparian vegetation and stock have trampled banks quite heavily where they have access to the river banks. The river is degraded with respect to salinity and nutrient levels108. There are problems with erosion, aquatic plant densities and flow during periods of heavy rain109. The mouth of the river is often blocked by a naturally forming sandbar which occurs at the mouth of the river, causing wide upstream flooding.

The stream flow of the Surrey River remains quite close to natural apart from the indeterminant effects of catchment clearing. Stream flow is benefited by the fact that there are no artificial water storages in the basin. Water quality in the middle and lower reaches is affected by salinity, particularly in the drier summer months due to elevated groundwater salinity and minor dryland salting110. The middle reaches of the Surrey are predominantly a farming area, with scattered riparian vegetation in generally poor condition. As is the case for most along the south-west coast of Victoria, the Surrey is closed by sand during periods of low flow. The lagoon is opened naturally when floodwaters flow over the barrier. This periodic opening and closing of the river mouth makes the estuary a very dynamic system with which the opening and closing is accompanied by dramatic changes in salinity and oxygen levels and can have detrimental effects on the in stream biota if not managed correctly.

Table 4 Percentages of South-West Stream lengths in each environmental rating category111 TOTAL EXCELLEN GOOD MODERAT POOR VERY km T E POOR Hopkins 1835 0 3 14 38 45 Portland 695 8 3 19 70 0 Glenelg 2431 20 5 10 39 26

29 SECTION 8 RIPARIAN VEGETATION CONDITION IN THE GLENELG HOPKINS CATCHMENT

The riparian zone is the region of interaction between water and land. Water and wastewater enter waterways via a variety of pathways across this area, and floodwaters cross the zone to replenish soils and wetlands. Riparian vegetation influences the condition of a watercourse by filtering pollutants from run-off, improving stream bank stabilisation and by providing habitat for terrestrial and aquatic fauna112. The zone is commonly used for agricultural and urban development. The removal of vegetation cover from a catchment results in an increase of leakage of soil and nutrients from catchments into waterways. The increased run-off discharge and loss of soils stability due to removal of riparian vegetation leads to these particles being carried into the waterways via sheet erosion. The riparian zone and adjacent land therefore require special management to ensure the water is as clean as possible before entering the stream. This includes water flowing through pipes, across the land surface and through the ground water system113.

Within the Glenelg, Portland and Hopkins Basins, riparian vegetation has been severely degraded. Along the region’s streams the riparian conditions vary greatly with the extent of their condition detailed in Table 5.

Table 5 Extent of Riparian Vegetation114 Catchment/Strea Continuous or Continuous or Sparse Not m Discontinuous Discontinuous % Mapped % Both Sides % One Side % Glenelg Drainage Basin Glenelg River 90 2 8 Wannon River 70 5 25 Portland Coastal Drainage Basin Surry River 55 30 15 Fitzroy River 30 30 20 20 Darlot Creek 10 10 20 60 Eumeralla River 10 10 80 Nil Nil 100 Hopkins Drainage Basin Merri River 5 5 90 Hopkins River 25 Nil 75 Fiery Creek 30 Nil 70 Mt Emu Creek 30 Nil 70

The Glenelg River is considered to have a good extent of riparian vegetation with 90% of the river bordered by vegetation on both banks. The Wannon River also within the Glenelg Drainage Basin has 70% of both its banks covered with vegetation. The only other river in the region to have vegetation on more than half of both banks is the Surrey River with 55% coverage. The Moyne and Eumeralla rivers within the Portland Coastal Drainage Basin are only sparsely vegetated on their banks with 80% and 100% poorly vegetated respectively. The Hopkins Drainage Basin is only sparsely vegetated with the Merri River having only 5% vegetation cover bordering both banks and 90% of its banks are sparsely covered. Similarly the Hopkins River is bordered by only 25% vegetation on both banks with the rest of the river’s banks sparsely covered, moreover these figures do not distinguish between native and exotic species115. Riparian vegetation communities have suffered from clearing, drainage, erosion, grazing and pest animal and plant infestations.

30

SECTION 9 GROUNDWATER AND SALINITY

Groundwater is a precious resource that is increasingly being seen as an economic alternative to surface water supplies (nre groundwater notes). Due to the saline nature of most rivers and lakes in the Glenelg Hopkins region, groundwater is heavily utilised for irrigation, stock, dairy-washing, industrial and town supplies. Groundwater is a vast resource that has many advantages over surface water as it has relatively constant chemistry and temperature, and the quality is usually good and biologically pure. Unlike surface water supplies, losses through evaporation are minimal. Once polluted, groundwater is very difficult to treat and is at risk of contamination from pesticides, animal wastes, inorganic fertilisers and soil additives (GRC).

The Otway, Murray and Highland groundwater basins underlie the Glenelg Hopkins region, with the Otway being the major sedimentary basin holding groundwater in the south-west (GRC).

Clearing of deep-rooted native vegetation and groundwater extractions has resulted in a changed groundwater flow pattern across the catchment in the years since European settlement.

Groundwater flow systems play a major role in salinity processes. Their individual characteristics determine; the expression of salinity in the landscape, the time lag between clearing and watertable rises, and their responsiveness to salinity mitigation works which may be undertaken. The National Land and Water Audit has established a framework for dryland salinity management in Australia based on Groundwater Flow Systems. Twelve groundwater flow systems have been broadly identified at a National level on the basis of nationally distinctive geological and geomorphological character. Three of these: Local flow systems in deeply weathered rocks; local flow systems in fine grained unconsolidated sediments and regional and intermediate flow systems within fractured basaltic rocks occur in south-west Victoria. In its broadest classification, groundwater flow systems are described as local, intermediate or regional (salinity strategy).

The Glenelg Hopkins Region has several ground water flow systems which are outlined in Table 6.

31 Table 6 Glenelg Hopkins Groundwater Flow Systems Ground Dominant Responsiv Soil Water Groun Description and Management water Flow System Flow eness salinity salinity dwater hazard Hazard salinit y Fractured Intermedia Mod. Low High 1000 – A fractured rock flow system. A high recharge area which is thought to feed other flow Palaeozoic te 8000 systems (basalts/deep leads/alluvials). Block revegetation will be required to reduce recharge. In the depressions between rock outcrops perennial pastures could be sown although access and establishment are issues. Little discharge occurs within the system but sites should be fenced and revegetated to reduce severity and improve biodiversity and productivity. Deeply weathered Local High Mod. High 1000- Dominant vertical recharge indicates treatment needs to be broad scale to be effective. Palaeozoic 8000 Control will be proportional to the are under trees / lucerne. Aquifer yields are generally low and quality poor. Cropping systems should incorporate ley systems utilising Lucerne. Short rotation woodlots to mine soil moisture held at depth and timberbelt /alleys would be effective. Discharge sites should be fenced and revegetated to reduce evaporation and severity, biodiversity and productivity increases. Groundwater pumping could be used to protect high value assets. Discharge utilisation will require careful consideration. Fractured Granite Local High Mod. High 3000 – Fractured granite containing a local flow system. Vertical recharge is slow due to sparse and 10000 tight fractures in the granite. Lateral flow is expressed as springs and salinity appears around the margins where clearing has occurred. Vegetation cover on a large proportion of the area is protected as forest reserves and this should be maintained. Where discharge occurs it should be fenced and treated to reduce evaporation rates and increase biodiversity and productivity. Trees as blocks or belts upslope and surface/subsurface engineering could be used to control lateral flow. Deeply weathered Local Mod. - High High High 5000- Initial vertical recharge is partitioned at depth to vertical and lateral flow. Tight granite at granite 10000 depth reduces deep percolation but has filled the landscape with water. Water moves to the discharge area where it exacerbates the salinity problem. 30 – 40% of the flow system will need to be planted to trees/lucerne. Cropping systems should incorporate ley systems utilising lucerne. Short rotation woodlots to mine soil moisture held at depth and timberbelt / alleys would be effective. Discharge sites should be fenced and revegetated to reduce evaporation rates severity and increase biodiversity and productivity. Surface drainage, perennial pastures and cropping are considered recharge neutral. Grampians Local Low Low 500- Not a concern for salinity management. Sandstone 1500 Grampians Colluvium Local High Low High 500 – Potential recharge source for adjoining aquifers. Majority of vegetation pre-european offsite 1500 settlement remains intact – limited scope for improving the status quo.

32 Eastern Local Mod. High High 1500- Primary salinity fed from the saline regional groundwater system discharges salt into the Dundas Tablelands 15000 drainage lines and springs. The local groundwater system supplies excess (fresher) water via lateral flow to the discharge areas resulting in their expansion. Mopping up the lateral flow to reduce the size of the discharge site could be achieved using tree belts in strategic locations, or surface engineering to manage runoff. Further investigation is needed to consider catchment scale effects of changed drainage patterns from implementation of the latter. Subsurface drainage could catch lateral flow although research has shown low draw down necessitates narrow drain spacings (high cost). Pipes must not be slotted in the discharge areas. Treatment of discharge areas provides major advantages for the reduction in evaporation and severity, biodiversity and productivity increases. The regional vegetation plan identifies brackish drainage lines as high priority ecological vegetation classes. Protection of sites through application of biodiversity protocols and reestablishment offers multiple benefits. Western Local Mod. - High Mod. - High 3000- It is suspected that similar process operate to the Dundas East, although without the regional Dundas Tablelands High 7000 component. Soils provide evidence of seasonal water logging as a usual occurrence, indicating a full system prior to settlement. The local groundwater system supplies excess (fresher) water via lateral flow to the discharge areas resulting in their expansion. Mopping up the lateral flow to reduce the size of the discharge site could be achieved using tree belts in strategic locations, or surface engineering to manage runoff. Further investigation is need in relation to catchment scale effects of changed drainage patterns from implementation of the latter. Treatment of discharge areas provides major advantages for the reduction in evaporation and severity, biodiversity and productivity increases. The Regional Vegetation Plan identifies brackish drainage lines as high priority ecological vegetation classes. Protection of sites through application of biodiversity protocols and reestablishment offers multiple benefits. Woorndoo Complex Local Mod. Mod. - Mod. - 120- Large numbers of wetlands occur in this area and much of the salinity problem is associated High High 15000 with expansion from these sites. Flow system has been well studied, with tree belts to intercept lateral flow and use of lucerne during cropping leys considered effective. The regional vegetation plan identifies brackish lakes and permanent saline lakes as high priority ecological vegetation classes. Protection of sites through application of biodiversity protocols and reestablishment offers multiple benefits. Volcanic Plains Local High Low Low <1000 Contains a valuable freshwater resource. Well drained. Discharge on margins may be fed (late phase) from additional recharge considered to be happening now through the stony rises., which may also be feeding underlying aquifers. System may be having a positive impact by diluting base flow to streams and wetlands. Quaternary Alluvium Local High High High 3000- Inflows from adjoining systems are likely to influence waters levels in the alluvials. and coastal deposits 10000 Drainage is difficult due to lack of slope.

33 Merino Tablelands Local High Mod. ~High 3000- Salinity occurs as hillside seeps and along creek lines on the valley floor. The Regional 7000 Vegetation Plan identifies brackish drainage lines as a high priority ecological vegetation class. Protection of sites through application of biodiversity protocols and reestablishment offers multiple benefits. Strategic tree planting could help with seeps. Pliocene Sands Intermedia Low Mod. Mod. 1000- A thin but extensive sand sheet under the basalt and outcropping. Salinity occurs te 10000 predominantly in northern outcrops, much of this area has recently experienced a land use change to Blue Gum plantations. Volcanic Plains Regional Low High High 500- Salinity expression is not consistent across the whole of the basalts and it is suspected that (earlier phase) 10000 sub-systems operate. It is suspected that the groundwater system was full prior to settlement (large number of wetlands). There is a low level of confidence in what has caused the change and subsequently effective recharge management options are unclear. Further investigation is required to clarify processes. Protection of sites through application of biodiversity protocols and reestablishment offers multiple benefits. There is a high degree of confidence in discharge management options for the basalts and large areas provide significant opportunity to mitigate the affects on and offsite. The regional vegetation plan identifies brackish lakes and permanent saline lakes as high priority ecological vegetation classes. Sand Plains Regional Low Low Low 500- Not a concern for salinity management. 2000 Port Campbell Regional nil nil Fresh Not a concern for salinity management. Limestone Dilwyn Formation Regional nil nil Fresh Not a concern for salinity management.

34 Figure 17 Groundwater Flow Systems and Saline Discharge Sites within the Glenelg Hopkins Region

35

Figure 17 shows the saline discharge sites within the Glenelg Hopkins region, with reference to the groundwater flow systems.

The three main reasons that dryland salinity is more prevalent in the western half of the region is that 1) the clearing of land and replacement with lower water using vegetation has been more widespread here, 2) lower relief and generally poorer drainage occurs and 3) there is generally a high natural salt storage in the area. (Nre web Land and Water management: Dryland salinity – The extent of Dryland Salinity).

The area of land in Victoria predicted to be at risk from shallow saline watertables is approximately 670,000 ha. This could increase to over three million hectares within 50 years. Between 8% and 18% of the State’s agricultural land is predicted to fall into the high salinity risk category, with up to a further 47% in the moderate-risk category under the worst-case scenario. The Glenelg Hopkins region is one of the high-risk areas in southern Victoria with upper limit trends of 32.8% of the CMA region and 716.2 kha land in high risk salinity category and 56.5% of the CMA region and 1232.4 kha of land at moderate risk in the salinity category for upper limit trends (audit).

The National Land and Water Resources Audit reports the best and worse case scenario for the current and future extent of shallow watertables and salinity in the Glenelg Hopkins region. There report shows that under a worst case scenario there could be a very large expansion in the area of land with watertables less than two metres in depth including the Dundas tablelands and basalt and alluvial plains of south-west Victoria (Clifton, C. (2000) National Land and Water Resources Audit: Theme 2 – Dryland Salinity, Extent and impact of dryland salinity in Victoria, SKM, Bendigo).

The area of land in the Glenelg Hopkins catchment predicted to currently have a water table of less than two metres is 144.5 kha which is 6.6% of the GHCMA region, 697.8 kha of land is predicted to have water table depth of between two to five metres. The report states that by the year 2020 the predicted upper limits for land to have shallow water tables would be 429.6 kha or 19.7% of the GHCMA region and by the year 2050 the predicted upper limits for land to have shallow water tables would be 947.2 kha or 43.4% of the GHCMA region. These predictions are shown in Table 7 in comparison with other CMA regions, with the GHCMA region being in the top two for percentage area of land predicted to currently be in the less then two metre water table class.

Table 7 Areas of land predicted to currently be in each depth to water table class for CMA regions and percentage of CMA region with shallow water tables.

Area of land (kha) in each water table class CMA Region Coastal <2m 2-5m 5-10m >10m %<2m Corangamite 9.9 51.2 333.3 545.0 91.5 5.0% 25.1 1.8 78.6 87.6 166.7 0.5% Glenelg 6.4 144.5 697.8 1051.5 280.7 6.6% Hopkins Goulbourn- 123.6 320.8 416.4 334.7 10.3% Broken Mallee 60.7 167.7 351.0 2062.9 2.3% North Central 124.3 437.6 879.4 566.0 6.2% North East 40.4 301.6 91.0 216.5 6.2% 20.1 8.5 205.6 399.9 157.8 1.1% West Gippsland53.2 14.1 192.4 335.7 187.2 1.8% Wimmera 96.4 106.3 215.9 1557.2 4.9% Total 114.8 665.4 2841.5 4373.3 5621.3 4.9%

The area of grazing or pasture land affected by shallow water tables and salinity are among the greatest in the Glenelg Hopkins region with the upper limit trends. The area of agricultural land predicted to have shallow watertables for the GHCMA region was predicted to be 6.6% or 144.5 kha in 1998 and without recognition of the problems associated with the issue of dryland salinity then its it is estimated that around the year 2050 that 43.4% or 947.2 kha of agricultural land could be affected by shallow watertables according to upper limit values (audit).

36

SECTION 10 WETLANDS WITHIN THE GLENELG HOPKINS CATCHMENT

Wetlands are naturally occurring depressions or floodplains covered temporarily or permanently by fresh, brackish or saline water116. Wetlands were one of the most prominent features of the pre European landscape of the Glenelg Hopkins area and despite extensive drainage for agriculture, the region still contains some of Victoria’s most environmentally significant wetlands. Wetlands have an important role in nutrient cycling in the ecosystem by trapping and recycling nutrients that have been derived from the surrounding catchment areas. They are characterised by winter filling and summer evaporation, giving a dynamic water level that in turn influences the flora and the fauna that develop at each site117.

Some of the wetlands in the regional catchment are part of international conservation agreements including - Australia Migratory Birds Agreement (JAMBA), -Australia Migratory Birds Agreement (CAMBA) and RAMSAR, as they provide crucial habitats for threatened species. Within the Glenelg Hopkins region there are three wetlands of particular importance with these agreements: Long Swamp south-east of Nelson is included in JAMBA/CAMBA as is the Glenelg Estuary near Nelson. Lake Bookar north-west of Camperdown is included as a RAMSAR site which is a of International Importance118. To be listed as a RAMSAR site wetlands must meet one or more of the internationally accepted criteria in relation to their zoology, botany, ecology, hydrology or limnology and importance of water fowl119.

The Glenelg-Hopkins region has 44% of the State’s wetlands, 90% of which are on private land120. The Hamilton region has many freshwater meadows, together with some shallow freshwater marshes, such as Krause’s Swamp, and deep freshwater marshes, such as Lake Linlithgow and Lake Bolac, saline wetlands also occur frequently, as at Lake Kennedy.

Since European settlement there has been a huge reduction in the number of wetlands due to the drainage of areas for agricultural production. After the gold rush era there was intense pressure for agricultural land and drainage of wetlands was seen as one way to acquire rich soil121. In western Victoria, 78% of the shallow freshwater meadows and 66% of deep freshwater meadows have been lost through drainage122. Shallow freshwater marshes have declined from 42,000 ha to 12,000 ha and this has severely reduced the available habitat for a range of birds and waterfowl123. On the volcanic plains, over 75% of the shallow freshwater wetlands have been lost or severely modified by drainage works. These wetlands were important breeding and feeding places for Brolga and other waterbirds. Besides biodiversity loss other environmental problems associated with the drainage of wetlands is considerable erosion in some catchments, especially in the Dundas Tableland area. Rising watertables and corresponding lake salinity is a major concern relating to the health of the wetlands as is pest plant and animal invasion, unrestricted stock access, chemical contamination and nutrient enrichment. The only effective means of restoring viable, long-term populations of waterbirds and other wetland fauna in the region is to dramatically increase the area of pristine wetlands124.

10.1 Descriptions of Wetlands and Lakes in the Glenelg Hopkins Catchment 10.2 Lake Linlithgow Wetlands Lake Linlithgow is located 11km east of Tarrington in the Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregion. The depth is quite shallow even when full (8-12 feet) and the water is mildly saline. The origin of the lake is uncertain. Some regard it as merely being a shallow depression in the original lava crust. However, it is possible that it may, in part, be formed from an original crater125. The Lake Linlithgow Wetlands covers an area of 1,432 ha. Within this wetland group is Lake Kennedy which is located 7km east of Tarrington, Salt Lake (10km east of Tarrington), Lake Bullrush (12km east of Tarrington) and Krause Swamp (12km east north-east of Tarrington). These wetlands are formed in shallow depressions in the basalt plains. Lake Linlithgow is fed by Boonawah Creek and several drains. Lake Kennedy is supplied by drains and a creek. Krause Swamp is fed by two creeks and has an outlet drain to Lake Bullrush. The other wetlands are naturally closed basins with small local catchments. In times of high flow, Lake Linlithgow, Lake Kennedy and Lake Bullrush may overflow to the former Soilders Swamp and Buckley Swamp to the south-west.

37 Lake Linlithgow and its nearby wetlands are important degraded remnants of the extensive former wetlands of south- west Victoria that included the 1,000 ha ‘Great Swamp’, now the drained Buckley Swamp at Yatchaw which were described by Bruni in 1903 as ‘the most remarkable feature in the district around Hamilton…the home of myriads of waterfowl’126. The Lake Linlithgow Wetlands are high value wetlands for their flora and fauna. Lake Linlithgow is a major resource for waterbirds, which also use the nearby wetlands, including the very saline Lake Kennedy, and the fresher Krause Swamp and Bullrush Swamp.

The significance of these wetlands is that they have a large area of water and have the capacity to hold very large numbers of waterbirds in a part of the Victorian Volcanic Plain which now has few large permanent wetlands. They generally act as a drought refuge, although Lake Linlithgow completely dried up in February 2000 after several years with no runoff127. They also include several wetland types varying in salinity and depth. Lake Kennedy is a good example of a large brackish to saline wetland characteristic of the Victorian Volcanic Plain. The wetlands complex includes four permanent open freshwater wetlands which are scarce in Victoria128.

Nationally threatened flora species within the wetlands includes the Salt Tussock-grass, which has been recorded at Lake Linlithgow and Krause Swamp. The wetlands are also important in the protection of nine Victorian threatened species (two flora and seven flora)129. Within the wetland group 54 waterbird species have been recorded for the whole system, including 53 species at Lake Linlithgow, 19 species at Lake Kennedy, and 17 species at Krause Swamp130. Threatened species found within this system include The Freckled Duck, Brolga, Blue-billed Duck and Cape Barren Goose. The wetlands also support significant numbers of Hoary-headed Grebes, Australasian Grebe, Australian Pelican, Black Swan, Australian Shelduck, Grey Teal, Australasian Shoveler, Pink-eared Duck, Hardhead, Blue-billed Duck, Eurasian Coot, Masked Lapwing, and Whiskered Tern.

The lakes have a high recreational value with activities including fishing, off-road driving and hunting occurring at some sites131. The bird population is regularly monitored by the Hamilton Field and Naturalists Club. Aboriginal cultural sites also exists in the area with a surface scatter, an isolated hearth and exposure in a bank existing at Lake Linlithgow, with all three sites reported to be in good condition132. Grazing around the edges of the wetlands, boating and off-road driving at Lake Linlithgow are the current sources of disturbance to environment in this area. Grazing disturbs vegetation and soil on the edges of all the other wetlands and the grazing that has occurred on the lakes foreshore has, temporarily obliterated most of the native grasses, sedges and forbs. Growth of thistles and weeds, such as horehound, occurs in areas that are heavily grazed. Brackish water from inlet creeks enters Lake Linlithgow, Lake Kennedy and Krause Swamp posing a threat to the quality of the water in these systems. Grazing impacts on rare plant species around the lake and removal of stock from lakeside and creek fringes will also prevent nutrient pollution of the lake, which has been a factor in algal blooms in the past years. It will also allow the development of rush and reed habitat on the shoreline, and the protection and enhancement of important remnant native vegetation that exists on/near some of the cliff areas133.

Salinity levels have risen sharply in Lake Linlithgow over the last four years due largely to negligible runoff into the lake resulting in salt concentration from evaporation. Levels of 45,000 EC were recorded prior to the lake drying completely in February 2000134. This is a terminal lake system and it is expected that it will become more saline over time as incoming salt cannot be removed from the lake system135.

Conservation measures have been taken for the Lake Linlithgow Wetlands. Lake Kennedy is a State Wildlife Reserve- State Game Reserve and Krause Swamp a State Wildlife Reserve. The Sanctuary of Lake Linlithgow and Lake Bullrush were recommended as a Lake Reserves. Salt Lake was recommended as a State Wildlife Reserve but is unreserved Crown Land, private land136. The surrounding area of these wetlands is privately owned land. The system is frequented by ten species listed under the JAMBA and CAMBA agreements, one species only listed by JAMBA and one only listed under CAMBA.

10.3 Lake Bookaar Lake Bookaar is located in the Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregion and situated 11km north of Camperdown. It is 500 ha in area and is listed as a Wetland of International Importance (RAMSAR site), within the RAMSAR site and has four species listed by JAMBA and CAMBA. Lake Bookar is a permanent, brackish lake which formed between basalt flows and is a terminal lake for the local catchment area137. It has several islands at high water levels. Lake Bookaar is of high value for its avifauna and has supported 38 waterbird species138. Threatened species that have been recorded at the lake are the Freckled Duck, Blue-billed Duck, Brolga and Great Egret. Species that have

38 been observed on Lake Bookaar include Hoary-headed Grebe, Great Crested Grebes, Australian Pelicans, Great Cormorants, Black Swans, Freckled Duck, Grey Teal, Australasian Shoveler, Pink-eared Duck and Eurasian Coots. Duck hunting is a permitted activity at Lake Bookaar under the Wildlife (Game) Regulations 1990139. Other recreational activities which are popular at the lake include picnicking, sailing and other boating, and it has a recreational reserve on its south-west side. Current threats to the water quality of Lake Bookaar include salinity and stratification caused by grazing of edge vegetation.

10.4 Glenelg Estuary The Glenelg Estuary is located 1km south of Nelson. The Glenelg Estuary has an area of 98 hectares. It is the largest estuary in Victoria consisting of the main channel of the Glenelg River which feeds the estuary and a side lagoon called the Oxbow140. The estuary is part of the Discovery Bay Coastal Park and listed on the National Estate Register. Long Swamp, Malseed Lake Wetlands, Swan Lake Wetlands and Bridgewater Lakes are other wetlands listed in the same aggregation as the Glenelg Estuary141. The Glenelg Estuary is a high value wetland for its ecological features. The significance of this wetland is that it is of special geomorphological interest, being the only estuarine lagoon system in Victoria developed within a framework of dune calcarenite ridges and contains the only remaining relatively undisturbed salt marsh community in western Victoria142.

Notable threatened flora found in the Glenelg Estuary include the Lax Twig-rush and Leafy Greenhood and the estuary contains the only known Victorian occurrence of a variety of Yellow Gum. There have been 33 waterbird species recorded in the estuary143. Threatened species found in the estuary include the Little Tern, Fairy Tern and Hooded Plover. The estuary is frequented by six species listed by both JAMBA and CAMBA and two species listed by JAMBA and CAMBA respectively144. Spits at river mouths such as those at the Glenelg River provide valuable breeding sites for the Little Tern and the Glenelg Estuary is one of only a few sites where Little Tern breed in Victoria.

Nature conservation and recreation are the current land use activities on the Glenelg Estuary. In the surrounding area of the Glenelg estuary there are residential homes and shops of the town of Nelson, areas of land for nature conservation and grazing land. Aboriginal cultural artifacts are also found around the Glenelg Estuary with several shell middens and surface scatters present. Currently there exists a threat to the beach-nesting birds and birds roosting in the estuary especially at the river mouth from the recreational disturbances in the Glenelg Estuary145. Another potential threat to the health of the Glenelg Estuary is the declining water quality in the Glenelg River.

10.5 Long Swamp Long Swamp is situated 6km east south-east of Nelson. Long Swamp, 764 ha in area, is an elongated freshwater wetland within the Discovery Bay Coastal Park and is separated from the sea by an extensive dunefield. The swamp consists of two major wetlands connected at a natural overflow by a deepened channel. There are three oulets, at Nobles Rocks, White Sands and Oxbow Lake. The wetlands are mainly fed by groundwater146.

Long Swamp is a high value wetland for its flora and fauna, with four rare plant species occuring in the system, these being the Slaty Leek-orchid, Swamp Greenhood, Oval-leaf Logania and the Lax Twig-sedge. A white form of the Austral Ladies’ Tresses which is considered a threatened plant species in Victoria has also been recorded at Long Swamp. It was also recorded that the Slender Leek-orchid and Leafy Greenhood occurred at the swamp, as did the Prickly Raspwort147. Seven waterbird species have been recorded at Long Swamp148. Threatened species found in the swamp include The Great Egret, a significant population of 50-60 Ground Parrots, Australasian Bittern and Brolga. The Great Egret is the one species within Long Swamp that is listed by JAMBA and CAMBA149.

Long Swamp has scenic tourism value and Aboriginal artifacts. Nature conservation and bird-watching are the current land use activities that occur at the swamp. Logging, fishing, walking, camping and grazing are some of the predominant land use activities which occur in the surrounding area. Stock grazing is currently disturbing the edge of the swamp and there has been some trampling and grazing by kangaroos recorded at one site. A potential threat for the swamp is the alteration of natural or already modified outlets150.

10.6 Lindsay-Werrikoo Wetlands The Lindsay-Werrikoo Wetlands are located 14km north north-west of Dartmoor. The prominent wetlands within this group are Kaladbro Swamp (15km west north-west of Strathdownie), Kerr Swamp (8km west of Strathdownie), Church Swamp (6km west south-west of Strathdownie), Blackwater Hole (2km south-west of Wilkin). The total area of this

39 wetland group is 1,785 ha151. Kerr Swamp is a State Wildlife Reserve, Church Swamp is a State Wildlife Reserve classified as a State Game Reserve and Kaladbro Swamp is a State Wildlife Reserve classified as a State Game Refuge152. Other wetlands listed in the same aggregation as the Lindsay-Werrikoo Wetlands are the Mundi-Selkirk, Boiler Swamp, Killara and Dergholm State Park Wetlands.

The Lindsay-Werrikoo Wetlands consists of a high density mosaic of freshwater meadows, shallow freshwater marshes and deep freshwater marshes mainly on cleared land aligned along a former shoreline153. These wetlands are of high value for their flora and fauna and are quite similar to the Mundi-Selkirk Wetlands but are mainly on cleared land. The significance of the wetlands in this system are that the deep freshwater marshes in this area act as significant dry- season and drought refuges and are some of the best examples of this wetland type on cleared land in this region154. There are also a number of ibis breeding colonies in the system.

Kerr Swamp is important in protecting nine Victorian threatened species (three flora and six fauna) and two fauna species are also Flora and Fauna Guarantee (FFG) listed species155. It also plays host to one JAMBA/CAMBA species. Church Swamp is important in protecting five Victorian threatened fauna species, two of which are FFG-listed species156.

Threatened flora species which are present in the wetland system are the Wavy Swamp Wallaby-grass which has been recorded at Kaladbro Swamp. Thirty waterbird species have been recorded for the wetland system157. Threatened fauna species found in this system include The Great Egret and Australasian Bittern which have been recorded at Kerr, Kaladbro and Church Swamps. Other notable fauna that have been recorded within the system are Brolga at Kerr and Church Swamps, Blue-billed Ducks at Kaladbro Swamp and several other deep freshwater marshes in the wetland system. Straw-necked Ibis and Australian White Ibis breed at Kaladbro Swamp and at Church Swamp, and when water levels are high enough ibis also breed at Kerr Swamp158.

Current land use within the wetland group includes nature conservation and grazing. Duck hunting is the only significant recreational activity that occurs in the wetlands. Grazing is the prominent land use activity in the surrounding region around the wetlands. Current threats to the Lindsay-Werrikoo Wetlands are further drainage and water regulation as well as grazing159.

10.7 Mundi-Selkirk Wetlands The Mundi-Selkirk Wetlands are located 10km south-west of Casterton. Prominent sites within the Mundi-Selkirk Wetlands include: McCallums’s Swamp (7km south-east of Lake Mundi), Battery Swamp (2km north of Lake Mundi), Blackjack Swamp (7km north of Selkirk), O’Connell’s Flat Swamp (2.5km north of Selkirk), Mill Swamp (2km north north- west of Wilkin), Gillies Lagoon (7km east south-east of Lake Mundi), Cemetary Swamp (8km east south-east of Lake Mundi), Granny’s Swamp (7km east south-east of Lake Mundi), Argyle Swamp (5km south south-east of Lake Mundi) and Mosquito Swamp (12km north north-west of Lake Mundi)160. This wetland group has a total area of 2,032 ha. The Mundi-Selkirk Wetlands consist of numerous freshwater meadows, shallow freshwater marshes and some deep freshwater marshes on forested and cleared land. Most of the wetlands are naturally enclosed basins with very small catchments but drains connect many sites. Some wetlands are connected to major drains that flow to the Glenelg River and in particular Mill Swamp acts as a holding basin for drainage water before it flows to the river161. Lake Mundi and McCallum’s Swamp are excellent examples of tall sedge-dominated swamps162.

A nationally threatened flora species, the Metallic Sun-orchid, occurs at Lake Mundi as does the nationally threatened fauna species, The Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo. Lake Mundi is important in protecting four Victorian threatened flora species one of which is also nationally threatened163. It is also important in protecting several threatened fauna species including five Victorian threatened species one of which is also nationally threatened and three are FFG-listed species164. It is also a refuge for one JAMBA/CAMBA species. A composition of 24 waterbirds have been recorded in the wetland system165. Threatened species which have been sighted at several of the wetlands include the Blue-billed Duck, Brolga and the Australasian Bittern. The Mundi-Selkirk Wetlands support breeding populations of Brolga166.

Current land use within the area includes duck hunting and water skiing which has been attempted on Gillies Lagoon and Cemetery Swamp. Grazing occurs in the area, and this threatens vegetation in the wetlands. The clearing of surrounding forest areas for agriculture and silviculture is a threat as are vehicles and the operations of plantation pine companies.

40 10.8 Lower Merri River Wetlands Located close to Warrnamboolin the Lower Merri River Wetlands including Saltwater Swamp (5km west north-west of Dennington) and Kelly Swamp (3km west of Dennington) cover a total area of 146 ha. Major parts of Saltwater Swamp and part of Kelly Swamp are included in the Levy’s Point Coastal Reserve. The Lower Merri River Wetlands consist of two connected wetlands developed in a swale between calcareous dune ridges fed by the Merri River167. Kelly Swamp is filled by flood waters of the Merri River which follow a broad floodplain to the former river mouth at The Cutting. An artificially-enlarged channel connects Kelly Swamp to Saltwater Swamp. The latter also receives washovers from the sea at The Cutting. The Merri River is currently drained to the sea through a channel at Warrnambool168. Ecological features of these wetlands include high value avifauna, they also have large areas of Common Reed with Spiky Club- sedge, saltmarsh and mudflats169. They are of high value for their geomorphology and are a well preserved example of interdunal wetlands fed by a small drainage system170.

Within these wetlands 53 bird species have been recorded, with 47 species at Saltwater Swamp and 30 species at Kelly Swamp. The wetlands have supported up to 647 ducks, 500 Black Swans and 1000 Purple Swamphens171. Threatened species which have been recorded are Hooded Plovers (38) at Saltwater Swamp. Small numbers of Magpie Geese, previously extinct in Victoria were introduced at Tower Hill and also use Kelly Swamp172. The Little Tern and the Orange-bellied Parrot have recently been recorded at Saltwater Swamp and there are old records of the Cape Barren Goose and Brolga. The wetland has 15 species listed under both JAMBA and CAMBA, one species only listed under CAMBA and two species only listed under JAMBA have been recorded173.

The wetlands are used for walking and bird watching with the Mahogany Trail following the edge of the wetlands. Illegal off-road use of trail bikes and four-wheel drives threaten the native flora and fauna of the wetland as does illegal grazing. In an aid to prevent these disturbances public vehicle access has been limited and fencing has been undertaken to prevent damage from stock. There is also the potential that pollution from a former rubbish tip on the edge of the Merri River floodplain at Warrnambool may affect the Lower Merri River Wetlands174.

10.9 Tower Hill Located just south of Koroit the Tower Hill wetlands are 311 ha in area. The wetlands consist of the east and west lakes as well as Wagon Bay and Shed Pond. Tower Hill is a State Wildlife Reserve-State Game Reserve and the surrounding land is privately owned. Tower Hill is a system of permanent brackish wetlands formed in a complex of volcanic craters175. The Tower Hill Wetlands are mainly enclosed basins fed by groundwater and runoff but with high water levels, the west lake may overflow towards Killarney.

The wetlands are of high value for their flora and fauna, in particular their avifauna and invertebrates. Tower Hill is important in protecting 16 Victorian threatened fauna species of which one species the Warty Bell Frog is Nationally threatened and four species are FFG-listed species176. A revegetation program for the cleared Tower Hill area has resulted in a cover of bushland around the wetland. The Common Reed provides shelter for secretive crakes, rails, bittern and nesting waterbirds. Pondweed provides a major food source for waterfowl. Club-sedge is another important flora component of the wetland. Sixty-three waterbird species have been recorded at Tower Hill177. There is a large range of invertebrate fauna including the dinoflagellate (one of only three habitats used in the world)178. There are significant numbers of Sharp-tailed Sandpiper. Threatened species that inhabit the wetland include an introduced breeding population of the Magpie Goose. This population was supplemented by dispersal of birds in 1994 from an introduced breeding population at Bool Lagoon in South Australia179. Other fauna species that the wetlands support include Blue-billed Ducks, Cape Barren Geese, Freckled Duck, Little Bittern, Australasian Bitterns, Baillon’s Crakes and Lewin’s Rails. Free breeding populations of the Cape Barren Goose and Magpie Geese now occur at Tower Hill and Black Swans, Australian Shelduck, Pacific Black Duck and Chestnut Teal also breed there. Tower Hill has been frequented by 11 species listed by both JAMBA and CAMBA and one species only listed by CAMBA180.

Tower Hill is an important tourist attraction between Warrnambool and Portland due to its scenery, picnic facilities, information centre, guided tours, walking tracks, board walks, hides and wildlife. Current threats to the health of the wetlands include lowering water-levels, increasing salinity and pollution181. The decrease in water levels is partly due to ground water changes related to irrigation while increased salinity is partly due to a blocked natural outlet182. Pollution is from stormwater run-off, local industry in the Koroit township and from drifting pesticide spray183. Algal blooms occur due to the combined effects of increased nutrients and lower water levels. Closer settlement around the crater edge is occurring with consequent weed invasion and herbicide use. There is generally a narrow buffer between the wetland and private land.

41

10.10 Yambuk Wetlands Located near the town of Yambuk between Port Fairy and Portland, the Yambuk Wetlands which include Lake Yambuk cover an area of 297 ha. Lake Yambuk is part of the Yambuk Coastal Reserve. The Yambuk Wetlands are a network of the estuary of the Eumeralla River and (Lake Yambuk), associated freshwater meadows and semi- permanent saline wetlands. The wetlands adjacent to Lake Yambuk and the lower Eumeralla River are floodplain depressions separated from the river by low levee banks184.

Flooding of the Eumeralla River supplies Lake Yambuk and it’s overbank wetlands. If the lake mouth is closed, these flood levels are maintained longer. Lake Yambuk is also affected by tidal flows. The wetland south of Yambuk fills seasonally as water is drained from the network of shallow marshes and meadows towards Port Fairy. The Yambuk Wetlands are high value for their flora and fauna and they act as drought refuges185. The vegetation consists of extensive reed beds and narrow bands of saltmarsh. Lake Yambuk is an excellent example of an estuary with extensive overbank swamps. Thirty-six waterbird species have been recorded within the system, including 34 species at Lake Yambuk186. Threatened species which have been recorded within the wetlands include small numbers of the Lewin’s Rail which have been heard calling in the wetlands adjacent to Lake Yambuk and the Orange-bellied Parrot at Lake Yambuk. The wetlands are frequented by five species listed under JAMBA and CAMBA and one only listed under CAMBA187. Dwarf Galaxias which have their main stronghold in the Eumeralla River are abundant in Lake Yambuk.

Aboriginal culture is quite predominant in the wetland area with shell middens, surface scatters and isolated hearths existing in and around Lake Yambuk188. Land use in and around the wetlands include fishing, duck hunting, boating, walking at the river mouth, grazing and nature conservation. Current disturbances to the wetlands which can significantly effect their health include, water-level manipulation, upstream and at the mouth. Livestock grazing and trampling is destroying vegetation. The hydrology of the whole Eumeralla River system has been seriously altered through drainage, channelling and vegetation clearance189. Also walking tracks on the dune edge at Lake Yambuk are causing erosion.

10.11 Lake Muirhead Lake Muirhead is situated 13km west north-west of Willaura and has an area of 330 ha. Lake Muirhead is a large permanent shallow freshwater swamp with dense areas of rushes and Barren Cane Grass190. Mount William Swamp is listed in the same aggregation as Lake Muirhead. Lake Muirhead is fed by several drainage lines and is flanked by swampy flats to the east191.

The lake is an example of an uncommon mechanism of wetland formation in Victoria, a depression formed between the Newer Volcanic province and downwash fans from the Grampians Range192. Lake Muirhead is a wetland of high value for it’s avifauna and 35 waterbird species have been recorded at the lake193. It is important in protecting six Victorian threatened fauna species of which two are also FFG-listed194. Threatened species that the lake supports include 220 Brolga during the species’ flocking season, which is a very significant proportion of the south-eastern Australian population of this species195. The Freckled Duck, Blue-billed Duck, up to 150 Yellow-billed Spoonbills, 1,350 Black Swans, 1,800 Australian Shelduck, 1,700 Pacific Black Duck, 1,600 Grey Teal, 1,500 Australasian Shoveler, 750 Maned Duck and 2,000 Eurasian Coot have also been recorded196.

Public access is limited as Lake Muirhead is largely surrounded by private land, although sections of Lake Muirhead itself, are State Wildlife Reserve-State Game Reserve. The lake is a popular duck hunting area and is also used for grazing and nature conservation, the surrounding areas of the lake are predominantly cropping and grazing land. Past Aboriginal occupation of the area has been indicated by mounds and scarred trees that were found around the lake, although these sites are located on private land and many of the relics have been destroyed197. Unrestricted grazing is a threat to this wetland. Due to regular inundation, grazing over the entire wetland is infrequent but private land fringes are grazed frequently.

10.12 Mount William Swamp Mount William Swamp is located 11 km north north-west of Willaura and has an area of 635 ha. The swamp is a State Wildlife Reserve-State Game Reserve and part of it is privately owned. Mount William Swamp is a large shallow freshwater swamp surrounded by grazing land198. Similar to Lake Muirhead, this swamp also is fed by several drainage

42 lines. This wetland is a good example of a reed-dominated shallow freshwater marsh and large wetlands of this type are not common in the Victorian Midlands199.

Mount William Swamp is a high value wetland for its avifauna and 26 waterbird species have been recorded at the swamp. Mount William Swamp is important in protecting five Victorian threatened fauna species of which two are also FFG-listed200. Threatened species include up to 98 Brolga, Freckled Duck and Blue-billed Duck. Up to 220 White-faced Herons, 200 Yellow-billed Spoonbills, 2,000 Australian Shelduck, 1,000 Eurasian Coot and 300 Masked Lapwing have also been recorded201. Duck hunting is popular and Aboriginal culture is evident at Mount William Swamp. Major threats to the health of the swamp come from grazing of the wetland vegetation, which occurs as the surrounding land is predominantly grazing and cropping land.

10.13 Lake Bolac Situated in the Basin’s east, Lake Bolac is a large, shallow lake located around the town of Lake Bolac. This 650 ha lake is an open lake system into which Fiery Creek flows from the north. Salt Creek begins from an outlet at the south of the lake. Lake Bolac has a rock bottom, often with discolored water and is surrounded by grazing land. Increasing salinity levels have continued over a four year period. This can be attributed to limited runoff into the lake following a run of dry seasons202. In previous years water from Lake Bolac has been used for irrigation of crops in the region. Current levels of salinity preclude any such use. Salinity is an issue in Lake Bolac with salt levels exceeding 10,000 EC in Autumn 2000 compared to longer term levels of around 4,000 EC203. This level can be expected to drop when large flows enter the lake. There is the possibility that a salt wedge could develop in the bottom of the lake as the salt water is denser than the fresh water204. Fresh water entering the lake may rest on top of a more saline layer. Turbidity has increased due to shallow lake levels205.

10.14 Lake Burrumbeet Located in the far north-east of the Basin, west of Ballarat, Lake Burrumbeet is a shallow lake, 2100 hectares in area. It is characterised by a sand and mud bottom with rocky outcrops. Surrounded by grazing land the lake has suffered from a rise in salinity levels over the past four seasons due to abnormally dry conditions and this can be shown by the fall in the lake levels to be 0.5 metre lower in August 2000 compared to the previous year206. High nutrient levels and algal blooms can occur in this lake which is popular for recreational activities. The lake is invariably discoloured and has seasonal changes in turbidity levels.

10.15 Bryan’s Swamp Situated to the north-west of Dunkeld, Bryan’s Swamp is a major wildlife wetland in the region, supporting eight Victorian threatened fauna species, of which one is a nationally threatened and two are FFG-listed species. The swamp supports two Victorian threatened flora species and one nationally threatened flora species207. The swamp has a distinct pattern of drying up over the autumn period. Water quality fluctuates generally in the range of fresh to slightly saline with salinity levels rising rapidly in the period prior to drying reaching in excess of 6,500 EC208. Although an abundance of aquatic vegetation indicates a healthy environment.

10.16 Myuna Lane Swamp Located south-west of Lake Bolac the Myuna Lane Swamp is a hypersaline swamp whose salinity levels vary seasonally, but in this terminal lake system extreme salinity levels are present, often in excess of 100,000 EC209. In late Autumn 2000 the lake was found to be in excess of 200,000 EC210. There have been indications that saline groundwater intrusions occur at this site due to shallow saline watertables with large seeps evident around the margins of the lake. These are fed by groundwater higher in the catchment211.

10.17 Chinaman’s Swamp Located west of Streatham, Chinaman’s Swamp is a saline wetland that has been seasonally dry. There are strong indications that there is saline groundwater interaction at this site with saline water entering the swamp from groundwater seepage at the end of autumn partially filling the swamp prior to any runoff entering the swamp212. Abundant waterbirds are present on the wetland even though salinity levels are high.

43 10.18 Lake Buninjon South-west of Ararat is Lake Buninjon. This lake has a moderate abundance of aquatic vegetation which indicates a reasonable environmental condition. It is important in protecting nine Victorian threatened fauna species, two of which are also FFG-listed species. The lake is also important in playing host to one JAMBA/CAMBA species213.

10.18 Nerrin Nerrin Swamp Nerrin Nerrin Swamp is situated south-west of Streatham. There is a major water regulation issue at this site as inflows are controlled by a weir on Fiery Creek214. The swamp is important in protecting 11 Victorian threatened species (one flora and ten fauna), which includes one nationally threatened fauna species (Warty Bell Frog) and three FFG-listed fauna species, although plant communities are dominated by pasture weeds on the swamp margin.

SECTION 11 SALINE SURFACE WATER IMPACTS IN THE GLENELG HOPKINS CATCHMENT

Salinity in the Glenelg Hopkins Basin effects both land and surface water resources. Surface water salinity occurs when water-tables rise, bringing dissolved salts to the surface which can then be washed into the waterways by surface runoff and/or the discharge of saline water directly into waterways from underground aquifers215. Most catchments in the Glenelg Salinity Region are formed in weathered igneous rock of various types216. The Dundas Tablelands East, for example, are comprised of weathered Rocklands Rhyolites and the majority of the Basalt Plains is weathered Newer Volcanics basalts217. Groundwaters derived from aquifers in weathered igneous rocks are usually highly saline and the salinity of rivers draining these catchments reflects this218.

Salinity is measured in a variety of ways. The most common method is the use of a conductivity meter to measure the capacity of a water sample to conduct electricity219. The current passing through the water sample is proportional to its salinity220. Results from this method are expressed in EC units. An EC unit is 1 microsiemen/centimetre221. Another way of measuring salinity involves evaporating the water sample and weighing the residual salt and results from this method are expressed in milligrams/litre or parts per million222. Salinity limits the uses that can be made of water. Table 8 indicates how various uses of water are limited by increasing salinity.

Table 8 Water Uses Limited by Increasing Salinity Levels223

EC Units Potential Uses 0 - 800 Good drinking water for humans (providing other aspects of water quality are suitable). Generally good for irrigation though above 300 EC some care must be taken particularly with overhead sprinklers which may cause leaf scorch on some salt sensitive plants. Suitable for all livestock. 800 - 2 500 Can be consumed by humans, though most would prefer water in the lower half of this range if available. When used for irrigation requires special management including suitable soils, good drainage and consideration of salt tolerance of plants. Suitable for all livestock. 2 500 - 10 000 Not recommended for human consumption although water up to 3000 EC could be drunk if nothing else was available. Not normally suitable for irrigation although water up to 6 000 EC can be used on very salt tolerant crops with special management techniques. Suitable for most livestock although poultry and pigs are limited to about 6 000 EC. Over 10 000 Not suitable for human consumption or irrigation.

44 Not suitable for poultry, pigs or any lactating animals but beef cattle can use water up to 17 000 EC and adult sheep on dry feed can tolerate 23 000 EC providing other aspects of water quality are suitable. Water up to 50 000 EC (the salinity of the sea) can be used to flush toilets (if corrosion can be controlled) and to make concrete providing any reinforcement is well covered.

It is often argued that the streams and wetlands within the Glenelg Hopkins Catchment have had historically high salinity levels due to the hydrogeology of the catchment. However, clearing of the catchment has increased the rate of groundwater recharge meaning biological thresholds for salinity are more frequently exceeded, and diversity and beneficial uses of the surface water limited224. Each of the major river basins in the Glenelg Hopkins Catchment are considered to be in a degraded condition.

In the Glenelg drainage basin the salinity of the water significantly deteriorates in the rivers as it flows through the catchments225. The Glenelg River, , Pigeon Ponds Creek and Wando River have very high salt loads. Salinity has made the domestic water supply from Konong Wootong Reservoir to the townships of Casterton and Coleraine unusable226. Between 1954 and 1968 the salinity in the reservoir increased from 900 EC units to 1500 EC units227. A survey of salt affected rivers in Victoria, including the Glenelg and Wannon Rivers, found the Glenelg River contained deep highly saline pools which have resulted from saline groundwater inflows, located along the northern margin of the Dundas Tablelands228. These pools contain virtually no oxygen for sustaining aquatic life.

The Hopkins River at Wickliffe and the Pigeon Ponds Creek at Koolmart have both recorded salinity levels exceeding 16,000 EC units, making the water unsuitable for any other use other than stock watering. Although, the Hopkins River at Wickliffe is the most saline river in the Region in terms of median EC levels, the Chetwynd River, draining the Dundas West Land Management Unit (LMU) carries the highest median annual catchment salt loads229. Salinity levels are well in excess of threshold limits for the protection of the aquatic environment at most sites in the Hopkins drainage basin. In the Portland drainage basin there are reasonably high salt loads at the Eumeralla River at Codrington230. The coastal streams of this basin tend to have relatively high median salinities and high catchment salt loads because of influence of salt drift from the ocean231. This phenomenon clouds the influence of dryland salinity in the immediate area232. Table 9 shows the conductivity and salt load results for each of the gauging stations in the regions’ rivers and streams.

Table 9 Salinity of Selected Rivers and Streams – Glenelg Salinity Region233

EC Units Basin River/Strea Gauging Max Min Media Salt Load m Station n (Kg/Ha/Year ) Hopkins Hopkins Wickliffe 16400 230 7300 152 River Hopkins Framlingham 12300 860 5300 167 River Mt Emu Skipton 10400 140 3000 71 Creek Fiery Creek Streatham 11600 300 2700 28 Merri River Warrnambool 3900 90 2400 211 Portland Moyne River Toolong 4600 300 2900 192 Coast Fitzroy River Heywood 2200 280 1500 113 Eumeralla Codrignton 3800 280 2600 227 River Glenelg Wannon Burrah 470 72 130 49 River Wannon Dunkeld 6100 295 1100 94

45 River Wannon Henty 7200 370 3700 220 River Grange Morgiana 5000 120 3700 240 Burn Pigeon Koolomart 16800 330 3500 480 Ponds Creek Wando Wando Vale 11300 183 2900 483 River Chetwynd Chetwynd 7100 420 3600 642 River Dwyer Mirranatwa 5700 190 1100 85 Creek Crawford Lower 3600 230 2100 188 River Crawford Stokes Teakettle 4500 360 3580 198 River Glenelg Big Cord 470 70 120 64 River Glenelg Fulhams 5400 55 2400 67 River Bridge Glenelg Casterton 6400 410 3600 168 River Glenelg Dartmoor 11200 260 2500 167 River

SECTION 12 NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT IN THE GLENELG HOPKINS BASIN

Nutrients occur naturally in all water bodies, but it is when nutrients reach greater concentrations that problems with water quality may occur234. The link between high nutrient levels in water bodies and the increasing occurrence of algal blooms is indisputable235. Blue green algal blooms are potentially toxic and threaten both human use of water and aquatic biodiversity. It has been estimated that algal blooms cost the Glenelg Hopkins region approximately $1.9 million per year and this cost is not spread evenly through the community236. Algal blooms impact most on domestic and stock water supplies costing an estimated $1.05 million per year, with farm dams being the major component of this cost237. Blue-green algae are important contributors in most natural aquatic ecosystems but under favourable conditions can experience growth explosions known as blooms. Key factors that encourage blooms are calm, warm conditions and the presence of excessive nutrients.

Of those factors listed, management of nutrient levels offers the greatest potential for the long-term control of blue-green algal blooms in the region238. From 1929 to 2000, algal blooms have been recorded at 20 sites in the Glenelg Hopkins region and some sites have experienced more than one bloom over the years239.

Table 5 describes the estimated nutrient export rates, in dissolved and particulate form, from ‘point’ and ‘diffuse’ sources for different land uses within the Glenelg-Hopkins region.

There is limited water quality and biological data for South-West Victoria240. The data generally shows that many of the streams in the south-west are clear, slightly saline, and moderately low in phosphorus but high in nitrogen241. The macrophyte communities are very diverse and abundant, compared to other rivers and streams in the state. Table 6 shows the interim guideline maxima for the region. Information from the Victorian Water Quality Monitoring Network (VWQMN) shows that at the Hopkins Falls gauging station Total Nitrogen (TN) ranges from 0.5 to 3.5 mg/L and Total Phosphorus (TP) from 0.02 to 0.25 mg/L242. From the guidelines presented in Table 6, neither phosphorus or nitrogen values are within the guideline values. The Wannon River at Dunkeld also shows a large range with TN ranging from 0.5 to 4.0 mg/L and TP ranging from 0.02 to 0.40 mg/L243. The two sites have recorded the greatest readings and range in

46 nutrients monitored over a period of 25 years. An analysis of six years of monthly nutrient data in the catchment shows that approximately 322 tonnes of TP and 4076 tonnes of TN are exported in the catchment each year244. Throughout the region, erosion (the movement of organic and soil particles) is the primary cause of nutrient migration. In the south of the region, where more intensive agriculture is practiced, manure and fertiliser runoff (where nutrients are in solution) contribute significantly to nutrient migration245. Water quality at most of the monitoring sites located on streams in the Hopkins River Basin were classified as moderate to poor for TP and poor to degraded for TN246. Water quality in Lake Burrumbeet was degraded for both TP and TN247. The combination of inputs from a sewage treatment plant at Ballarat via Burrumbeet Creek and agricultural and urban runoff are likely to have led to water in the lake being classified as degraded248. Sewage treatment plants at Ararat and Willaura are licensed to discharge all or part of their effluent to the Hopkins River249. Runoff from agricultural and urban areas is also likely to have contributed to water quality along the Hopkins River being classified as moderate to poor for TP and from poor to degraded for TN250. Mount Emu Creek receives nutrients from inflows from Lake Burrumbeet as well as inputs in effluent from sewage treatment plants at Beaufort and Terang251. These inputs may account for water quality in the Mount Emu Creek being classified as poor for TP and TN252.

As most of the land in the basin is used for agriculture, runoff from farmland is likely to be an additional source of nutrients to surface waters, especially in areas with little or no riparian vegetation and bank and gully erosion. Water quality in the Portland Coast Basin ranged from good to moderate for TP and from good to poor for TN at the monitoring stations in the basin, with no significant trend in nutrient concentration recorded253. As most of the land in the Portland Basin is used for grazing livestock, agricultural runoff (including dairy farms, sheep and cattle properties) is the most likely source of nutrients in surface waters, especially the areas affected by soil and stream bank erosion254. Runoff from unsewered inland towns and a sewage treatment plant at Heywood, licensed to discharge part of its effluent to the surface waters are also potential sources of nutrients to surface waters255. The water quality in the Glenelg River was classified as excellent for TP and good for TN in the upper reaches, falling to moderate for TP and poor for TN at the confluence with the Wannon River near Casterton256. Water quality improved to good for TP and poor for TN near Dartmoor before discharging into Bass Strait257. Water quality in the Wannon River was poor for TP and degraded for TN at Dunkeld, improved to good for TP and poor for TN downstream at Wannon, then fall to moderate for TP and poor for TN at Henty prior to reaching the confluence with the Glenelg River258. Potential sources of nutrients include runoff from urban areas (sewered and unsewered) and discharges from three sewage treatment plants (Coleraine, Casterton and Hamilton) which are licensed to release all or part of their effluent to surface waters.

SECTION 13 CONDITION OF THE BIODIVERSITY IN THE GLENELG HOPKINS REGION

Bioregions are elements of a new natural framework based on the patterns of ecological characteristics in the landscape or seascape, allowing the recognition of environmental values259. Each bioregion forms part of national frameworks for terrestrial and marine environments. The Glenelg Hopkins region is divided into eight bioregions260. The bioregions are; Central Victorian Uplands, Dundas Tablelands, Glenelg Plain, Goldfields, Greater Grampians, Victorian Volcanic Plain, Warrnambool Plain and Wimmera as shown in Figure 18.

47 Figure 18 Map of Bioregions within the Glenelg Hopkins Region

N

Victorian Bioregions

# Central Victorian Uplands (CVU) Dundas Tablelands (DT) HAMILTON Glenelg Plain (GP) Goldfields (GO) Greater Grampians (GG) Victorian Volcanic Plain (VP) Warrnambool Plain (WP) Wimmera (WI)

WARRNAMBOOL # PORTLAND #

02040Kilometers

Each bioregion contains a number of Broad Vegetation Types (BVTs). BVTs encompass floristic and structural components of vegetation and reflect geology, soil, altitude and climatic factors261. There are 13 BVTs found in the nine bioregions of Glenelg Hopkins CMA region262. These complexes are; Coastal Scrubs & Grasslands, Coastal Grassy Woodland, Heathy Woodland, Lowland Forest, Swamp Scrub, Inland Slopes Woodland, Dry Foothill Forest, Moist Foothill Forest, Grassland, Plains Grassy Woodland, Valley Grassy Forest, Herb-rich Woodland, Riverine Grassy Woodland. Table 10 shows the extent of vegetation for each bioregion. It compares the pre European extent of vegetation (hectares) to the current and also breaks these down into reserved, other public and private categories. It shows the percentage of each bioregion covered in vegetation.

Table 10 Bioregions in the Glenelg Hopkins region263

*Extent of Vegetation for each Victorian Bioregion Bioregions Current Pre- in the 1750 Glenelg Reserv Other Private Total % of % CMA Hopkins ed Public Area Bioregi (ha) region Area land (ha) (ha) (ha) on % (ha) Central 4,367 10,618 9,090 24,075 21.3% 0.9% 112,910 Victorian Uplands (CVU) Dundas 5,165 25,954 18,832 49,950 10.9% 1.9% 459,289 Tablelands (DT) Glenelg Plain 57,181 101,768 76,770 235,719 48.7% 8.8% 483,765 (GP) Goldfields 375 2,445 755 3,575 3.8% 0.1% 94,114 (GO) Greater 111,059 7,189 11,258 129,506 67.8% 4.8% 191,139 Grampians (GG) Victorian 16,670 41,441 18,744 76,855 6.4% 2.9% 1,202,25 Volcanic Plain 8 (VP) Warrnambool 226 2,964 3,954 7,143 6.9% 0.3% 104,179 Plain (WP) Wimmera 418 3,148 3,169 6,735 23.9% 0.3% 28,172 (WI) Unclassified 137 94 26 257 13.1% 0.0% 1,967

48 TOTAL 195,597 195,622 142,596 533,816 19.9% 2,677,79 5 *Estimates of BVT retention are based on the Department of Natural Resources and Environment dataset for 1987 Broad Vegetation Type maps.

Agricultural development of the Glenelg-Hopkins region has resulted in clearing of extensive areas of native vegetation and less than 13 per cent of the region is now covered with remnant vegetation264. This includes only about 1000km2 of original, predominantly intact, native vegetation left on private land in the region265. Two of the original BVTs, Box Ironbark Forest and Riparian Forest, now appear to be extinct266. The original vegetation has been progressively cleared or heavily modified since European settlement and remaining areas of native vegetation are a significant regional resource. Native vegetation cover across Australia has been in relentless, steady decline over the two hundred years of European settlement. It is estimated that there are now 20 billion fewer trees than 200 years ago267.

Of the major pre European vegetation, only lowland forests and heathlands are still reasonably well represented in the Glenelg Hopkins region. Although subject to a range of pressures associated with recreation, utilisation and fire protection activities and land degradation processes, forests and heathlands are reasonably well protected by comparison with the other BVTs, which have been severely affected since European settlement268. The Grampians contain a varied and very rich native flora. Most of the flora remains in a natural condition despite the logging, grazing, burning, and roading activities of the last 150 years269. Vegetation formations found in the Grampians include tall wet forests with tree-fern understorey, dry forests, heathy and grassy woodlands, wet and dry scrubs, and heaths270. Some 1,000 species of vascular plants (about one-third of the State’s indigenous flora) have been recorded in the Grampians, while three genera and 30 species are not found elsewhere in Victoria, and 26 species are endemic there271. Woodland vegetation once covered large areas of the northern half of the catchment. This community was dominated by the River Red Gum, Yellow Gum, Yellow Box and Grey Box, often with a grassy understorey272. In the south these communities tended to be open woodlands of Swamp Gum, Manna Gum, Silver Banksia and Blackwood273. Close to the coast the vegetation tended to include woodlands of Moonah, Drooping Sheoak, Soap Mallee and Brown Stringybark274. Most woodlands have been cleared or altered for agriculture, although many farms still carry large numbers of trees, mainly red gums, in their paddocks. Relatively few of these remaining trees have been allowed to regenerate. Many areas of woodland remain on public land, often occurring as small remnants. Restricted areas of native grassland occur north of Hamilton and Willaura all though these are now greatly altered by agricultural practices. Woodland remnants are generally confined to small patches on the edge of public land, as this community originally grew on areas well suited to agriculture275.

A small remnant of the Honeysuckle that G.A. Brown described in 1903, still exists on the Yatchaw railway line. Swamp Gum, Manna Gum, Cherry Ballarat, Sweet Bursia, Black Wattle, Blackwood, Hedge Wattle, Prickly Mosses, Varnish wattle and Sheoak can also be seen on a few road or rail reserves on the now virtually treeless and windswept basalt plains276.

13.1 Biodiversity Condition Of Major Bioregions Within The Glenelg Hopkins Catchment

13.2 Glenelg Plain Bioregion The Glenelg Plain extends from south-east of Edenhope, for some 230 kilometres to the southern Victorian coastline and covers 2.2% of Victoria277. The Bioregion meets the west end of the Warrnambool Plain Bioregion near the rural township of Heywood. Portland Bay is the south-eastern coastal limit of the Glenelg area. The Bioregion is predominantly flat and low lying, with all sections ranging from sea level to less than 200m above sea level. Floristically, the bioregion is varied. Coastal communities are composed of beach and dune vegetation, coastal cliffs and salt marshes. Wet heathlands occur on very infertile soils that are frequently waterlogged278. These heath communities which are up to two metres high, are interspersed with tree-heaths, having scattered low trees. Woodlands occur through much of the region, particularly in the north, with Heathy Woodlands making up a large proportion.

Approximately half of the Glenelg Plain has been cleared and sown to exotic pasture or plantation species, with the other half remaining as native vegetation279. Of this, national parks and reserves managed by Parks Victoria make up approximately 40%, with about 10% of existing native vegetation remaining on private land280. The Glenelg Plain supports seven BVTs. The most prominent community in this diverse region is Heathy Woodland, dominated by Brown Stringybark, with 51.3% of the pre European area of this BVT remaining281. To the south-east of the Bioregion, Lowland

49 Forest dominates. Several areas of Plains Grassy Woodland, once dominated by Red Gum and easily converted to pasture have generally been cleared and modified with only 20.9% of the pre European cover remaining282. The Coastal Grassy Woodland, once occurring between Casterton and Coleraine, has only 9.4% its original cover remaining283.

The bioregion supports a wide variety of reptiles, birds of prey, waterbirds, woodland and ground-dwelling birds, and an array of mammal species. The Glenelg Plain has records of 10% of all threatened species occurring in Victoria (6% of threatened flora species and 30% of threatened fauna species) 284. A range of threatened birds and one mammal found on the Glenelg Plain are the focus for conservation management. Species include Brolga, Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo, Plains-wanderer, Hooded Plover, Little Tern, Rufous Bristlebird, Orange-bellied Parrot, Grey-crowned Babbler and the Heath Mouse which is now restricted to this bioregion and East Gippsland285. The Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo, Southern Pipewort, Small Potato Orchid, Dwarf Brooklime, Malleefowl and Metalic Sun-Orchid are nationally threatened species that are found within the Glenelg Plain bioregion286. Several of these species depend on private land for habitat. Australasian Gannets have, over recent years, established mainland Australia’s first recorded gannet colony, at Point Danger, south of Portland287. The most apparent threats to the colony, as with many other colonial native fauna species, are fox predation and human disturbance. Other threatened flora and fauna species which frequent the region include the , Brush-tailed Phascogale, Wrinkled Cassinia, Coast Dandelion, Curly Sedge and numerous orchids including at least four spider-orchids and the Leafy Greenhood288. One species of fish, the Variegated (Ewen’s) Pygmy Perch, is restricted to south-western Victoria and adjacent areas of south-eastern Australia289.

Of the 59 known threatened species and undetermined number of threatened ecological communities in this bioregion there are 49 listed vertebrates and plants, of which 17 are subject to Action Statements under the FFG Act290. Drainage of shallow wetlands has been prominent throughout the bioregion, with sites usually being planted to exotic pasture species once drained. As a result, native marsh and riparian vegetation and dependent species have become depleted throughout the area291.

13.3 Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregion The Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregion covers 9.1% of Victoria. It is an area of flat to undulating plains in south-west Victoria, stretching from west to Portland, south to Colac and north to Beaufort. It is characterised by vast open areas of Grasslands, small patches of open woodland, stony rises denoting old lava flows, low peaks of extinct volcanoes dotting the landscape and numerous scattered large shallow lakes292. Few major rivers cross the Victorian Volcanic Plain, although the Hopkins River system is a prominent landscape feature. The major land use is agriculture, especially sheep and cattle grazing and cropping. The heavy basaltic soils of the plains and the frequent fires of pre- European times resulted in extensive areas of open grassland, and many grassland plants are adapted to frequent burning and grazing by native herbivores293. Fire management of the dissected remnants remains one of the major issues for conservation managers.

The open and fertile grassy plains provided ready opportunities for pastoralism, and early settlers soon moved into the district. Being one of the first areas settled for agriculture in Victoria means there is very little public land, consequently parks and conservation reserves are generally small and scattered. As a result, the Victorian Volcanic Plain is now largely comprised of private land and used almost entirely for agriculture294. The Bioregion supports some of the most productive grazing country in Australia with the public land remaining being mainly found on road sides, rail reserves and in cemetaries. Almost all of the native ecosystems have been severely depleted, with remnants occurring in small and isolated patches295. Some of the larger grassland remnants and most of the deeper permanent wetlands are public reserves. The extensive depletion and fragmentation of many of the bioregion’s ecosystems means that the remaining areas are highly significant for biodiversity conservation296.

Once the major habitat covering many thousands of square kilometres on the Victorian Volcanic Plain, native grasslands are now reduced to a few thousand hectares in extent, with much of this in small fragmented road and rail reserves and cemetaries297. A few larger patches remain on private land. Much of the riparian habitat has been removed or reduced to narrow bands of trees with little regeneration. Almost all of the woodlands have been cleared, with little regeneration of remaining areas on private land because of grazing and cropping298. Over 75% of the shallow freshwater wetlands have also been lost or extensively modified through drainage299. Most of the larger deep, usually permanent wetlands remain, although much of the original shoreline vegetation has been removed. Changes in catchment hydrology of some of the larger lakes has caused problems due to altered runoff from cleared and drained lands300. Remnant habitats are under threat from weed invasion, grazing cropping, vehicle movement and soil disturbance. Dryland salinity and the increasing salinity of some lakes is also a problem.

50

The most prominent BVTs in this bioregion were grasslands and associated communities. Other vegetation included woodlands, shrublands, riparian vegetation and extensive wetlands301. The grassland communities are floristically rich, usually dominated by Kangaroo Grass with a wide variety of perennial herbs. The majority of BVTs which existed prior to European Settlement are extinct or have declined to less than 10% of the original cover. Of the 826 402 hectares of Grassland Complexes BVT that once covered the bioregion only 0.2% remains302.

Within the bioregion 16% of all threatened species occurring in Victoria (10% of threatened flora species and 41% of threatened fauna species) have been recorded303. The bioregion has a high proportion of extinct or threatened flora and fauna relative to the rest of Victoria304. Extensive habitat loss has resulted in many plants and animals becoming extinct or threatened; these include the Eastern Barred Bandicoot, Plains-Wanderer, Brolga, Striped Legless Lizard, Southern lined Earless Dragon, Orange-bellied Parrot, Salt-lake Tussock-grass, Small Scurf-pea, Spring Rice-Flower, Matted Flax-lilly, Dwarf Spider Orchid and Basalt Rustyhood305. The remaining grassland areas are crucial to the conservation of many threatened species. Small and restricted plant populations are extremely vulnerable to the slightest disturbance such as a vehicle driving on the site. The lake systems, particularly the RAMSAR listed Wetlands are important for waterbird conservation306. Of the 119 known threatened species and undetermined number of threatened ecological communities in this bioregion there are 80 listed vertebrates and plants, of which 19 are subject to Action Statements under the FFG Act307. With much of the Victorian Volcanic Plain in private ownership and relatively few conservation reserves, biodiversity conservation will require the cooperation of private land owners and managers.

13.4 Dundas Tablelands Bioregion The Dundas Tablelands is an undulating area to the west of the Grampians. This flatter and more fertile area of the Victorian Midlands has been substantially cleared for agriculture, principally sheep and beef cattle grazing. At the time of European settlement, the Dundas Tablelands were dominated by Plains Grassy Woodland Complexes (only 10% of the original 377 687 hectares remains), Grassland Complexes (of the 79 694 hectares of pre European coverage only 0.1% of this BVT remains) and Inland Slopes Woodland Complexes308. Ninety per cent of the Dundas Tablelands bioregion has been cleared for agriculture309. Remnants of Plains Grassy Woodland Complexes constitute 30% of the remaining area of this BVT in Victoria310. The Dundas Tablelands Bioregion has records of 6 % of all threatened species occurring in Victoria (3 % of threatened flora species and 20 % of threatened fauna species)311. Endemic flora species in the Dundas Tablelands Bioregion include Mossy Woodruff, Reader’s Daisy, Hairy Raspwort and Hoary Bush-pea312.

The biodiversity values associated with the more fertile valleys, tablelands and plains of the Victorian Midlands have generally fared worse than those associated with the less fertile slopes and hills313. In fertile areas where the native vegetation has been cleared (like the Dundas Tablelands), most of the native biodiversity has been lost. Remnants of vegetation in these landscapes are often degraded, many having been affected by grazing, weed infestation, timber harvesting and altered fire regimes314. Degradation and fragmentation of habitat in these fertile landscapes has led to the local extinction of native species where they depended on particular habitat features that have been lost. In the Dundas Tablelands, many remnants on private land are continually grazed by domestic stock, preventing adequate regeneration of woody species. Dryland salinity poses a threat to lower lying areas of this bioregion. Environmental weeds are a major threat in some areas, particularly on fertile soils near farmland, while rabbits remain a threat to palatable native plants, such as orchids315.

13.5 Greater Grampians Bioregion The Greater Grampians Bioregion covers 1.2% of Victoria, is dominated by the striking parallel ranges and valleys which comprise the Grampians National Park, and retains substantial areas of native vegetation. The Greater Grampians bioregion has eight BVTs within its boundaries and remains dominated by Dry Foothill Forest Complexes, Inland Slopes Woodland Complexes, Herb-rich Woodland Complexes and Plains Grassy Woodland Complexes, with small patches of Heathy Woodland Complexes and Valley Grassy Forest Complexes all of which still retain over 50% of their pre European area except Plains Grassy Woodland Complexes of which only 6.1% of the BVT remains316. In the Greater Grampians bioregion, Plains Grassy Woodland Complexes is the only BVT that has been substantially cleared and remains poorly reserved and largely exists on private land317. The Greater Grampians Bioregion has records of 11% of all threatened species occurring in Victoria (8% of threatened flora species and 23% of threatened fauna species)318. Threatened fauna species in the Greater Grampians bioregion include Brush-tailed Rock-wallaby, Smokey Mouse, Lewins Rail, Bush Stone-curlew, Powerful Owl and Brolga319. Rare or threatened plant species from this bioregion include Mount William Grevillea, Southern Pipewort, Grampians Pincushion-lilly, and numerous orchids including Crimson Spider-orchid and the Grampians Duck-orchid320.

51

The Grampians is well recognised as an exceptionally rich area for plants, supporting a large number of endemic species, with a diverse range of fauna. In the less fertile parts of the Victorian Midlands, substantial areas of native vegetation remain. In some cases this vegetation is in remarkably good condition – weed-free, structually diverse, species rich and with ecological processes largely intact, with parts of the Grampians National Park fitting this description321. In the Greater Grampians, fire is a particularly important ecological factor for biodiversity and appropriate regimes need to be determined and integrated with fire management for other purposes. Foxes are suspected to be a major threat to fauna in the Grampians, especially to threatened species such as the Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby322.

13.6 Warrnambool Plain Bioregion The Warrnambool Plain bioregion, which covers 1.0% of Victoria, is an area of low calcareous dune formations under nutrient deficient soils with a distinctive cliffed coastline, in Western Victoria. Much of the limestone has been overlain by more recent sediments, and between the limestone dunes, areas of swamplands are characterised by highly fertile peats and seasonal inundation323. The area east of Warrnambool is characterised by deeper soils of volcanic origins overlying limestone, which are dissected by streams324. The majority of the Bioregion is private land. Sheep and cattle grazing are widespread land uses within the bioregion, however the prime agricultural focus is the dairy industry. The coastal waters of the region support Southern Rock Lobster and abalone fisheries. A major tourism feature during the winter months is the annual visitation of Southern Right Whales to Logans Beach at Warrnambool.

The bioregion has been largely cleared of native vegetation and modified with the introduction of pasture species. Approximately 90 per cent has been cleared, although some significant remnants of Manna Gum and Messmate Stringy Bark bushland remain on private land325. The most significant of these, the Ralph Illidge Sanctuary at Naringal, is owned by Trust for Nature and managed as a conservation reserve326.

At the time of European settlement the Coastal Plains were dominated by lowland and foothill forests, heathy and grassy woodlands, and coastal shrubs and grasslands. There has been substantial clearing of all vegetation types, particularly those on deeper more fertile soils, with Lowland Forests (7.3% of 153,150 hectares remains) and Coastal Grassy Woodlands (10.3% of pre European area remaining) the most abundant BVTs in the Warrnambool Plain bioregion327. Thirty-seven point six per cent of pre European Heath Complexes remains328. Seven BVTs are represented within the Warrnambool Plain bioregion. Coastal Heathlands and Heathy Woodlands are known for their diverse ground floras, particularly of terrestrial orchids, and are communities in which the importance of maintaining natural ecological processes through appropriate fire regimes is recognised329. The vulnerable Metalic Sun Orchid occurs at the Bay of Islands Coastal Park.

The coastal inlets that are adjacent to some of the plains are important areas for migratory waders and shorebirds in Australia. Many species are listed on JAMBA and CAMBA. The Warrnambool Plain has records of 7%of all threatened species occurring in Victoria (3% of threatened flora species and 26% of threatened fauna species)330. Rare or threatened fauna species in the Warrnambool Plain include the Orange-bellied Parrot, Magpie Goose, Great Egret, Common Bent-winged Bat, Swamp Antechinus and Swamp Skink331. The coastal ares are also important for a number of these threatened species of shorebirds including Hooded Plover and Orange-bellied Parrot and several species of terns. Other interesting fauna occurrences of the Coastal Plain include: a Common Bent-wing Bat maternity at Lake Gillear, one of only three in South East Australia; and a Southern Right Whale calving nursery at Logans Beach, east of the Hopkins River Mouth at Warrnambool332. Rare and threatened flora in this bioregion include Rare Bitter- bush, Swamp Diuris, Clover Glycine, Lime Fern and Swamp Greenhood333.

The remaining native ecosystems, particularly those severely depleted such as open coastal shrubs and shallow freshwater wetlands, are all highly significant and vital for biodiversity conservation in the Bioregion. Vegetation remnants are at risk from weed invasion, whilst native fauna are increasingly affected by introduced predators (fox and feral cat), and by fragmentation and modification of habitats334. Water quality is of importance for the significant wetland assets in the bioregion, in particular nutrient levels in relation to dairy operations, need to be carefully managed. Drainage of shallow freshwater marshes continues to affect some wetland species of flora and fauna335.

SECTION 14 PARKS AND RESERVES WITHIN THE GLENELG HOPKINS CATCHMENT

52 Victoria’s parks system protects a wide range of ecosystems and species. Significant regional ecosystems have been protected through the parks system for many years and have not been subjected to degrading activities such as broad- scale clearance for agriculture or use for forestry336.

14.1 Bay of Islands Coastal Park The Bay of Islands Coastal Park stretches from Peterborough almost to Warrnambool in a 32 kilometre long narrow strip with spectacular ocean views337. The Bay of Islands Coastal Park is recognised for its distinctive coastline featuring a number of geomorphological features resulting from erosion by the Southern Ocean338. It has a wide range of coastal vegetation types including coastal heathlands and significant flora and fauna.

The park covers 950ha and over 90% of the current park was reserved by 1997339. Historic land use within the park has included moderate grazing which ceased in 1984, moderate agriculture which ceased in 1984, minor mining which has ceased and minor racecourse use which ceased in 1997340. The park falls within the Warrnambool Plain Victorian Bioregion, which is poorly reserved and the National South East Coastal Plain Bioregion of which 5.8% occurs within parks and reserves in Victoria341.

The park has important areas of indigenous vegetation. It has lower flora diversity of 138 species and a lower fauna diversity of 15 species342. Within in these species the Bay of Islands is home to seven threatened flora and five threatened fauna species including three flora species which are also nationally threatened and three flora and three fauna species which are also FFG-listed343. The park is particularly important in protecting three FFG-listed species the Metalic Sun-orchid, the Leafy Greenhood and the Rufous Bristlebird. A flora species of Clover Glycine and fauna species of the Great Egret and Hooded Plover are three of the park’s FFG-listed species that are relatively widespread in Victoria. The park plays a role in providing habitat for migratory bird species with one JAMBA/CAMBA species recorded in the park344. Weed infestation is a problem in some areas and the park has a very high number of visitors each year.

14.2 Cape Nelson State Park Spectacular coastal cliffs, diverse bird life, picturesque walks and picnic areas, and the unusual Soap Mallee vegetation which is restricted to Cape Nelson, are some of the features of the Cape Nelson State Park, 11km south-west of Portland. The Cape Nelson State Park is recognised for protecting a diverse flora and for its important geomorphological features. The entire park of 210ha was reserved in 1979345. In the past the park has had extensive grazing which ceased in 1979.

The park falls within the Glenelg Plain Victorian Bioregion, which is poorly reserved. The park also falls within the Naracoorte Coastal Plain Bioregion of which 11.7% occurs within parks and reserves in Victoria346. Cape Nelson State Park has one BVT, this being the Heathy Woodland, which comprises 83.9% of the park347. Heathy Woodland is partially depleted in Victoria and what remains is moderately reserved.

The park has 11 flora and 11 fauna species that are threatened including three flora and two fauna that are nationally threatened. There are also local records of FFG-listed species which includes the Rufous Bristlebird, White-bellied Sea- Eagle, Orange-bellied Parrot and Heath Mouse348. The park plays an important role in providing habitat for migratory bird species with five JAMBA/CAMBA species being recorded in the park349. The park is particularly important in protecting one flora species that is locally recorded and most threatened, this being the Coastal Leek-orchid. The major concern within the park is the impact of trespassing sheep and other pest animals, including goats and cats. Foxes are known to be present in the park and they are known to have an impact on threatened fauna species.

14.3 Dergholm State Park Set among the rolling hills in Western Victoria, Dergholm State Park is recognised for its diversity of vegetation communities including undisturbed heath, swamp and woodland communities which support diverse fauna including the endangered Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo350. The park is quite large (10,400ha) and the entire park was reserved in 1992351. In the past land use within the park has included moderate forestry which ceased in the 1980s, moderate grazing which ceased in 1986 and minor quarrying which ceased in the 1970s.

The park is part of three Victorian Bioregions with 97% of the park falling within the poorly reserved Glenelg Plain Bioregion, two per cent falls within the poorly reserved Wimmera Bioregion and one per cent falls within the Dundas Tablelands Bioregion which is also poorly reserved352. The Dergholm State Park has two BVTs, those being Heathy

53 Woodland (91.4% of the park) and Plains Grassy Woodland (1.6% of the park)353. Plains Grassy Woodland is highly depleted and among the most depleted BVTs in Victoria and what remains is poorly reserved.

The species diversity of the park includes 413 flora species and 132 fauna species354. The park has 16 species threatened in Victoria (11 flora and five fauna) including five of which are also nationally threatened (four flora and one fauna)355. The park is important in protecting the Dergholm Guinea-flower, Heathy Guinea-flower and the Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo. The park is one of the least weed infested and is known to have a low number and level of pest plants. Small areas of the park are known to be infested with rabbits and foxes although they have low impact, and the plant pathogen Cinnamon Fungus, has been recorded in the park, although threatened flora species do not occur in the areas affected by this fungus356.

14.4 Discovery Bay Coastal Park The Discovery Bay Coastal Park is a majestic 50km sweep of ocean beach, huge dunes, Aboriginal middens and coastal lakes located west of Portland. The park is recognised for protecting a major segment of Victoria’s western coastline with its range of coastal and wetland environments, spectacular geological features, significant intertidal and estuarine habitats and a locally diverse native flora and fauna including many threatened species357. Attractions include freshwater lakes, massive dune systems, magnificent coastal cliffs, volcanic features and sweeping ocean beaches. Outstanding features of discovery Bay Coastal Park at Cape Bridgewater include a seal colony, blowholes, the “petrified forest” and the highest coastal cliffs in Victoria, 130m above sea level358. This park is 10,460ha in size. In 1979, almost 80% of the park was reserved. By 1997, a further three additions had increased the park to cover 90% of the current area359. Historic land use in the park has included moderate grazing which ceased in 1979.

The park falls within the Glenelg Plain Victorian Bioregion and also the National Naracoorte Coastal Plain Bioregion of which 11.7% occurs within parks and reserves in Victoria360. The park has two BVTs. Coastal Scrubs and Grassland comprises 27.1% of the park361. Coastal Scrubs and Grassland is substantially depleted in Victoria but what remains is well reserved. Heathy Woodland comprises 8.8% of the park362.

The park has a diversity of 320 flora species and a fauna diversity of 197 species363. Discovery Bay Coastal Park contains 66 threatened species in Victoria (23 flora and 43 fauna)364. Of those threatened nine are also nationally threatened species (five flora and four fauna), 14 of which are also FFG- listed species (one flora and 13 fauna), including two local records being the Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo and Fairy Tern365. The Coast Gum is a species which is restricted in Victoria to the Discovery Bay Coastal Park. The park is particularly important in protecting 15 species including seven FFG-listed species. These include the Leafy Greenhood, Scented Spider-orchid, Coast Helmet-orchid, Eichler’s Raspwort, Ixodia, Maroon Leek-orchid and Coastal Leek-orchid in flora species and Four-toed Skink, Yarra Pigmy Perch, Ground Parrot, Dwarf Galaxias, Rufous Bristlebird, Orange-bellied Parrot and Hooded Plover. The park is one of the least weed infested and is known to have a low number and level of pest plants. However, two FFG-listed flora species are known to occur within areas of major weed infestation366. Of concern is the impact of trespassing sheep and other pest animals including feral goats and feral cats.

14.5 Grampians National Park Renowned for rugged mountain ranges and stunning wildflower displays, Grampians National Park is one of the State’s most popular holiday destinations located north-west of Ararat. The Grampians National Park is recognised as the single most important botanical reserve in Victoria367. It is notable for spectacular land forms of high geological significance, which support one-third of the State’s indigenous flora368. The park has areas of weed-free, diverse and intact vegetation, and contains approximately 1000 species of native plants including many endemic species, many considered threatened or of distinct distribution, and a diverse macropod fauna369.

The Grampian’s National Park is Victoria’s fourth-largest park (167,200 hectares). Most of the park (99.9%) was reserved in 1984. Historic land use in the park includes moderate forestry which ceased in 1994, moderate grazing which ceased in 1984, minor gold mining which ceased in the early 1900s and minor quarrying which ceased in the 1980s370. The park is part of five Victorian Bioregions with 98% of the park falling within the Greater Grampians Bioregion, which is very well reserved. There is 1% of the park that falls within the Dundas Tablelands and Wimmera Bioregions, both which are poorly reserved. Also, less than 1 % of the park falls within the Goldfields and Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregions, which are both poorly reserved. The park also falls within the National Victorian Midlands and Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregions.

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The Grampians National Park protects the FFG-listed Red Gum Swamp Community No. 1 at two locations. The park has seven BVTs. Inland Slopes Woodland comprised 32.4% of the park, and is 39.4% of the total of this vegetation type in Victoria and 62.2% of the total in the parks system in Victoria371. Inland Slopes Woodland is substantially depleted in Victoria but what remains is well reserved. Sedge-Rich Woodland comprises less than 1% of the park, but it makes up 99.3% of the total of this vegetation type in the Victorian parks system and 37.5% of the total in Victoria372. Sedge-Rich Woodland is highly depleted and among the most depleted BVTs in Victoria but what remains is moderately reserved. Herb-Rich Woodland comprises only 8.5% of the park, but this is 48.1% of the total in the parks system and 20.8% of the total in Victoria373. Dry Foothill Forest comprises 56.2% of the park. Dry Foothill Forest is partially depleted in Victoria and what remains is moderately reserved. Plains Grassy Woodland comprises 1.1% of the park. Valley Grassy Forest comprises less than 1% of the park. Valley Grass Forest is substantially depleted in Victoria and what remains is poorly reserved. Grassland comprises less than 1% of the park.

Species diversity includes a higher flora diversity of 975 species and higher fauna diversity of 312 species374. The park has 167 species threatened in Victoria (118 flora and 49 fauna) of which 44 are also nationally threatened (37 flora and seven flora), 32 of which are also FFG-listed (13 flora and 19 fauna)375. This includes one local record of Crimson Spider-orchid. Twenty-four of these 167 species are endemic to the park and three species are restricted in Victoria to the park376. The park is particularly important in protecting 59 species including 28 FFG-listed species. The park also provides habitat for ten JAMBA/CAMBA species377. The depleted Plains Grassy Woodland BVT is infested with one weed species, the depleted Herb-Rich Woodland BVT is infested with 16 weed species, the depleted Sedge-Rich Woodland BVT is infested with one weed species378. Only a small area of the park is infested with rabbits and they are having a moderate impact on the native ground layer vegetation. The depleted Grassland Woodland BVT is infested with rabbits379. The plant pathogen Cinnamon Fungus is present in the park and the impact of other pest animals, including feral cats, goats and bees is of concern380. Wildfire has occurred frequently in the Grampians. Major wildfire occurred in 1993, burning 3.6% of the park; in 1994, burning 3.9% of the park; and in 1999 burning 3.7% of the park381.

14.6 Lower Glenelg National Park The Lower Glenelg National Park is situated in the south-west corner of Victoria with the Glenelg River as its central feature. The Lower Glenelg National Park is recognised for its rich and diverse flora resulting from an ‘interchange zone’ with over 600 native plant species, and a number of fauna species not well represented in other conservation reserves382. It is notable for the geological features of the Glenelg River limestone gorge. River erosion and the trickle of rain water has created some remarkable including Princess Margaret Rose Caves and cave-dependent fauna, other features include the Bulley Range and the biological features of the Kentbruck Heath and Moleside Creek catchments383.

This park covers 27,300ha and in 1969 only 33.2% of the park was reserved, but by 1975, a further addition had increased the park to over 90% of the current area384. Historic land use in the park includes moderate grazing which ceased in the 1950s and moderate forestry which ceased in the mid 1960s. The park is part of two Victorian Bioregions, with 78% of the park falling within the Glenelg Plain Bioregion and 22% of the park falling within the Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregion385. The park also falls within the National Naracoorte Coastal Plain and Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregions of which 11.7% and 1.3% respectively occur within parks and reserves in Victoria. TheLower Glenelg National Park has two BVTs. Heathy Woodland comprises 78.8% of the park and 17.5% of the total in the parks system in Victoria386. Lowland Forest comprises 19.2% of the park and is substantially depleted in Victoria. What remains is poorly reserved387. The park has a flora diversity of 600 species and a fauna diversity of 257 species388. The park has 78 species threatened in Victoria (34 flora and 44 fauna) including 19 species that are also Nationally threatened species (14 flora and five fauna). There are 20 species that are also FFG-listed species (six flora and 14 fauna), including Swamp Everlasting, Clover Glycine, Metallic Sun-orchid, Intermediate Egret, White-bellied Sea-Eagle, and the Barking Owl389. The Small Western Spider-orchid is restricted in Victoria to the park. The park is particularly important in protecting 13 species including 10 FFG-listed species. Thirteen JAMBA/CAMBA species have been recorded in the park. The park has a medium level of weed infestation. The impact of rabbits and foxes is lower in the park, but it is the impact of other pest species, including dogs, blackbirds, feral bees and feral cats that is the greatest concern in the park. The plant pathogen Cinnamon Fungus, has been recorded in the park390. Wildfire has occurred frequently in the park. Major wildfires in 1991 burnt 6800ha, in 1987 burnt 1350ha, in 1985/86 burnt 1427ha and in 1979 burnt 2600ha391.

14.7 Mount Eccles National Park

55 Mount Eccles National Park, stands at the western edge of the volcanic plains that stretch from Melbourne to Port Fairy, extending northwards to Hamilton and Ararat. Beginning about 20,000 years ago, volcanic eruptions opened the earth’s crust and poured out thousands of tonnes of molten lava, forming Mount Eccles and the surrounding landscape. Today, the three main craters hold a 700 metre long lake known as Lake Surprise, which is fed by underground springs392. Geological features to be seen are extensive lava flows, lava caves, scoria cones and crater lakes393. Mount Eccles National Park, together with Mount Napier State Park, is recognised as having part of the most diverse collection of volcanic features in south-eastern Australia. It is the only representation in Victoria’s parks system of the Western Plains geological formations featuring diverse volcanic features394. In addition there are important Manna Gum and Blackwood communities, and a diversity of fauna habitats supporting a number of significant species. The park is 5470ha in size and in 1960 less than one per cent of the park was reserved but by 1996 a further three additions has increased the park to over 90% of its current area 395. Historic land use in the park has included extensive grazing which ceased in 1995 and minor forestry which ceased in 1984.

The park is part of two Victorian Bioregions. Almost 100% of the park falls within the Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregion, with the rest of the park falling within the Warrnambool Plain Bioregion, which is poorly reserved396. The park also falls within the National Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregion of which 13% occurs within parks and reserves in Victoria. Mt Eccles National Park has four BVTs. Herb-Rich Woodland comprises 97.6% of the park and is 20.5% of the total in the parks system397. Coastal Grassy Woodland comprises less than one per cent of the park. Coastal Grassy Woodland is substantially depleted in Victoria but what remains is well reserved. Plains Grassy Woodland and Swamp Scrub also comprises less than one per cent of the park.

The park has a flora diversity of 48 species and a fauna diversity of 155 species and of these, 12 species are listed as threatened in Victoria (two flora and ten fauna)398. Five of these fauna species are also FFG-listed, and these include the Spot-tailed Quoll, Common Bent-wing Bat and Brush-tailed Phascogale. The park was once important in protecting an FFG-listed species Yarra Pigmy Perch but this species is now extinct in the park399. The park plays a role in providing habitat for migratory bird species with one JAMBA/CAMBA species having been recorded in the park400. The park is one of the least weed infested and has a low number of pest plants, but has one prohibited species. The depleted BVT, Herb-Rich Woodland, is known to be infested with 14 weed species401. overpopulation has been identified as a major threat to native vegetation in the park. Wildfire has occurred frequently in the park. Major wildfires in 1979 burnt most of the park and in 1993 burnt 22% of the park402.

14.8 Mount Napier State Park Mount Napier State Park lies 20km to the north-east of Mount Eccles and is dominated by Mount Napier, a true volcanic cone. Mount Napier State Park, together with Mount Eccles National Park, is recognised as having part of the most diverse collection of volcanic features in south-eastern Australia. It is the only representation in Victoria’s park system of the Western Plains geological formations, featuring diverse volcanic features, including extensive lava caves. It is notable for stands of Manna Gum and Blackwood on the stony rises, which have limited occurrence on public land elsewhere in Victoria, and for the outstanding flora and bat habitat of the Byaduk Caves403. Byaduk Caves are one of the most extensive and accessible sets of lava caves in Australia. They are part of a lava flow stretching out 24km from Mt Napier to Mt Eccles404. The park is 2800ha in size and in 1921 five per cent of the park was reserved and by 1987, a further addition had increased the park to over 90% of its current area405. In the past land use in the park has included moderate grazing which ceased in 1975 and minor gravel extraction which ceased in 1979 .

The park falls within the State’s Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregion and also falls within the National Victorian Volcanic Plain Bioregion of which 1.3% occurs within parks and reserves in Victoria. Mt Napier State Park has three BVTs: Herb- Rich woodland comprises 92.8% of the park and is 9.3% of the total in the parks system. Swamp Scrub comprised 1.8% of the park and is 14.1% of the total in the parks system. Swamp Scrub is highly depleted and among the most depleted BVTs in Victoria and what remains is poorly reserved. Plains Grassy Woodland comprises 4.3% of the park406. The species diversity of the park includes a flora diversity of 39 species and a fauna species diversity of 35 species407. Of these species nine are threatened in Victoria (four flora and five fauna). Two of the fauna species are FFG-listed, the Common Bent-wing Bat and Brush-tailed Phascogale. The park is known to have a number of pest plants, and has four prohibited species. The park also has a medium level of weed infestation and the depleted BVTs are infested with eight weed species408.

14.9 Mount Richmond National Park

56 Mount Richmond National Park is recognised as protecting Mount Richmond, an extinct volcano surrounded by low, flat land409. The volcano is covered with a layer of sand, blown inland long ago from Discovery Bay410. Forest, open heath, and scattered swamps cover the park, which is noted for its’ spring wildflower display and its diversity of flora, and fauna. The park is medium-sized (1733ha). In 1960, 35.8% of the park was reserved and by 1975, the park had increased to over 90% of its current area411. The park falls within the Victorian Glenelg Plain Bioregion and also falls within the National Naracoorte Costal Plain Bioregion.

Mt Richmond National Park has one BVT, which is the Heathy Woodland which comprises 93.7% of the park412. The park has higher flora diversity (498 species) including 50 orchid species and medium fauna diversity (147 species)413. The park has 20 species threatened in Victoria (13 flora and seven fauna) including seven which are also nationally threatened (six flora and one fauna) and seven which are also FFG-listed (one flora and six fauna)414. This includes King Quail, Rufous Bristlebird, Powerful Owl, Blue-billed Duck, Heath Mouse and Masked Owl. The park is particularly important in protecting one of the most threatened species of Scented Spider-orchid. Vegetation gradually became established on Mt Richmond and many hardy native plants now grow successfully on the sandy soil415. Correas, heaths, wattles and Bush Pea provide spectacular colours in spring. The park is known to have a number of pest plants, and a medium level of weed infestation. Two threatened flora species are known to occur within areas of major weed infestation. Although only a small area of the park is known to be infested with foxes, they have an impact on three threatened fauna species, and eight other threatened fauna species are potential fox prey416. The impact of other pest species including the feral cat is of concern.

14.10 Crawford River Regional Park Situated in the Crawford River valley near Hotspur, the Crawford River Regional Park covers 2463ha and is part of the Victorian Glenelg Plain Bioregion.

The first Forest Act was given assent to in 1907 and a section of the park was dedicated as Reserved Forest in the same year. The majority of the park was recommended for dedication as Forest Reserve in 1925 but was not gazetted until 1955417. Small additions were later made, the last being in 1966418. Recreation has been the major use of the park in recent times. The large gum trees and old tree hollows are an important habitat for Yellow-bellies Gliders, considered to be a vulnerable species in Victoria. Crawford river is significant in that it houses one of the highest population of the threatened Ewen’s (Variegated) Pigmy Perch which is protected under FFG Act of 1998419. The Crawford River Regional Park is important in protecting six Victorian threatened flora species and one nationally threatened flora species420. There are three types of vegetation in the park including wet sclerophyll forests along the river’s edge, consisting of tall eucalypt tree species and an understorey of Blackwood, Hop Goodenia, Woolly Tea-tree and Hazel Pomanderris421. These forests include spectacular fern gullies with abundant Coral Fern. Away from the damp river bank, higher up the slopes, grow dry sclerophyll forests dominated by Silver Banksia, Beaked Hakea and Austral Grass Trees. Floristically rich heathlands grow in waterlogged undernourished soils and contain plants like sheoaks, tea-trees, rushes and sedges. A colony of rough Treefern grow in a gully of the park. This species is restricted to only a few locations outside the park so its protection is vital422.

14.11 Tower Hill State Game Reserve Tower Hill is located just off the Princess Highway 15km north-west of Warrnambool. It was formed at least 30,000 years ago when hot rising basaltic magma came into contact with the subterranean water table423. The violent explosion that followed created the funnel-shaped crater (later filled by a lake) and the islands seen today. Tower Hill was declared Victoria’s first National Park in 1892, in an attempt to halt the decline of the once majestic volcano424. However, grazing, crop growing, quarrying and rubbish dumping continued and took their toll. By the 1950s the hills and islands were bare and little wildlife remained425. Tower Hill was declared a State Game Reserve in 1960 and a major revegetation effort undertaken. Tower Hill is notable as a successful ecological restoration site with many native species of flora and fauna found within its boundaries. Pest plants and animals are a major threat to the health of the reserve.

Table 11 Parks and Reserves in the Glenelg Hopkins region (Source: B Beecham, NRE, Portland)426

57 Parks Are Lake 1171 Greenhills 52 a Linlithgow/Bulrush (ha Swamp ) Lower Glenelg 27, Picnic Lakes 58 Condah 14 NP 305 Mt Richmond 176 Gorae 2 Lyons 48 NP 5 Mt Eccles NP 603 Lake Peawick- 30 Myamyn 40 4 Gorra Grampians NP 167 Tim Dunn Lake 24 Condah 15 ,10 0 Discovery Bay 10, Lake 6 Bushland CP 207 Reserves Bay of Islands 800 Lake 12 Bolwarra 24 CP Mt Napier SP 253 White’s Lake 6 Bolwarra West 116 5 Dergholm SP 10, Salt Lake 38 Bolwarra East 23 188 Crawford River 246 Lake 23 46 RP 3 Reference Lake 15 Lake 185 Areas Keegans Bend 971 Salt Lake 39 Lake Terrinallum 218 Kentbruck 728 Salt Lake 43 Lake Bernie 32 Buloke Cobboboonee 384 Lake Munderong 17 Lake Gillear 17 Roseneath 222 Streamside Lake Aringa 23 6 Reserves The Stones 283 Glenelg River 1584 Goose Lagoon 3 below Dartmoor Wildlife Glenelg River Julia Percy Island 150 Reserves above Dartmoor Lawrence 10 Cobra Killuc 532 Rocks Bats Ridge 318 Glenelg River 16 Other Reserves Crawford Lake 97 Glenelg River 3 Tower Hill 621 Red Hill Swamp 47 Brimboal 9 Compton Springs 2 Kerr’s Swamp 230 Steep Bank Creek 5 Portland Coastal 150 Reserve Kaladbro 115 Glenelg River 41 Gatum Gatum FR 6 Swamp Church Swamp 74 Wando Bridge 6 Kanagulk 940 Beniagh 221 Glenelg 5 Bloods Paddock 2 WR 289 Bushland Pretty Hill Flora 4 Reserves Reserve Lake Sinclair 42 Mageppa 232 Back Creek 2 Grassland Reserve Tremaine 85 Chetwynd 404 Grass-Tree Plains 4 Swamp Bushland Reserve Grassy Flats 134 Wirey Swamp 149 Doug Fenwick 50

58 Bushland Reserve Burgess Swamp 59 Bahgallah 93 Mt Fyans Wildlife 40 Reserve Lake Mundi 398 Digby East 18 Wickham 4 0 Bushland Pieracle Swamp 134 Killara 133 Belfast Protection 10 of the Coastline Black Swamp 160 Puralka North 128 Wannon 3 Victoria Lagoon 57 Munbannar 77 Glenelg 17 Lake Kennedy 241 Dartmoor 59 Coastal Reserves Krause Swamp 19 Balrook 67 Tyrendarra 3 Tabor Swamp 47 Mouzzie 36 Narrawong/Tyrend 215 arra Lake 17 Glenaulin 22 Yambuk 147 (Penshurst) 7 Lake Byang 140 Curracurt 65 Jones Creek 5 Lake Oundell 101 Hedditch Hill 21 Education Areas Nerrin Nerrin 278 Poolaigelo 7 Tarragal 140 Swamp Lake Jollicum 82 Roseneath 14 Scenic Reserves Flora Reserves Lake Mundi West 5 Hedditch Hill 10 Johnstone’s 74 Lake Mundi North 8 Mt Dundas 135 Creek 4 Tooloy 404 Lake Mundi East 8 Giant Rock 7 Roseneath 342 Drajurk 36 Nigretta Falls 8 Tyendarra 105 Werrikoo 24 Wannon Falls 69 Narrawong 151 Ardno 31 Trewalla 32 9 Weecurra 43 Scott Creek 2 Cape Nelson 48 Wilkin 156 Puralka South 28 Wattle Hill 2 6 Points 13 Rennick 14 Cashmore 3 Arboretum Wannon Rapids 44 Brimboal 20 Kentbruck 162 Nigretta 16 Langkoop 31 Drik Drik 43 Wannon 9 Merino 23 Kanagulk 38 St Helen’s 34 Mocamboro 14 Tarrayoukyan 7 Nullawarre 9 Digby 6 Woorkurkook 10 Yambuk 118 Buckle Creek 15 Gritjurk 12 Brucknell Creek 8 Creek 9 Cavendish 24 Lake Reserves Winyayung 5 Geerak 3 Lake Doling 44 Hotspur 58 Orford 14 Doling

Note: Scenic reserves includes parks within the NRE Portland boundary. Parks and reserves in the north east of the Glenelg Hopkins region have not been included in this table.

SECTION 15 PEST PLANTS IN THE GLENELG HOPKINS REGION

Weeds are among the most serious threats to Glenelg-Hopkins primary production and natural environment. They reduce farm and forest productivity, displace native species, affect the protection of remnant vegetation and contribute significantly to land degradation427. The most recent estimate of the direct cost of weeds to Victorian agriculture is more than 360 million per year428. A survey of the Ballarat district highlighted that the average pasture comprised 77% weeds429.

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A weed in Victoria can be an exotic plant introduced from overseas, a species from outside Victoria or a Victorian species that has spread outside is original distribution430. It is estimated that up to 65 per cent of Victoria’s weeds are exotic plants intentionally introduced into Australia for sale as ornamental plants for the purposes of floral arrangement, garden plants and landscaping. Environmental weeds invade native vegetation, usually adversely affecting regeneration and survival of indigenous flora and fauna431. Weed invasion pose one of the most serious nature conservation problems in Victoria with the invasion of native vegetation by environmental weeds being listed as a threatening process under the FFG Act 1988432. Garden plants that ‘escape’ and spread from gardens into natural environments is of most concern for environmental weed management.

60 Figure 18 Priority Weeds within the Glenelg Hopkins Region

61 Top priority weeds within the Glenelg-Hopkins region include Blackberries, Cape Tulip, Serrated Tussock, Gorse, Ragwort, African Feather Grass and Patterson’s Curse as shown in Figure 7 with distributions of priority weeds in the Glenelg-Hopkins region. The Glenelg Basin contains weeds such as Cape Tullip and African Feathergrass. More recently Ragwort and dense Cumbungi have also been noted in the waterways. The Hopkins Basin has a wide spread of weeds such as Gorse, Bathurst Burr, Serrated Tussock and Blackberries433. Dense Cumbungi infestations have also been noted. In the Lower Hopkins, Merri, Drysdale and Spring Creeks willows grow uncontrollably and dominate the riparian vegetation community. Other problem weeds in the riparian zones of the Merri River Catchment include Gorse, English Broom, Blackberry, Boxthorn, Hawthorn, Ragwort and pasture weeds such as mallow. Bridal Creeper is a problem species in the saltmarsh areas of the lower Merri River and Canadian Pondweed is abundant downstream of Wollaston Bridge434. In the Mt Emu Creek catchment specifically Gorse, Blackberry, Bent Grass, Spiny Rush and Thistles were noted in the north particularly around Balllarat. Within the middle of the catchment the main weeds are Bent Grass, Spiny Rush, Thistles and some Horehound. In the lower catchment, Horehound, Blackberry and Bathurst Burr are of concern435.

Declared noxious weeds in Victoria are plants that have been proclaimed under the Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994. These plants cause environmental or economic harm or have the potential to cause such harm. There are currently 14 State Prohibited Weed species occurring within Glenelg-Hopkins catchment and they are treated by the DNRE, irrespective of land tenure436. Recently, infestations of Alligator Weed and Black Knapweed have been located and treated within the Glenelg-Hopkins catchment437. There are 62 species declared as noxious weeds found in the Glenelg Hopkins catchment438.

The Glenelg-Hopkins Catchment with its proximity to a state border and major arterial transport corridors, Princess, Midland and Hamilton highways plus National Rail, is at high risk to the introduction of new weed species439. Weeds spread by natural and human vectors. Seed may be carried by wind or water, on machinery and vehicles and in livestock fodder. Effective procedures to reduce the introduction of new weed species, or the spread of current weed species, have been developed, and are beginning to be implemented and adopted by landowners, industry, key stakeholders and the community.

The Glenelg Hopkins Catchment contains significant infestations of Serrated Tussock, which currently infests over 130,000 ha to the west of metropolitan Melbourne440. This perennial drought resistant tussock grass, native to , , and Uruguay, was thought to have been introduced into Australia in the early 1900’s but was not recorded until 1935441. It was first recorded in Victoria in 1954. Serrated Tussock spreads rapidly as it is a prolific seed producer and the mature seed heads break off and are carried by the wind to infest new areas442. The seeds may also be carried in fodder and on livestock and machinery. Identification is difficult because it looks similar to many native grasses. This has meant new infestations remain unnoticed and untreated until significant infestations develop. It is one of the most potentially serious weed problems of non-arable land and unimproved grazing areas. It is unpalatable to stock, with the foliage low in protein (around 4%) and extremely high in fibre (around 86%)443. If stock are forced to graze Serrated Tussock, the fibrous foliage can form indigestible balls in the rumen, causing loss of condition and eventual death444. Despite having a full stomach from grazing on the tussock grass stock can starve to death. Serrated Tussock has been described as potentially causing greater reductions in carrying capacity than any other plant in Australia and in addition to this loss, the sharp bristles on the seeds may damage the mouths of stock and also cause vegetable fault in wool445.

Ragwort has been identified as a serious threat to primary production and biodiversity in south-west Victoria. Ragwort is a persistent pasture weed, native to South Eastern Europe and is found extensively in south-west Victoria. Ragwort is a biennial or perennial plant which reproduces from crowns, roots and seeds and it suppresses pasture and smothers native vegetation, resulting in social environmental and economic impacts446. In the south-west Ragwort occurs mainly south of the Princess Highway, although a significant infestation occurs in the Stony Rises north of the highway as shown in Figure 8 of Ragwort Infestations in the south-west447. Recent infestations have been found in the Glenelg Hopkins Catchment, at Laang and in the Merri and Hopkins Catchments.

Ragwort has a major impact on dairying and beef enterprise due to the competitive nature of the weed with productive pasture, as it competes strongly with more desirable plant species and reduces pasture productivity448. Stock selectively avoid grazing Ragwort, which aids in its dominance of pastures. Ragwort is poisonous to grazing animals, with cattle, horses and pigs being the most susceptible. Ragwort contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids that cause cumulative liver damage, leading to photosensitisation, jaundice and wasting449. Profitability of farm land is affected in both the short and long term, with Ragwort presence reducing land values. Ragwort poses a serious threat to the biodiversity of South West Victoria.

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SECTION 16 PEST ANIMALS IN THE GLENELG HOPKINS REGION

Rabbits and foxes are the main pest animal threats to public and private land within the Glenelg Hopkins Region450. Feral goats, cats and pigs, hares, mice, sparrows, starlings also occur in the region although these pests generally occur to a lesser extent in numbers, distribution or frequency451. Wild dogs are not considered a problem however domestic dogs which roam in packs can cause localised problems for farmers and native animals452. In the Glenelg Basin rabbits and foxes are the main pest animals which threaten public and private land within the basin453. Feral goats are an issue on public land around Casterton and are apparent in the Southern Grampians. Feral cats are common in the region although populations fluctuate widely. Also, possums are having a severe impact upon remnant Red gums along some watercourses454. In the Hopkins Basin, foxes, cats and possums are common (as they are throughout the whole regional catchment). Kangaroo and Swamp Wallaby impact on agricultural production in the north of the Mt Emu Creek catchment as their numbers increase, Corellas are also a problem in that section of the basin as they impact upon crop yields and stock feed455. European Carp is an issue in Lake Burrumbeet with the potential to affect waterways in the entire Hopkins Basin456. The Carp also exists in Toolondo Reservoir with the potential to move through the channel system to Rocklands Reservoir and beyond457.

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Rabbits are recognised as the most serious vertebrate pest in Victoria, responsible for major environmental and agricultural damage. Figure 9 shows priority areas for rabbit management. Rabbits are declared an established pest animal under the Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994458. They are a major factor in the loss and reduction of many native plant species and animal species by causing detrimental habitat change and direct grazing competition. Indirectly rabbits cause intensified predation of native animals by cats and foxes when rabbit numbers crash following fluctuating seasonal impacts459. The economic impacts of rabbits within the region are estimated at $38.82 million in lost agricultural production annually460. Rabbits have been identified as a major contributor to soil erosion in the Sedimentary Rises Resource Management Unit. Sections of the Hopkins River catchment, particularly the upper reaches, are examples of areas where rabbits are now a major cause of tunnel erosion. Rabbits are identified as preventing regeneration of Limestone Spider-orchids and important vegetation communities that prevent sedimentation of streams that contain the Variegated Pygmy Perch461. Rabbits are considered a direct grazing threat to number of other orchids and Victorian Volcanic Plain grassland species. The Victorian Volcanic Plain grassland complex is restricted to less than 0.2% of its original distribution462. Rabbits actively compete for habitat with threatened species such as the Eastern Barred Bandicoot and are thought to have artificially lifted the potential carrying capacity of land systems for predators such as the fox. They are considered a major contributor to the decline in quality of vegetation surrounding some wetlands. The economic benefits of rabbit control have shown an increase of $67.70 per hectare in absolute rabbit management to wool graziers in the Southern Tablelands463.

Foxes are declared as established pest animals throughout the State under the Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994464. Native fauna did not co-evolve with the fox and thus our wildlife is susceptible prey species with few adoptive strategies to avoid predation. Foxes pose a huge threat to the survival of a range of fauna within the Glenelg Hopkins region.

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REFERENCES 1 GRC&LPB (1997) Glenelg Regional Catchment Strategy, GRC&LPB, Hamilton 2 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 3 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 4 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 5 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 6 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 7 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 8 GRC&LPB (1997) Glenelg Regional Catchment Strategy, GRC&LPB, Hamilton 9 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 10 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 11 GRC&LPB (1997) Glenelg Regional Catchment Strategy, GRC&LPB, Hamilton 12 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 13 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 14 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 15 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 16 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 17 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 18 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 19 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 20 Imhof, M. Lourey, R. & Thompson, S. (1998) Soil Classification and Characterisation Workshop – Soils of the Glenormiston Area, Ag. Vic & Catchment Management and Sustainable Agriculture DNRE, East Melbourne 21 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 22 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 23 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 24 GRC&LPB (1997) Glenelg Regional Catchment Strategy, GRC&LPB, Hamilton 25 GRC&LPB (1997) Glenelg Regional Catchment Strategy, GRC&LPB, Hamilton 26 CSIRO (2001) Climate Change Projections for Australia www.dar.csiro.au/publications/projections2001.pdf 27 CSIRO (2001) Climate Change Projections for Australia www.dar.csiro.au/publications/projections2001.pdf 28 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 29 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 30 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne

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31 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 32 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 33 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 34 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 35 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 36 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 37 GRC&LPB (1997) Glenelg Regional Catchment Strategy, GRC&LPB, Hamilton 38 Mitchell et al (1996) An Ecological and Environmental Flow Study of the Glenelg River from Casterton to Rocklands Reservoir, ARU&MRG, Deakin University, Warrnambool 39 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 40 Oddie, N. (SRW) (1996) Draft Hopkins Waterways Management Works Plan, SRW, Maffra 41 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 42 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 43 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 44 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 45 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 46 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 47 GRC&LPB (1997) Glenelg Regional Catchment Strategy, GRC&LPB, Hamilton 48 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 49 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 50 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 51 DNRE (2002) www.nre.vic.gov.au Farming and Agriculture: Erosion, DNRE, East Melbourne 52 DNRE (2002) www.nre.vic.gov.au Farming and Agriculture: Erosion, DNRE, East Melbourne 53 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 54 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 55 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 56 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 57 Government of Victoria (1991) State of the Environment Report 1991: Agriculture and Victoria’s Environment, Government Publishing Service, Melbourne 58 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 59 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 60 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 61 Holmes, G. (2002) Glenelg-Hopkins Catchment Nutrient Management Plan, GHCMA, Hamilton 62 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo

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63 Baxter, N.M. & Robinson, N.J. (2001) A Land Resource Assessment of the Glenelg Hopkins region, Ag. Vic, DNRE, Bendigo 64 ANRA (2002) Water – Water Resources – Glenelg River, Hopkins River & Portland Coast www.nlwra.gov.au/atlas 65 ANRA (2002) Water – Water Resources – Glenelg River, Hopkins River & Portland Coast www.nlwra.gov.au/atlas 66 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 67 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 68 ANRA (2002) Water – Water Resources – Glenelg River, Hopkins River & Portland Coast www.nlwra.gov.au/atlas 69 Oddie, N. (SRW) (1996) Draft Hopkins Waterways Management Works Plan, SRW, Maffra 70 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 71 SWW&DMSSC (1996) A proposal for Waterway and Drainage Management in South West Victoria, The Curdies, Hopkins, Portland Coast & Glenelg River Basins, SWW&DMSSC, p. 13 72 Oddie, N. (SRW) (1996) Draft Hopkins Waterways Management Works Plan, SRW, Maffra 73 Oddie, N. (SRW) (1996) Draft Hopkins Waterways Management Works Plan, SRW, Maffra 74 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 75 SWW&DMSSC (1996) A proposal for Waterway and Drainage Management in South West Victoria, The Curdies, Hopkins, Portland Coast & Glenelg River Basins, SWW&DMSSC 76 Oddie, N. (SRW) (1996) Draft Hopkins Waterways Management Works Plan, SRW, Maffra 77 Oddie, N. (SRW) (1996) Draft Hopkins Waterways Management Works Plan, SRW, Maffra 78 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 79 GHCMA (2000) Draft Report Merri River Restoration Plan, ID&A Pty Ltd, Melbourne 80 Oddie, N. (SRW) (1996) Draft Hopkins Waterways Management Works Plan, SRW, Maffra 81 GHCMA (2000) Draft Report Merri River Restoration Plan, ID&A Pty Ltd, Melbourne 82 GHCMA (2000) Draft Report Merri River Restoration Plan, ID&A Pty Ltd, Melbourne 83 GHCMA (2000) Draft Report Merri River Restoration Plan, ID&A Pty Ltd, Melbourne 84 GHCMA (2000) Draft Report Merri River Restoration Plan, ID&A Pty Ltd, Melbourne 85 GHCMA (2000) Draft Report Merri River Restoration Plan, ID&A Pty Ltd, Melbourne 86 GHCMA (2000) Draft Report Merri River Restoration Plan, ID&A Pty Ltd, Melbourne 87 ANRA (2002) Water – Water Resources – Glenelg River, Hopkins River & Portland Coast www.nlwra.gov.au/atlas 88 Mitchell, et al, An Ecological and Environmental Flow Study of the Glenelg River from Casterton to Rocklands Reservoir, 1996 89 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 90 Mitchell, B., Rutherford, I., Constable, A., Stagnitti, F. & Merrick, C. (1996) An Ecological and Environmental Flow Study of the Glenelg River from Casterton to Rocklands Reservoir, Aquatic Resourse Utilization & Management Research Group, Deakin University, Warrnambool 91 ANRA (2002) Water – Water Resources – Glenelg River, Hopkins River & Portland Coast www.nlwra.gov.au/atlas 92 Mitchell et al (1996) An Ecological and Environmental Flow Study of the Glenelg River from Casterton to Rocklands Reservoir, ARU&MRG, Deakin University, Warrnambool 93 Mitchell et al (1996) An Ecological and Environmental Flow Study of the Glenelg River from Casterton to Rocklands Reservoir, ARU&MRG, Deakin University, Warrnambool 94 Mitchell et al (1996) An Ecological and Environmental Flow Study of the Glenelg River from Casterton to Rocklands Reservoir, ARU&MRG, Deakin University, Warrnambool 95 Mitchell et al (1996) An Ecological and Environmental Flow Study of the Glenelg River from Casterton to Rocklands Reservoir, ARU&MRG, Deakin University, Warrnambool 96 Mitchell et al (1996) An Ecological and Environmental Flow Study of the Glenelg River from Casterton to Rocklands Reservoir, ARU&MRG, Deakin University, Warrnambool 97 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 98 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 99 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 100 Oddie, N. (SRW) (1996) Draft Hopkins Waterways Management Works Plan, SRW, Maffra 101 Mitchell et al (1996) An Ecological and Environmental Flow Study of the Glenelg River from Casterton to Rocklands Reservoir, ARU&MRG, Deakin University, Warrnambool 102 ANRA (2002) Water – Water Resources – Glenelg River, Hopkins River & Portland Coast www.nlwra.gov.au/atlas 103 Mitchell et al (1996) An Ecological and Environmental Flow Study of the Glenelg River from Casterton to Rocklands Reservoir, ARU&MRG, Deakin University, Warrnambool 104 ANRA (2002) Water – Water Resources – Glenelg River, Hopkins River & Portland Coast www.nlwra.gov.au/atlas 105 ANRA (2002) Water – Water Resources – Glenelg River, Hopkins River & Portland Coast www.nlwra.gov.au/atlas

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(2000) Environmental Monitoring in the Glenelg Hopkins Region with reference to Salinity in Wetlands and Remnant Vegetation sites, DNRE, East Melbourne 211 Dixon, P.R. (2000) Environmental Monitoring in the Glenelg Hopkins Region with reference to Salinity in Wetlands and Remnant Vegetation sites, DNRE, East Melbourne 212 Dixon, P.R. (2000) Environmental Monitoring in the Glenelg Hopkins Region with reference to Salinity in Wetlands and Remnant Vegetation sites, DNRE, East Melbourne 213 Parks Vic. (2000) State of the Parks 2000 (Park Profiles), Parks Vic, Melbourne 214 Dixon, P.R. (2000) Environmental Monitoring in the Glenelg Hopkins Region with reference to Salinity in Wetlands and Remnant Vegetation sites, DNRE, East Melbourne 215 GHCMA (1999) Draft Regional Waterways Management Strategy, GHCMA, Hamilton 216 Glenelg Salinity Forum (1993) Salt Assault! The Glenelg Region Salinity Strategy, Glenelg Salinity Forum, Hamilton 217 Glenelg Salinity Forum (1993) Salt Assault! 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