Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 1
DORISEA WORKING PAPER ISSUE 18, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 tSUDA kOjI SYSTEMATIZING ‘CHINESE RELIGION’ thE ChAllENgES Of ‘thREE-tEAChINg’ ORgANIzAtIONS IN CONtEmPORARy INDONESIA 18
DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 18, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 DORISEA WORkINg PAPER SERIES
EDITORS Peter J. Bräunlein Michael Dickhardt Andrea Lauser
BmBf Competence Network “Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia” (DORISEA)
The research network “Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia” (DORISEA) is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) and coordinated by the Department of Social and Cultural Anthropology at the Georg-August-University of Göttingen. Scholars from the Universities of Göttingen, Hamburg, Münster, Heidelberg and Berlin (Humboldt University) are involved in several projects that investigate the relationship between religion and modernity in Southeast Asia.
How to cite this paper: Tsuda Koji (2015): Systematizing ‘Chinese Religion’. The Challenges of ‘Three-teaching’ Organizations in Contemporary Indonesia. In: DORISEA Working Paper Series, No. 18.
Research Network DORISEA Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia
Project Ofice georg-August-University göttingen Institut für Ethnologie Berliner Str. 28 FUNDED BY D - 37073 göttingen germany +49 (0)551 39 20153 [email protected] www.dorisea.net Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 3
tSUDA kOjI SYSTEMATIZING ‘CHINESE RELIGION’. THE CHALLENGES OF ‘THREE-TEACHING’ ORGANIZATIONS IN CONTEMPORARY INDONESIA
ABSTRACT Since the fall of the Soeharto regime in 1998, socio-political conditions for ethnic Chinese in Indonesia have drastically improved, while the governmental supervision of religious institutions has been weakening. This article focuses on the relatively inconspicuous Agama Tionghoa)’ in Post- Soeharto Indonesia. In the early 20th becomeyet significant localized on-going both in changesa cultural regarding sense and Chinese in terms Religion of descent) intellectuals in the Dutch century, Peranakan Chinese Sam ethnic Kauw Chinese)’ in their who effort had
East )ndies discovered Confucianism and developed Three-teaching Tridharma’ in to seek for a spiritual pillar for Chinese . This move was stimulated by the Chinese nationalist Buddhism,movement, Confucianism and the Christianization and Taoism as of well ethnic as ancestral Chinese. worship Three-teaching , and folk religious or practices in Chinese)ndonesian, temples. was From conceptualized the mid-1960s as under a holistic the Soeharto Chinese regime, traditional however, religion the organizations encompassing holding up Tridharma functioned merely as protectors of Chinese temples, and carried out
few religious activities . )n the Post-Soeharto era, following the changes in the landscaperaison of d’etre Chinese by Religion establishing caused doctrines by, among and standardizing others, the re-acknowledgement ritual. In this article, of I offerConfucianism an overview as an ofofficially these historicalrecognized processes, religion, the before Tridharma reviewing organizations the recent havesubstantial started attemptsreasserting of theirreligious Majelis Agama Buddha Tridharma Indonesia Perhimpunan Tempat Ibadat Tri Dharma se- Indonesiasystematization), and the made latter’s by threebranch Tridharma in Central organizations;Java. Further, I analyze one in Westthe sources Java of religious knowledge drawn on to support , one these in systematizingEast Java efforts.
Keywords Chinese Chinese Religion , Tridharma Tri Dharma , post-Soeharto )ndonesia, the ethnic
I. INTRODUCTION ing and affecting the ethnic Chinese included their area of belief as well. Chinese New Year became a In May 1998, when the New Order regime in Indo- national holiday and Confucianism regained its sta- nesia collapsed after more than thirty years under President Soeharto, a sweeping review of oppres- sive policies targeting residents of Chinese origin tus as the sixth religion officially recognized by Agthe- state.ama Tionghoa These changes)’1. are bringing about significant commenced. In the process, laws banning public ex- shifts in the landscape within Chinese Religion pressions from here of culture on referred originating to as in the China ethnic were Chinese abol- 1 - ished. The tide of major political changes concern- )n this article, Chinese Religion refers to what are com DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 18,monly 2015, considered ISSN: 2196-6893 to be traditional religions of the ethnic Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 4
klen- er religious groups such as Balinese Hindus, who teng) had been prohibited from organizing activi- through a process of immense effort which contin- tiesDuring in public the under Soeharto the era,rationale Chinese that temples klenteng fell tata budaya asing - ued more than five decades, worked to reconcile- into the categorykepribadian of alienIndonesia cultural)’2 systems otheistictheir faith God, with a theprophet, state s a modelscripture, of religion .and a house That 389-390). Today unsuitablehowever, some for Chinese )ndonesia s temples indi is, to be officially recognized as a religion , a mon vidualityare even conducting regular Mandarin Tsuda Chinese b, lan- 2004). These changes accelerated under the Soe- guage classes on their premises. This is part of a hartoof worship regime, were during critical which requirements the state philosophy Ramstedt wider transformation that has become noticeable Pancasila was absolutized as an ideology oppos- in local communities in many parts of the country, ing communism. Moreover, the Soeharto regime - nese temples that had been gravely impaired during withthe Soeharto a shift toward era, that re- assigning of working asa function cultural tohubs Chi added a series of policies to makehal-hal things berbau Chinese for their respective ethnic Chinese communities Cina anything’) invisible relating in public to China places, or which the itethnic legitimized Chinese; if asdescribed in the interestsnegatively of insecurity. )ndonesian, The invisiblization Another function provided by Chinese temples, Tsuda b, - . to mobilize the economic strength of the ethnic Chi- a place for worship. On temple premises, people neseprocess while was carefully intensified avoiding when inviting the regime the jealousylater tried areperhaps raising traditionally incense sticks, more holding significant, palms is togeth- that of er in prayer, and burning joss paper to worship This severely oppressive framework came to an end well-known deities in the Chinese pantheon. At of indigenous people Tsuda , - ; b . Chinese’ started to become not only politically but alsoat the socially turn of increasingly the twenty-first accepted. century, In whenaddition, things the generationfirst glance, to thesegeneration ordinary among sights Chinese evoke people, a sense - transcendingof tradition , theof boundariesritual practices of time passed and geogra-down fromligions’ under centralized control4 . phy. However, this realm, though commonly un- stateWith has thesebecome changes, increasingly people unwilling are today to freerkeep reto publicly express views associated with ethnicity or religion. Accompanying this, spearheaded by derstood as the religion of the ethnic Chinese , has by no means maintained a traditional existence.- tableRather, change adapting occurred to social at the andturn politicalof the twentieth conditions, establishthe religious doctrines organizations and standardize in the ritualsrealm ofwhich Chinese centuryit has undergone under the significantcolonial structure changes. of Thethe Dutchmost nohaveReligion , hitherto a sudden governed rise and of protected movements Chinese are tem-aiming to East Indies, when Peranakan Chinese intellectuals ples. In previous articles I have described the situ- sought and quite consciously advocated the concept ation at Chinese temples across Java today, as well as a set of issues individual temples are facing in 3 . of aAnother distinct distinct Chinese tide Religion of change as a developed spiritual pillarwhen instead focus on religious organizations5 and pro- thefor thethen modernization new nation-state of Chinese promoted people the concept localvide acontexts concrete Tsuda description b . of the)n systematizationthis article, ) will agama)’ which was modeled on mon- otheistic Islam and Christianity. This change was promptedof religion by the same factors experienced by oth- of Chinese Religion as it is currently developing— in their attempts to establish both correct doctrinal socio-politicalinterpretation changes. orthodoxy and correct ritualistic Chinese’. As conveyed in this article, this term in no way im- practice orthopraxy —within the context of these plies a traditionality in the sense of a religion of an older time having been preserved in its original form. 2 See the instruction of the Minister of Home Affairs issued Instruksi Menteri Dalam Negeri Nomor: 455.2-360 4 This of course does not mean religious activities are com- tahun 1988 tentang Penataan Klenteng) that stipulated the pletely devoid of surveillance; strict action continues to be Chinesein elements observed in Chinese temples had to be
kepribadian Indonesia)’. taken against any activity which presents a risk to security rejected3 In this process, as being they unsuitable rethink and for reshape )ndonesia s the nature individuality and strugglingand order . to Further, obtain building events suchpermits, as attacksdemonstrate against an aerup- group meanings of beliefs and rituals which until that point had tionviewed of religious as heretic issues. Muslims, These andissues some have Christian to some churchesextent been simply passed down with little conscious inquiry. To been released from the state’s grip into the social sphere, some extent, this movement shared common ground with a - in mainland China and elsewhere. This movement was a re- where5 The organizationsthey manifest examinedin tensions in amongthis article sects are or limitedneighbor change in the domain of religion that was taking place both ingto those residents in Java, (asan Indonesia’s . political, economic and social the West, i.e. Christian society. In this sense, the concept of center. This is because though organizations governing sult of coming face to face with the modernity embodied by Chinese temples in many parts of Indonesia do have some th - - ara religion 2008, was—as54-64; Yang was 2008). the concept of Chinese people as a ties have always been centered in Java. group—a new discovery at the turn of the century Du branches in the Outer )slands , the headquarters and activi DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 18, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 5
II. THE HISTORY OF ‘CHINESE RELIGION’ Westerners or Western literature8, and had arrived
1. The Early Twentieth Century: Kwee Tek Hoay and concept.at the concept of Tridharma while attempting to Sam Kauw Hwee recaptureSoon after Chinese the establishment Religion as of aSam more Kauw inclusive Hwee, branches were established across Java and in ma- The majority of Chinese temples in Java seem to jor cities on other Islands. Sam Kauw Hwee followed have been constructed or renovated at the turn preceding groups which sought the establishment
They were generally maintained and managed by organization that would be more open to the mass- theirof the respective nineteenth local century ethnic Chinese Salmon communities, and Siu . esof 9 Chinese Religion , though it was conceived10, by theas an in other words, temples were not connected to cen- end of the 1930s Kwee himself had come to view tralized religious organizations6. During the early Tridharma. Regarding as Christianityconstructing as one threatening religious system twentieth century, however, a movement emerged - to search for a religion that could serve as a spiritual garded as the equivalent of churches. As such, fur- Reesther activities , - .aimed to The change Chinese the role temples of the tem-were re From the late nineteenth century to 1920s, ple from being a place of customary worship only, to pillar for the ethnic Chinese—a Chinese Religion . being a place of preaching which would deepen the of modernizing ethnic Chinese society, and later as asome conservative groups—at backlash first tofor the the waves progressive of moderni- purpose - yamuni,understanding Confucius, of theand newlyLao-tze. focused philosophy Confucius as a spiritual pillar for their respective of ChineseIn part dueReligion , to the namely chaos theduring teachings the period of Shak of zation and westernization—used the teachings of Independence, Sam Kauw Hwee experienced a tem- 郭德懐, 1886-1951), who was also known as an porarily standstill of activities. In 1952, six months ideasexpert Coppel in Peranakan . literature, Against wasthis, criticalKwee Tekof how (oay after Kwee’s death, its branches were combined to those who promoted modernization or assigned the form Gabungan Sam Kauw Indonesia 三教聯合會, teachings of Confucius an exclusive position, gener- GSKI). In 1963, the formal name was changed to ally rejecting ancestor and deity worship as being Gabungan old-fashioned. He was also concerned that they Tridharma Indonesia, GTI). With its headquarters in had failed to gain broad support among the ethnic Jakarta,the )ndonesia it expanded Tridharma its base, Associationprimarily in West Java Chinese society, while conversely failing to become an effective pillar to push back the tide of Christian conversion. In 1934, he established a different or- Tsuda b, - . ganization known as Sam Kauw Hwee 三教會) or 2. The Soeharto Era: PTITD
Tridharma)’ is a term that con- ceptualizesthe Three-teaching the religious Society traditions Rees , of Buddhism, , - . caused by the 30 September Movement, Soeharto Confucianism, Three-teaching and Taoism, ingrained deeply among )n , in the process of resolving the chaos the people of China, which are well-blended and es- 8 Though exact details from where Kwee drew the knowl- sentially inseparable. Needless to say, the concept edge concerning Chinese philosophies are unclear, he is a presence in Chinese philosophy for centuries. But 林語堂 Kweeof Three-teaching himself, who wasor similarsaid to haveconceptions had hardly had any had wellknown as the to activities have been of Batavia influenced Buddhist by Association the works and of the J.J.M. de Groot - , Lin Yu Tang , - , as Chinese reading ability, had clearly been exposed 9 to the tradition of Chinese thought through either Theosophical Society Rees , ; , - , . comprising Kwee is thoughtthe teachings to have of Shakyamuni, understood Confucius, Chinese Religion and Lao- as comprising two levels: the higher one—the philosophy 6 There are isolated examples of several Chinese temples in - the easternmost region of Java. It has been suggested that gion’tze—which centering was around for those deity who and had ancestor achieved worship. a heightened Initially hedegree is said of to spiritual have had awareness—and a negative view theof the lower latter, one— reli from the 分香火 standpoint of modernization. However he eventually came to 2000).they were Nevertheless, built with suchthe ritual cases of of division historical of relationshipsincense and fire think that worship falling into the latter category should not among Chinese from templesa single that main remain temple or are Salmon remembered and Sidharta to- be rashly rejected, as it may be used as a means for raising day are extremely rare. Such exceptions include Tay Kak Sie 大覺寺) and Sam Poo Kong Bio 三保 廟) in Semarang, Cen- tral Java. the consciousness of those who remain in the latter lower level,10 In the to thatearly of twentieth the former century, higher Christianity level Rees was , strongly - , words. As detailed later, the organization that followed in the tied - . to the Dutch colonists, and conversion to it was conse- line Tridharma of Sam Kauw is sometimes Hwee, and which spelled would as Tri go Dharma ,on to expand in two its quently interpreted as a loss of ethnic identity. However in - the 1930s, missionaries and churches exclusively serving the size the oneness of the three religious elements, while the ethnic Chinese began to appear, and the resistance towards organizationbase in West Javathat employeddeveloped Tridharma later on in inEast order Java to has empha used conversion among the ethnic Chinese began to generally de-
Tri Dharma . DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 18,cline 2015, Rees ISSN: , 2196-6893 - , , - . Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 6 seized power. Standing precisely at the intersection ritual, or leading integrated activities bringing its 14. This situation frus- - trated members in West Java who had a history of of policies on religion and things Chinese , Chinese workingaffiliated toward temples systematization together with the hope to protecttemples the in existence general faced of Chinese a difficult temples, situation a different dur - ing the regime, which finally collapsed in . To ly led to the simultaneous secessions of all branches emerged in East Java. The All Indonesia Association inestablish Jakarta aand Chinese West Java Religion . Provinces This from frustration Martrisia final in group espousing the concept of Three-teaching Perhimpunan Tempat Ibadat Tri Dharma se-Indonesia, abbreviat- again as the Tridharma Buddhist Council of Indo- of Tri Dharma Worship Sanctuaries 11. It . )nMajelis , Agama these branches Buddha Tridharma came together Indonesia once , 王基財). The PTITD - edshared as PT)TD basic characteristicswas founded in with Surabaya West inJava’s GTI, nesia upholdingwas headed the by three Ong Kiereligious Tjay elements while pro- from hereon referred to as the Majelis Tridhar - organizationsma , headquartered coexist, in oneJakarta representing Satyadharma East , Java and - . the This other remains West Java. so, After with the two pressure Three-teaching from the characteristicmoting its identity as a self-protective as a sect of umbrellaBuddhism, organi- an offi - zation;cially recognized it declared religion .Chinese temples PT)TD hadto be a legitimate prominent moved, led by some leaders of these organizations, movementsstate targeting have things been Chinese developing and religion for the was estab- re leadership. lishment of doctrine and standardization of ritual. religious facilities, while federating them under its- od of stability and the state’s control and monitor- such movements toward religious systematization, )n , as the Soeharto regime entered a peri focusing)n the next on eachchapter, organization. ) will present specific details of ing of Chinese temples was further intensified, the named Three-teaching Majelis Rohaniwan organizations Tridharma in East Seluruh and West In- donesiaJava were integrated to form a unified organization III. ESTABLISHING DOCTRINE, STANDARDIZING wadah tunggal)’ rep- RITUAL resenting Martrisia . the interests The of Chinese organization temples took across on the functionIndonesia. of Needless a sole tocontainer say, this merger conformed of the Soeharto regime a demand was placed on all 1. In the Footsteps of Kwee Tek Hoay: Majelis Buddhistto the late organizations s trend, whenin Indonesia under theto leadershiporganize Tridharma 12. At the same time, the Majelis Tridharma, which was formed almost con- underChinese a templesunified toframework somehow maintain their exist- currently with the collapse of the Soeharto regime, ence.merger was also a result of efforts to find a way for is a direct descendant of Kwee Tek Hoay’s Sam Martrisia, which was headquartered in Surabaya Kauw Hwee15. A leader of the organization explains and run by a few board members, primarily from that it seceded from Martrisia because it lacked Surabaya13, focused its activities on persuading keimanan - government agencies and the Indonesian society content that the organization’s efforts to establish a pillar for belief belief . had effectively)n other words,been disregarded they were16 . dis that Tri Dharma be acknowledged as an officially- 14 cilities’.approved As religion,a result, andit organized that Chinese few activities temples typ-or Tri Dharma Worship Sanctuaries were its religious fa ically associated with religious orders, such as the 三教聖人 (owever,, Tri many Nabi )’, of i.e. the Shakyamuni, Chinese temples Confucius, proclaiming and Lao-tze Tri establishment of doctrine, the standardization of Dharma have additional alters enshrining the Three Saints
order. Tsuda b, . )n that aspect, one could conclude that 11 The organization was initially formed as an association of Martrisia15 has in fact maintained its appearance as a unified- ing with PTITD in Surabaya, GTI, the direct successor of Sam included in its name until late 1968. Kauw At its Hwee general, had conference passed a resolution held in to recognizeshortly before Kwee merg Tek East12 As Javaa part Province s of its policy Chinese to maintain temples. control All )ndonesia over religions, was not Bapak Tridhar- - ma Indonesia)’ in order to honor his contributions to Indone- ment toward the establishment of a coordinating and consul- (oay as the Father of )ndonesia s Tridharma from around the Soeharto regime endorsed the move in the resolution was the decision to celebrate his birthday Perwalian Umat Buddha Indonesia) was formed. onsian July Buddhism—and 31st in particularHari Tridharma. Tridharma Also)’. includedGTI also Sincetative thebody time among of WALUBI’s the various inception, Buddhist Martrisia sects, and has in been a memberWALUB) organization. to display a photograph as Tridharma of Kwee Day within their facilities as an 13 Martrisia, formed as a result of the merger of East and required the administration boards of its affiliated temples West Java’s priests’ departments, was essentially the same 16 This account is based on an interview conducted on August entity as PTITD; the organization sometimes called itself expressionth of due reverence Ruslim , - . PTITD-Martrisia’ when communicating externally with gov- - ernment authorities. tion, of , its charter. with Budiyono The ensuing Tantrayoga. disruption )n , led to WALUB) its dissolu- cf. Footnote fell into internal conflict regarding the formula DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 18, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 7
How, then, is this organization now attempting to Sui/ Cui/ Che/ Ti/ No intoxicants keimanan’? Air) Kebijaksanaan) Tidak Memabuk- Water Wisdom kan) implement - Tu/ To/ Xin/ Sin/ No false speech Tanah) Dapat Dipercaya) Tidak Berdusta) A noteworthy article entitled Tridharma. The author, as a Earth Fidelity unified body of teachings was published Panditain a bro chureUtama ) for of TridharmaMajelis Tridharma Day in until 2010, begins Budiyono links the components in each of the theBudiyono article by Tantrayoga, expressing the a sense Premier of crisis. Priest He states three teachings to their equivalents by equal signs - - zation’, the substance of values warranting protec- ponents of the third row in the table are shown as thattion arein this being age lost, of and modernization that people areand being computeri drawn = . For example, the connection between the com to the idea of being Buddhist more than that of the Tridharma. According to Budiyono, Buddhism is one who enjoys sexual misconduct = one without- just one element of the Tridharma. However, people propriety i.e. one who lacks ethics = a lack of fire . are now tending to become devoted believers not Tridharma,(e argues which that thisapparently correlatedness point to a single of each truth’. ele of the Tridharma but only of Buddhism. He insists Hement concludes exemplifies by saying the consistency it is not advisable in Five that within one ke-Tridharma-an leans only on an understanding of Buddhism, but in which the three teachings mutually complement that rather one should practice the mental training that Tridharma-ness hakekat —a state of Taoism, the propriety of Confucianism, and the must be established and adhered to as a policy. In discipline of Buddhism on a daily basis. theeach latter other half and of comprisethe article, one he truthexplains that —the To debate the religious validity of the doctrine essential elements, which in each teaching provide Sam Kauw It Lee 三教一理)’ is not my purpose a method for reaching a state of understanding here. What is remarkable, however, is the extraordi- and mastery of the complete truth, share common ofnary effort made by the organization’s top person frameworks and meanings. He presents the table below to demonstrate the correlation among the three teachings. Buddhistto establish teaching. the Three-teaching The fact the article as a hadsingle original- unified ly religion been prepared without asleaning an educational disproportionately piece to teach on the a Consistency in ‘Five’ (Padanan Yang Lima) younger audience about the essence of Tridharma may also be important18. Although religious knowl- Taoism Confucianism Buddhism edge relating to Tridharma has conventionally ei- Five Phrases Five Virtues Five Precepts ther been obtained through self-study or passed down through informal mentoring relationships, Panca Bhuta/ Panca Utama/ Panca Sila/ Lima Majelis Tridharma currently runs a training insti- Lima Elemen/ Ngo Lima Utama/ Ngo Sila/ Ngo Kai) Heng ) Siang ) tute for clergy in Cipinang, a suburb of Jakarta. Now that the institutionalization of the method to trans- Mu/ Bok/ Benevolence Tidak Kayu) Ren/ Jin/ Cinta Membunuh) fer such knowledge, as well as the systemization of Wood Kasih) No killing that knowledge itself, is in process, there is a clear Cin/ Kim/ I/ Tidak sign that those who are trained formally will imple- Logam) Yi/ Kebenaran) Mencuri) ment rituals and preach Tridharma in Chinese tem- Metal Righteousness No stealing ples across West Java19. Huo/ Hwe/ Li/ No sexual mis- Api) Lee/ Susila) Tidak Fire Propriety Berjinah) conduct 18 In the preface, it states that the article was originally writ-
of Tridharma Sunday Schools and Schools of Youth on Edu- cationalten to be Improvement’, presented at theheld time in Decemberof the Forum 2008 for in Educators Banten. tion at the hands of some members of the leadership in 1998, Note that the Great Priest Sasanaputera Satyadharma, who I followed by the establishment of a separate new organization Sam Kauw It Li’ Perwakilan Umat Buddha Indonesia), though its abbreviated - name remained the same. In 1999 several Buddhist organ- introducetion I cited later in this in articlethis article, pertaining also discusses to the correlation among izations who were against this new WALUBI came together Satyadharmathe three teachings , cannot - . necessarily Therefore bethe assumed style of explanato be an Konferen- original creation by Budiyono. Note additionally that accord- si Agung Sangha Indonesia, abbreviated as KASI). It was in ing to Budiyono, since scriptures already exist for each of the thisto form situation the )ndonesian that the PTITD-Martrisia Great Sangha Conferenceremained within the teachings of Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, Majelis framework of the new WALUBI, while Majelis Tridharma Tridharmal has no plans to create a new scripture of its own - by recompiling the three. In regards to rituals, he states that ganization was thus complexly intertwined with political and they are being implemented in accordance with each of the personaljoined KAS). elements, The breakupand should of notthe be unified understood Three-teaching simply as a or teachings, and that the rituals existed in a well-blended and result of frustration toward its religious activities. mutually inseparable state even before the time of Kwee Tek Tridharma sebagai Satu Kesatuan (Sam Hoay. Kauw It Lee/ Tridharma Eka Marga 19 This account is based on an interview conducted on August Tridharma The original 2009, title n.pag.). is th Panitia Peringatan (ari DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 18, 2015,, ISSN: at Budiyono 2196-6893 Tantrayoga s office. Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 8
2. As a ‘Decent’ Religious Order: PTITD chronological order, with side-by-side descriptions Headquarters in Chinese characters, pingyin, phonetic transcrip- tions to aid Indonesian readers, and the Indonesian Facing the secession and the vigorous movement of translations for these. The last pages of instruction manual list items for each ritual which are to be of- fered at the main altar installed for the respective the West Java s members Majelis Tridharma who ritual, along with a layout diagram. This ritual in- arePTITD-Martrisia intently seeking, from to establishhereon referred Tridharma-ness , to as the struction manual, however, is not necessarily im- how is the unified organization based in East Java plemented uniformly at all PTITD-member Chinese perform much religious activities, responding? The - PTITD PT)TD headquarters, headquarters , which which in the in Soeharto the past era did oc- not - temples. Rather, each Chinese temple also has spe ing Chinese temples, seems yet to have found a way introducecific ways the of performingcase of Chinese rituals temples which in have the town been outcupied of its the state position of stagnation. as a sole container represent passed down. To illustrate this point, ) will briefly Of course, efforts have been made. In November research for many years22. 2006, a national conference was convened in Sura- of Rembang, Central Java,* where ) have conducted baya. At the three-day conference, board member temples, Tjoe Hwie Kiong 慈惠宮) and Hok Tik Bio)n福徳廟 the town). Both of Rembang have been there managed are two under Chinese one wereappointments presented were in orderrenewed to refashionfor the first the timeorgani- since , and five-year targets for activity programs order20 byfoundation a man named since Cheng TsudaShu Hong, , who Part would . read)n the zation s image to one suitable for decent religious- s, rituals at these templesSurat wereDoa/ handledCee Boen solely) in Panitia Munas dan Kongres . These Hokkien while the rituals were performed. When five-year plans were organized into major catego outCheng the died prayer in the sentences 1980s, however, the prayer sen- ries including organization and members, tences could no longer be reenacted, as no one partneringreligion and21. The religious second art, category economics, clearly reveals welfare else had understood the meanings of the words in theand intent education for religious of believers, systematization. and internationalIn fact, al- the prayer sentences. Tan Ging Hwat, who at the most half an A4-size booklet distributed to partici- time was in charge of a secretariat at the founda- pants at the conference was devoted to a forty-page tion, freely created new prayer sentences in Indo- nesian to replace the prayer sentences in Hokkien. 儀式唱礼) includes four cate- From that point on, during rituals at both temples, instruction manual for Tri Dharma style rituals. these prayer sentences in Indonesian have been This ritual manual - gories, Ritual for Worshipping Deities , Ritual for continues today23. Cheng and his wife had also been Board Appointments before Deities , Marriage Cer- displayedin charge ofat preparing the altar all and the readfood offeringsout. This placed tradition emony , and Funeral Ceremony . The words執事 to , be on the altar. After his death, Hian Khing, his assis- chanted—allPetugas Upacara uniformly in Mandarin—by 主祭 the per, tant, took over as his successor. However, as Hian sonsPimpinan taking Upacara on the)’ arerole prescribed, of the Ritual as well Official as rites Khing reached old age, the concern emerged that to be performed during and the each Ritual ceremony. Director These rites all knowledge concerning offerings would be lost24. well as incense and tea offerings to be carried out in 22 - include the three kneelings and nine kowtows , as below Although would Rembang s highlight howChinese the knowledgetemples have concerning not been ritualaffili 20 It is worth noting that the decision to hold the conference practicesated with hasPT)TD been Tsuda maintained , at - , each temple. the case described was somewhat hastily made, due to the fact that leadership 23 爐主, Locu) at Tjoe Hwie Kiong is new- in Surabaya was prompted by a sense of urgency upon fac- ly elected using divination blocks every year at the time of ing the movement of the newly formed Majelis Tridharma as the The birthday Pot Master festival of the goddess Tian Shang Sheng Mu. well as the development of Confucianist and Taoist organiza- In the past, prayer sentences in Hokkien were read before tions which had been vigorously engaging in activities since the throwing of divination blocks. Cheng’s son remembered these prayer sentences, but only the sound of the words re- - mained in his memory which had become vague. However gramsthe start had of not the been s thoroughly Tsuda b,prepared, - . and as it (ence, turns out the recently, upon hearing that Mandarin prayer sentences for mostcategories of them that have were not declared been realized as five-year at present. key activity pro the ritual of throwing of divination blocks are still remem- 21 bered in Semarang, the capital city of Central Java, a member 19 concrete subcategories are listed in total, including: cre- ating While Tri inDharma the second guidance category documents, religion books and religious of sermons, art , that version against what Cheng’s son remembered, which and ritual manuals; promoting relationships among believ- wasof the found temple s to have management been extremely — Liong accurate. Kiam Kiat As a — result, compared since ers through mutual visitations between Chinese temples; 2009, prayer sentences in Hokkien have been reinstated at and the implementation of regular worship services, the last Tjoe Hwie Kiong solely for the election of Pot Masters. This account is based on an interview with Liong Kiam Kiat at his home on August 12th, 2011. wecategory will open international up international partnering relationships includes pertaining no description to the 24 religiosityother than of a Trisimple Dharma’. statement: )n this age of globalization, on a major status change, a substantial reorganization of the When in the Chinese temples of Rembang decided DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 18, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 9
As such, around 2000, Liong Kiam Kiat, who at the 28, and have Locu) been constantly changing. at Tjoe Hwie Kiong, took notes on the types and po- paranormals knowledge* about rituals timesitional had arrangements just taken the of role the of offerings the Pot Master as Hian Kh- ing had told him. Liong Kiam Kiat then compiled being made to pass down ritual procedures in the communityAs is the surrounding case in Rembang, Chinese where temples, efforts there are seems to be less tendency to follow swiftly stand- n.d.). The listAt present, of Altarages the person at Tjoe who (wie actually Kiong positions and (ok ardized ritual procedures and methods that are Tik Bio, Rembang Yayasan Dwi Kumala Rembang introduced by PTITD headquarters or any other rituals. This is neither a hereditary nor lifetime po- organizations. At the same time, however, many the offerings is the foundation s officer in charge of- ments. The set up of the altar has been conducted in a situation where there is nobody left with con- sition, the officer can change along with reappoint creteChinese knowledge temples of are ritual currently procedures, finding or where themselves the 200125. people who are responsible for rituals have reached in line with The List of Altarages as a guide since old age. As such, people have a strong sense of un- passed down in communities are, however, in no certainty about the continuity of ritual practice at Traditions such as these which have been - concerning rituals was successfully passed down lyway expresses static in itself nature. in not-so-unusualA constant sense changes. of a lackFor ofwithintheir temples. the community )n the casewith itsof newly-createdRembang, knowledge Indo- example,confidence concerning about the the knowledgeofferings for itself the annual indirect ritual held on the 9th but such cases are by no means the norm29. I hypoth- 敬天 , King Thie Kong - nesianesize that prayer there sentences is a considerable and The number List of ofAltarages , Chinese ed. However, one day day in 2001of the Liong, Chinese the New very Year per- temples where they want reliable knowhow on how , a tradition already exist to perform ritual activities. If this is the case, the 26, which day may not be far when ritual instruction manuals belongedson who hadto his compiled acquaintance The List in oftown. Altarages , A particu- came provided by an umbrella organization will exert a across an old bookletbie-koo, titled King gunungan Thi Kong wajik) was described in this booklet as a mandatory offering forlar typethe occasion, of rice cakebut it had not been included in powerful influence. 3. A New Interpretation of ‘Tri Dharma’: PTITD was added to the altar at both temples, to be in ac- Central Java Branch Rembang s tradition . From that point on, this cake. While the PTITD headquarters in Surabaya has not cordancehave been withpassed this down older in andindividual correct Chinese guideline tem- managed to fully exercise its organizational leader- plesAs can and be their observed surrounding from this communities. example, traditions However, PTITD Komda Jateng) has begun to walk an independent path. - ship,Central the PT)TD Java isCentral another Java region branch with a large num- due to the general lack of a firm base upon which - those seeking ritual knowledge can rely on, the tra iates of the Central Java branch of PTITD30. During ditions themselves have been subject to influences. theber ofSoeharto Chinese era, temples, there and were many not ofmany them activities are affil These influences include various interpretations, seemingly authoritative literature, and learned persons including even those commonly termed 28 With the majority of ethnic Chinese being without interest - in knowledge pertaining to rituals, the fact that the continu- managementa coincidence organization that the period the when foundation knowledge was implementconcerning researchers’ such as Liong, is a point which cannot be over- ritualsed at the belonged same time solely Tsuda to one : elderly Part . individual )t is highly became unlikely a looked.ity of rituals are being maintained by highly dedicated lay consciously perceived problem overlapped with the period 29 It should be noted that, broadly speaking, the actual details when the role-sharing arrangements within the organization of rituals do not differ drastically among individual temples. were reconsidered. - 25 This account is based on an interview with the current bang may appear to be peculiar when compared with the )n this light, the use of )ndonesian prayer sentences in Rem August 11th, 2011. a remarkably similar case in Lasem, the town adjacent to officer26 This isin a chargesmall booklet, of rituals 26 pagesat both in totaltemples including in Rembang, adver- on great tradition that is usually expected. (owever, ) observed tisements, and the original title is as follows; Lie Ping Lien. responses concerning prayer sentences, not only at Chinese 1950. Tentang Sembahjang Tuhan Allah (King Thi Kong), Se- Rembang. )t is possible that there may have been similar marang: Khong Kauw Hwee Semarang. The fact that this type other parts of the country as well, due to background factors of expository booklet had been circulated in large numbers temples in Rembang s surrounding areas but also in areas in since early in the twentieth century suggests not only a thirst issue of language ability within communities. for knowledge pertaining to religion and tradition, but also such30 In contrast as social to pressure East Java against where things Chinese Chinese , temples as nearlywell as uni- the formly belong to PTITD, several Chinese temples in Central seen broadly across the ethnic Chinese society. that This the account lack of is basedconfidence on an interviewwas a phenomenon with Liong Kiamhistorically Kiat at his home on August 12th, 2011. 393).Java are affiliates of other organizations, such as Mahayana and Theravada Buddhist organizations Tsuda b, - DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 18, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 10 at this branch, which remained subordinate to the which is said to have been originally from Herman Surabaya headquarters and performed its main Jaya, received the consent of the Tri Dharma cler- role in providing a legal umbrella within the Central gy. It is now beginning to be formally espoused as Java administrative area. However, in the post-Soe- harto era, its activities have been greatly vitalized Central Java branch33. a newAs wedefinition have seen, of theeven Tri though Dharma the PTITDfrom the Central PT)TD who runs a car sales company in Magelang, took Java branch is subordinate to the Surabaya head- oversince theDavid role (erman of branch Jaya director. Liem OfWan particular King, - , note quarters, under its powerful leader it is not mere- ly an umbrella organization of Chinese temples. In Pandita) conducted by the Central Java branch fact, it appears to be engaged in an intense effort to is the certification of new Tri Dharma clergy - dation34. forin people June .who can This take ceremony a leading role was at occasions performed inestablish a religious order as a new common foun suchresponse as weddings, to the factfunerals, that sermons, there is lecturesa great and demand - 4. The Background of the Systematization of ‘Chinese book compiled specially for this occasion included Religion’ theseminars following: Martrisia rules that Komda clergy Jateng must ,comply . with, A text a manual for weddings and samples of sermons to be After the collapse of the Soeharto regime in 1998, given during the wedding ceremonies, a marriage the organizations which had served to protect Chi- 31, and matters to be nese temples lost their raison d’etre. They were then understood concerning birth and funerals. Prior to faced with the realization that they lacked the ap- certificate and its request form propriate formality as religious orders. On the one textbook was apparently provided as well32. hand, various organizations such as Confucianist the In certification 2009, a conference ceremony, was training held basedto bring on thisto- and Taoist organizations which previously had not gether the branch’s newly-appointed clergy. At the been able to engage in activities openly, were begin- conference, it was acknowledged that the Chinese ning to make their presence felt. In the case of Con- temples spread across Central Java each have their fucianism, its doctrine and ritual has already been own ways of performing ritual and praying to de- equipped with adequate formality through histo- ities, thereby making immediate standardization ry. Among the various Taoist denominations also, - some are beginning to acquire powerful models for al suggesting that agreement be reached, at mini- their references, for example by independently con- difficult. Despite that, (erman Jaya made aTian propos 天)’. This was not such a new concept. During the 2012b, 395-396). Within this context, in spite of mum,Soeharto that era prayer in particular, be to the it onehad andbeen only thoroughly god, havingnecting been with mainlandapproved Chinaas religious or Singapore organizations Tsuda enforced at Chinese temples, in accordance with the for many years and having Chinese temples under them across the country, both organizations up- - - beliefer proposal in the Oneintroduced and Only at God , the theconference first principle suggest- of Pancasila Tsuda , - . )nterestingly, anoth holdingMajelis the Tridharma Three-teaching in West are Java, also which facing takes the is pridesue of in their the fact inner that substance it has to a certaincoming extentinto question. pur- teachingsed that the of existingBuddhism, interpretation Confucianism of and Tri Taoism,Dharma , keimanan which had been clearly specified to mean the threeJi- waku, Hatiku, Dharmaku)’. With Confucianism being suedand has inner chosen substance to follow in and advance as a the Chinese path be changed to my soul, my heart, my dharma pioneeredReligion , has by Kweequickly Tek realized Hoay. this critical situation, of various Taoist sects suddenly became vitalized, The PTITD headquarters in East Java, which ex- whileofficially various re- recognized Buddhist organizations around , werethe activities already perienced the secession of West Java’s members, well-established. As such, an urgent need emerged has a little belatedly started searching for a way
33 to define a new Tri Dharma-ness in order to avoid This account is based on an interview with David Herman Jaya on July 31st the image of Tri Dharma as being an incomplete was educated in Protestant schools until secondary level. hotchpotch of these three religions . This proposal, Later, while working, , as at a hisboard business director office at a in Chinese Semarang. temple (e 31 Marriage in Indonesia today, as a general rule, is deemed in Magelang, he became actively involved in the activities of the PTITD Central Java branch. According to him, he arrived - at this new interpretation of Tri Dharma through a process official when the couple is blessed in the presence of a cleric that included reading independently and debating with fam- of theircivil registrationfaith, who then which submits the PTITD a certificate Central toJava a civilbranch, regis ily members and clergy. tration office. This is a public approval process in the domain 34 These initiatives of the PTITD Central Java branch have working to become involved in. not reached a point where the organization is intervening in as32 This an officiallyaccount isrecognized based on anreligious interview organization, with the secretary is actively every aspect of the religious practices of believers. According of the PTITD Central Java branch, conducted at the branch’s to Herman Jaya, the current aim of the branch is to focus on st, 2001. the aspect of instilling doctrine (ajaran). office on August DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 18, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 11 to respond to the situation, having been inspired ly. In this situation, religious organizations cannot by the success of other organizations that espouse help but be fully aware of the lack of the systematic- - ness, PTITD seems to be placing a particular focus lead to a pressure on the organizations themselves. Chinese Religion . )n order to preserve its cohesive ity ofOn inner another substance . level, a Thecommon lack of concern systematicity in Indone- can pertaining to ritual in Chinese temples. sia’s ethnic Chinese society today is that the young- on The providing PTITD specificCentral Java instructions branch is and attempting knowledge to er generation in particular are moving away from enhance its autonomy while avoiding being pulled faith surrounding Chinese temples36. These faiths apart by, and disappearing under, the forces of the are often perceived as old-fashioned and unattrac- - tive, and younger generations are increasingly turn- ing to other religions such as Christianity, which three separate religions by establishing a new in- are perceived as more sophisticated in both outer tions,terpretation which ofin what the sociopolitical Tri Dharma is.environment of form and inner substance . Despite the increased the )npost-Soeharto these ways, era the are Three-teaching experiencing increased organiza religious freedom in the post-Soeharto era, these freedom in their areas of activity, are now facing pressures have continued and evolved. mounting pressure to establish new raisons d’etre. This is needed both in terms of the formality of their religious organizations, and of systematicity of their - IV. SOURCES OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE creasing freedoms, the organisations’ raison d’etre seems inner substance to no longer as be a religious the state, order. but rather With these a pool in of 1. Intellectual Origins When considering the development of each or- ganizationcompeting towardorganizations the implementation of Chinese Religion . of an estab- In the post-Soeharto period, and coupled with fac- lished doctrine and a standardized ritual in respec- - tive ways, it is worth asking whether an explicitly ism and the upsurge of Taoist organizations, the tors such as the official recognition of Confucian for religious practice at Chinese temples. To make major shift. Under pressure to reorganize, organiza- thisformalized question inner easier substance to understand, is actually it may necessary be use- tionslandscape are rushing within toward Chinese systematization Religion is undergoing in order a ful to juxtapose the classical contrasting concepts to achieve further development while maintaining cohesiveness. More research is still needed to pres- religion’. If we hypothesize that in religious practice ent a comprehensive conclusion about the current atof Chinese founded temples revealed a greater religion emphasis and folkis placed natural on situation. As a preliminary study, however, a close ’folk religion’, it becomes clear that a search for a sol- look at the sources of religious knowledge for indi- id religious system is an enormous leap. Moreover, vidual organizations will reveal several character- the hypothesis reveals how the very conceptualiza- istics of the movement towards religious systema- tization. deliberatelytion of Three-teaching identifying showsa customary an attempt religious to explain sys- a) Majelis Tridharma the folk religion through founded religion . That is,- The lineage of the organization Kwee Tek Hoay ing derived from the three elements of Buddhism, founded, Sam Kauw Hwee, was passed down to Ma- temConfucianism that has longand Taoism,been embedded and then preachingin society their as be jelis Tridharma in West Java. After Kwee’s death, - Maha Pendeta) Sasanaputera Satyadharma38 played a central role in supporting yetoneness in the syncretization . very fact that they This are method making ofenormous explain the Great Priest ing the concept of Three-teaching is circuitous,- 36 Note the fact that the attempt by Majelis Tridharma to im- tion, one could see the historicity in the concept of plement ‘keimanan’ was made in the context of improving effort to further refine such a method of explana youth education. See Footnote 18. modernity and the unique socio-political context The trend toward Christianization among Indonesia’s eth- nic Chinese grew rapidly during the mid-1960s and beyond, of religion twentieth-century which has been Indonesia nurtured35. After by themore colonial than three decades of the Soeharto regime, the unique Protestantism. However, as mentioned previously, grave con- cernfirst inabout the Christian form of conversionconversion toamong Catholicism the ethnic and Chinese then to were established from a standpoint heavily biased had been continuously expressed by many, starting as early principles defining what religion should be , which as the beginning of the twentieth century, and particular- ly in the late 1930s when ethnic Chinese missionaries and thoroughly instilled both institutionally and social- churches began to emerge. This concern was especially ap- towards monotheistic founded religion , became parent in the discourse of Peranakan intellectuals about their
35 We can already see in Kwee Tek Hoay’s view of the 38 Born in 1930 in Bogor, his Chinese name was Thio Liang ethnicity and tradition Rees , - . - the approach of imparting meaning to customary religious izations entered into joint consultation he represented the practices Three-teaching , by philosophical described thought. in Footnote , in which he tookEk. )n when the East and West Three-teaching organ
DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 18,West 2015, and ISSN: subsequently 2196-6893 continued working within the unified Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 12 the ideological aspects of the organization until re- headquarters are not exempt from the pressing ne- cently. A noticeable characteristic in his writings cessity to establish doctrinal orthodoxy40. is the emphasis on Tridharma as a religion unique to Indonesia, which was born as a response to eth- c) PTITD Central Java Branch nic Chinese Buddhists’ successive conversions to As mentioned previously, the PTITD Central Java Christianity beginning in the late 19th century, as branch has launched a new interpretation of Tri well as the failure of the movement in the early 20th Dharma. Aside from that, the branch has recently century to turn the teachings of Confucius into the published a series of books compiling more con- crete knowledge covering various topics, includ- ing both its doctrine and practice guidelines. One Chinese Religion 呂洞賓 Satyadharma , .王重陽 (e then), example is the book Get to know Chinese Customs lists several李純甫 major figures in Chinese朱熹), history,who would such and Teachings (Berkenalan dengan Adat dan Ajaran normallyas L“ Dongbin be mentioned , whenWang discussingChongyang the philo- Tionghoa), published in 2011. The 300-page plus Li Chunfu , and Zhu Xi - book provides an overview of Tri Dharma and each of the three teachings, followed by explanations sophicalare any concrete roots of Three-teaching genealogical connections outside of between )ndone on the meaning of traditional festivals, methods of sia Satyadharma , . (owever, whether there- prayer, detailed descriptions and commentary on ma is largely unclear. Indeed, Majelis Tridharma is various folk-cultural symbols such as the dragon or showingthe philosophy no signs of these of moving figures toward and Majelis partnerships Tridhar 卦) and ends with brief guide- with overseas organizations in China or elsewhere, lines for practicing self-discipline as good Tri Dhar- nor of any dependence on entities outside Indone- Baguama believers. diagrams The book seems to be structured to directly support the needs of believers seeking both that succeeded from Kwee. knowledge and practical guidance41. Further, there sia. Rather, it is working inwardly to refine the path is a thick, recently published book by the same b) PTITD Headquarters branch titled The Deities of Tridharma (Dewa-De- Oei Bie Ing, who until his death in 2001, had wi Tridharma). The book sorts deities enshrined worked for many years as the Deputy Board Di- in Chinese temples into categories, such as those derived from Buddhism or Taoism as well as those PTITD headquarters, argued in his writings that derived from folk beliefs, providing commentary on rector and the head of the Religion Sector of thethe legends and the powers of over 140 deities42. Agama Timur Kuno Furthermore, the branch has distributed a booklet n.d.).belief Naturally,practice inthese Chinese roots templesdate back is a rootedgreat dealin old- Kumpulan Surat-Surat Doa) containing prayer sen- farthertime religions than Kwee of theTek EastHoay 39 . Identifying Tri Dhar- Oei tences for all the seasonal festivals and deity-relat- suci)’, ed rituals that were celebrated at Hok Tek Tong 福 something fundamental and universal for all human 徳堂 mabeings as aand form therefore of belief not toward something what that is holy should be sentences were created by a man named Tan Sioe rashly cast away overlaps with the argument the in Parakan, Central Java in . These prayer They all have a basic structure comprising three An (andoko , who wasAum born Ah in Hum ’, followed in Parakan. by Fromorganization that point repeated of view, in theofficial PTITD documents headquarters under invocations in Indonesian, and concluded by three appearsthe rule toof bethe trailing Soeharto behind regime Majelis Tsuda Tridharma b, in . chants inSian the Cay beginning,’. Incidentally, Tan is also the au- establishing concrete doctrine. However, the PTITD thor of an explanatory text in the booklet prepared is one step ahead in terms of the standardization chants, of ritual, legitimatized by implying the universal Central Java branch, in which he quotes extensively fromfor the a commercialclergy certification book on ceremonyFeng Shui at風水 the). PT)TDIn the book, Tan provides information on topics such as hasreligiosity consistently toward emphasized the holy orthopraxy of human as beingsa sup- in 五行) to understand the universe, the East . )t can be argued that the organization 字) for fortune-telling, and Soeharto era until today. And yet, even the PTITD thehow Five to choosePhrases a good Chinese name for a baby plement for inner substance since the start of the the Eight Characters organization as a spiritual leader of West Java. When Majelis Martrisia40 See Footnote Komda 21. Jateng , - . )n short, at Tridharma was established, he was appointed the head of the 41 This book, edited by Tjan K and Kwa Tong Hay, was created by making major revisions to a book of a similar type which 39 Though PTITD does not deny the achievements of Kwee, was published earlier; Bidang Litbang PTITD and Martrisia clergy council Satyadharma , - . Pengetahuan Umum tentang Tri Dharma. Bapak Tri Dharma Indonesia, 印尼三教之父)’ Semarang: Benih Bersemi. theis Ong person Kie Tjay,it positions the founder and hails of PTITD. as the West father Java’s of )ndonesia s Majelis Jawa42 No Tengah.information . is shown on the book concerning the ed- TriTridharma Dharma does not ignore the contributions of Ong either; itors or the publication year, but the content of the book is it in fact venerates him to a certain extent as a savior of the almost identical to a book published earlier in Semarang; E. Chinese temples during the great tribulations of the Soeharto Setiawan and Kwa Tong Hay eds. 1990. Dewa-Dewi Kelenteng. era. Semarang: Yayasan Kelenteng Sampookong Gedung Batu.
DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 18, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 13 the PTITD Central Java branch, a small handful of in- 3. Disparity of Knowledge, Pervading Sense of a ‘Lack tellectuals such as Tan Sioe An and Kwa Tong Hay43 of Confidence’ provide the intellectual support in terms of both doctrine and ritualistic practice. The contents of religious knowledge critical to these religious orders are maintained by a very limited number of intellectuals. This situation may 2. Reference Points for ‘Correctness’ not be unusual in religion in general. However, a - In their religious systematization, none of the or- temporary Indonesia is the extreme disparity of ganizations is seeking knowledge or reference distinctknowledge characteristic that is apparent of Chinese not only Religion in the realmin con points by looking to places commonly regarded as of religious knowledge in a narrow sense, but in and Taiwan, nor even in Hong Kong or Singapore. Furthermore,the center of thethere Chinese is no signCivilization , that any namelyof these China or- abroader good Chinese realms name covering for a thingsbaby). OneChinese of the including major ganizations are developing a partnership with an reasonscustom, fortradition this in today’sand thought Indonesia even may how be thatto choose in- - culated widely nor in easily readable formats: there aentity more sect important outside reason )ndonesia. is that allOne of theseof the organ- reasons areformation limited regarding printed materials Chinese culture and they is neither are not cir in is the language barrier Tsuda a, - , but Indonesian. Even though the ban on printed mate- in their own ways. It is true that throughout mod- rials in Chinese was lifted in the post-Soeharto era, ernizations and havecontemporary sought, and history, are seeking, movements correctness aiming the number of people who can read Chinese well to reshape various traditions, beliefs, or even the - suppression of and self-regulation among ethnic folded across mainland China and Southeast Asia Chineseis extremely during limited the Soeharto Tsuda era, a, and the - . increasing The domain of religion itself as Chinese Religion -un - - sively Duara established ; Yang through . these(owever, movements the various have )n aretendency more fundamental to become detached issues. As from such, Chinese knowledge cul beendonesian more organizations locally focused, sects making which concessions were succes to ture especially amongst youth and young adults cope with the local/national socio-political situ- large portions of the ethnic Chinese society. As I dis- ation, and looking inward rather than abroad in cussedabout Chineseearlier in culture the case is study no longerof the Chineseshared tem-within acceptable to their respective standards. As such, - their endeavors to maintain or find correctness - plesfer to in an Rembang, actual source a large when number asked of whatethnic exactly Chinese is pothetically espouse a fusion of the same religious are neither able to respond with confidence nor re even if an organization sect abroad were to hy 三教合一 situationthe correct makes teaching , it possible and what for a might handful be ofthe intellec- correct elements by三教帰一 using terms)’, it would such notas Oneness be an option of Three for way concerning rituals from Chinese Religion . This- Teachings or Three Teachings merging gion’. It is the fact that they recognize the loss of the intoimport One the doctrinal interpretation and the meth- abilitytuals to to play sustain a major religious role in knowledge reshaping Chineseas something Reli odsthe of )ndonesian ritual as a Three-teaching whole, though they organizations may be able to to borrow some small fragments. Majelis Tridhar- driven a surge of organizations to provide systema- - tized embedded knowledge in society of doctrine as a serious and ritual problem procedures, that has ness’ is something to be sought within the ultimate as if to compensate for what is missing. Such knowl- ma is a prime example of this. For them, correct- edge includes not only the doctrines and the ritual procedures supporting religious organizations, but wellsource—namely, as within the the religious respective traditions teachings passed and downscrip also matters that usually fall into the categories of fromtures Kweeof Buddhism, Tek Hoay. Confucianism, In this sense, thereand Taoism—as is virtually
Chinese tradition’ elsewhere. culture , as if to supply complementary information no need to seek a so-called correct mainstream of concerning areas where people experience a lack of confidence . With this, the domain of Chinese- ture’Religion itself. has the potential to expand and reshape a muchAt thewider beginning domain, of eventhis article to include I mentioned Chinese deity cul worship and usage of incense and joss paper as an
various practices still prevail, though with diverse regional ordinary as practice well as inpersonal Chinese variations temples today.among These reg- 43 Kwa is known for being knowledgeable about Chinese ular temple visitors. This point, when considered traditions. He is frequently interviewed by the media, and alone, appears to support James Watson’s famous played a central role in the birth of the two books mentioned above. argument that a powerful aspect of practice is in
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44. It may therefore be tempting to conclude that the activities of the vari- orthopraxy’. ousChina s religious rituals organizations Watson detailed here are largely principlesThe scope for bothof this correct article orthodoxy is limited toand introduc- correct detached from the everyday reality of the people. At ing and analyzing various activities being pursued the end of the previous section, my argument may by the leaders of individual religious organizations, be interpreted as suggesting that the organizations especially in the post-Soeharto era, which has seen leading Chinese temples in the three regions of Java, a liberalization of the social arena. Is it possible for if viewed extremely cynically, are attempting to sys- raison tematize the religion by establishing standardized d’etre doctrine and ritual, in order to improve their out- tothese the organizationsChinese temples to gain under more their meaning umbrella and er appearance to compete with other religions or to their , or followers? to provide Before more meaningwe can present correctness , a con- religious organizations45. However, such a view is crete answer to this question, or investigate new - modes of belief that develop out of the systematized theirone-sided sights in on its other perception organizations, of reality. but areRather, actively ) pre tryingsume thatto keep these track organizations of and adapt are to not actual merely condi- fixing Three-teaching we will need to wait some time. tions in ethnic Chinese society. If we view the trans- formations in religious systematization as attempts ACKNOWLEDGEMENT concerning doctrine and ritual, it may be fair to This article was produced through substantial re- concludeto respond that to anit ethnicis not Chinesean either/or lack ofissue: confidence organi- writing of an article by the author previously pub- zations do not necessarily have to choose between lished in Journal of Chinese Overseas Studies Vol. 津田浩司. 2012. ンドネ シ に ける 中華の 教 の現在 年代以 organizations, correct doctrinal which interpretation see themselves orthodoxy as possessing and 降の体系化の動向を中心に , pp - , in [ , 華僑華人研究 9: correct ritualistic practice orthopraxy . These- ― religious knowledge, are attempting to restate Chi - ]. This work was supported by Japan Society modesnese Religion of belief, in which terms have both existed of ideology in forms content sim- for the Promotion of Science JSPS KAKEN() Grant and of practice form , as well as culture . These Number . have been equipped with language associated with systematicity,ilar to socially-embedded and provide the folk people natural with guiding religion TSUDA KOJI is an Associate Professor in the Depart- ment of Anthropology, University of Tokyo. His cur- 44 However, as Watson himself points out, his statement that rent research focuses on the social and religious lives of ethnic Chinese and their cultural representation in been concerned primarily with the latter, is only a hypothesis whichbetween he beliefis presenting content for theand purpose ritual form of discussion. the Chinese Also, have we modern Indonesia. in China to be more or less identical with that in Indonesia, CONTACT [email protected] whichshould hasrefrain been from greatly presuming impacted the statein its of local Chinese socio-political Religion context. 45
Related to this type of cynical viewpoint, one often comes thanacross a theoriestail of a bull’that tosuggest be the the reason nature organizations of the ethnic seek Chinese an as expressed in the saying better to be a head of a rooster discuss here the validity of this sort of essentialist argument, butindependent note that thispath type cf. ofTsuda tone of , discussion , - . in which a) world-will not spate of creations of new religious organizations was already ly nature of the ethnic Chinese is claimed when criticizing a seen in the s Rees , .
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