DOCUMENT RESUME
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AUTHOR Gorard, Stephen TITLE A Brief History of Education and Training in Wales, 1900-1996. Patterns of Participation in Adult Education and Training. Working Paper 4. INSTITUTION Bristol Univ. (England).; Cardiff Univ.(Wales). School of Education. SPONS AGENCY Economic and Social Research Council, Lancaster (England). ISBN ISBN-1-872330-05-3 PUB DATE 1997-00-00 NOTE 35p.; With Gareth Rees Ralph Fevre and John Furlong. A Cardoff and Bristol University ESRC-Funded Learning Society Project. Also funded by the Gwent, Mid Glamorgan, and West Wales Training Enterprise Councils. For other working paper see CE 080 328-341 and CE 080 402. CONTRACT ESRC-L123251041 PUB TYPE Reports Research (143) EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Adult Education; *Attendance Patterns; Developed Nations; *Educational History; Educational Research; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; Job Training; Lifelong Learning; Performance Based Assessment; Postsecondary Education; Vocational Education IDENTIFIERS Learning Patterns; *Wales (South)
ABSTRACT This working paper is a product of a regional study in industrial South Wales of the determinants of participation and non-participation in post-compulsory education and training, with special reference to processes of change in the patterns of these determinants over time and to variations between geographical areas. The study combines contextual analysis of secondary data about education and training providers with a regional study of several generations of families in South Wales via survey, semi-structured interviews, and taped oral histories. This paper describes the provision of formal education and training in Wales during the period covered by the study, 1996-97, focusing where possible on these three research sites--Blaenau Gwent, Bridgend, and Neath Port Talbot. Specific topics are schools in Wales; the growth of initial education; bilingualism and territoriality; performance measures for initial education; pre-war adult education and training; whether a post-war learning society has existed; and performance measures for adult education. Appendixes include figures that detail educational participation and outcomes, further and higher education students in Wales, and destination of school leavers. Contains 73 references. (YLB)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ED CATIONAL RESOURCESOffice of Educational INFORMATION ResearchU.S. andDEPARTMENT Improvement OF EDUCATION CENTER (ERIC) improveMinororiginatingreceivedThis document changes reproduction from it. the havehas person been been quality. reproduced ormade organization to as officialdocumentPoints ofOERI view do position not or opinionsnecessarily or policy. stated represent in thisPATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION IN ADULT EDUCATION AND TRAINING A Cardiff and Bristol University ESRC- funded Learning Society Project WORKING PAPER 4 A Brief History of Education and Training in Wales 1900-1996 Stephen Gorard 1997 SCHOOL OF EDUCATION PERMISSIONDISSEMINATE TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL AND HAS BEEN GRANTED BY CardiffUniversity of Wales 1 TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) 3 PA I 1ERNS OF PARTICIPATION IN ADULT EDUCATION AND TRAINING LIST OF CONTENTS PAGE NUMBER A Cardiff and Bristol University ESRC-funded WORKING PAPER 4 Learning Society Project Introduction1. Schools in Wales 31 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EDUCATION 1900-1996 AND TRAINING IN WALES 5.4.3.2. ThePre-warPerformanceBilingualism growth adult of measures and educationinitial territoriality education for and initial training education 1186 Stephen Gorard AcknowledgementsConclusion7.6. APerformance post-war learning measures society? for adult education 24231915 INTRODUCTION with Gareth Rees Ralph Fevre and John Furlong AppendicesReferences 2924 aThe regionalandreferencenon-participation project, to variations study tofunded processes in industrial betweenby in the post-compulsory of ESRC change geographical as in part the ofpatterns educationareas. of South Wales of the determinants of participation and the Learning Society Programme, is The study combines contextualthese determinantsand training, over time with special studyanalysisfurtherstructured of of severaldescribed secondary interviews generations in data Gorard and about taped ofet education al.families oral (1996) histories. and in while training The the South Wales via survey, semi- markedly differentbackgroundmethodology centres to in the is study outlinedproviders is in with a regional Gorardstudy,ofindustrial Bridgendformal et focusing al. South education(1997). and NeathWaleswhere The and Portduring studypossible training Talbot. took 1996 on place inand the Wales 1997.threein three This paper during the periodresearch covered sites by - Blaenau the Gwent, describes the provision ofBritainThe 1.education educational SCHOOLS are in and marked experiences training IN WALEScontrast (the of importanceand different this is one of place reason sections of society and different parts of and time are argued furtherfor a in focused regional study ISBN 1 872330 05 3 Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 1 inNorthernrefersGorard several to 1997). England Ireland, ways. Although InitialWales,and Wales manyeducation in fact, as official one has in entity, a Walesdocumentsdifferent is distinguishable only from Scotland or educationaladministered system from day-to-dayand England much educational by the research exaggerationthatmarketsprepared 40% of is parents toa thevalid travel point inone. Wales40 about or hadmore regional no miles.choice differences Although of secondary school, unless they were thisin figurethe operation is probably of school an ofWelsh Wales,Committee.public Office, examinationsand thatnotThere thefor are England,Department are several taken with differences usingfor subjects Education papers between such and as from the Welsh Joint EducationHistory,the Geography, National Curriculum ArtEmployment. andin perspective for The majority as well as WalesTheseparticular differencesis significantly in the inevidence policy, different ofprovision a toclear elsewhere linkand between ethos suggest that initial education inand thisin the is exploredUK. South in theWales second is alsoadult education and changes in aboutcontent,Musicandshould WelshLewishaving since, be, language,a1995 accordingseparate"general p. 24). culture orders.Welshnessto Thelegislation, andNational The historypervading differences Curriculum (Jones pupil's are all pupils in Wales have the right to learn and Lewis 1995).for Therelearning Wales is, alsoexperiences"or specifies (Jonesthat parttheEducation2. nature ofTHE this of GROWTHpaper. inlocal Wales employment provides OF INITIAL something(Lewis 1993) of a EDUCATION paradox, a history and reputation of WelshKey1995a). languageStage All 43, pupils,is inteaching also addition compulsoryof whateveris tocompulsory a modern in background, all Welsh-mediuminforeign all languagestudy state-funded schools (Welsh Office Welshschools, from Keyand byStage 1999 1 willto bein Key Stage 3. Welsh at attainmentrespectalmostbeen treatedfor "primordial" inlearning the as present a "given" combined (Roberts day by in writers with1983).almost Thereinevery has relatively poor measuresWales of andeducational desire and respect for it as assessment. Educationbeen a tendency has often in the past to compulsoryspecialistallThe types uniformity in inschools Wales all secondary of inforschools 1994, drama, schools. inthere Walessport, were oris no remarkable.languages City (Welsh Technology Colleges, or similarly Among the 2,048 schools of Office 1995b). There geographicalendemicreferstated, to Wales forability example,area, as beingin a racialthe that a make-up nation grouping the "Welsh" of of education-lovers,or itsa linguisticvalue as inhabitants (as the populationeducation, of a and have ahowever, deep-rooted some observers werenetwork perhaps). It has been though there was some fewersecondarywerein 1996, onlythan GM four1%15 Grantof schoolsof schools the Maintainedeight by in 1991, Welsh Wales and counties (GM)have no optedprimary contained out, GM compared no to more schools altogether. There were no schoolsGM schools by 1993, at andall. Ineven fact, than 4% in irrelevanceitsuggestingdesire isWales more for todaycommonly that learningto "ordinary", these (Browne (Loweattitudes suggested that 1987). 1970). tois learningthethat There majority Bysecondary 1969were are thus, two of working-class,changing children (Lowe 1970).in Southschooling Nowadays is almost a complete distinct histories of the schools.Englandspecial1994, Thus,(Fitz57% schools et wereonly al. combined 1995). 5%in LEA of Ofthe (Welsh primary the school 484,322 Office populationschools, full-time 1995b). and were Parentspupil 38% were since there are so few suchin GM, independent,in equivalentsWales and do not in Waleshave a in in LEA secondary developmentdeliveryseenstandard as having ofof qualityofeducation initial a unique education education in respectthe region. to ainfor relatively Wales On the and onelarge two learning leading to early innovation in the hand, the peopleproportion of Wales of are the population, versions of the current selectingschools,strongerablerealistic to including aoffer identificationoptionschool, Assisted ofnone families, using in withPlaces Mid-Wales, local particularly the (Gorard fee-payingstate andeducation 1996). those only schools, fromeightThis system may whichrural until areas,in nowWales may have (Lowetherefore been 1970). Inbe partly a result of a Thereexperiencerelevanceand on isthe a toislongother, perhapsmost history education people. at its of most Thenon-conformity has exaggerated Britishbeen seen two inas inWales. track distributionelitist, constraining of educational andWales of little and schools based on Educationface a choiceand training from in Wales limited - Gorard et options al. of little diversity. Reynolds (1990) claimed 2 Educationironworks, and training collieries, in Wales - Gorard tinplate Cl al. works and Sunday schools (Evans 1971). This 3 weresituation four was private first schoolsaltered byin the appearance of Merthyr Tydfil area, for example, rising to 45 itinerant schools. By 1815 there Despitethat "the the Welshclaim ofhave the traditionally1967 Gittins regardedreport on themselves primary education as having an which statedundoubtedly unusually schools.chargingnumbersby 1845 Merthyr's (Fletcher thein the"school teacher's first 1981). pence". secondary ownThese There home. schoolwere were Allmostly appeared a fewwere more in 9d per week. Later, the Board"dame of schools" tutoringelementary small and very cheap,1882.expensive It was coeducational, superior private employerscompleteasexistshigh a consequencerespect in Wales, indifferencecontinued for caneducation.... of be inits seenSouthto economic the not The Walesday only wide andpoverty" untilas interestworksan at outgrowth least schools in 1920education, of accordingprovided its cultural which toby (Istance and Rees 1994 p. traditionHMI (Evans butbenevolent 11), theclassones,Educationtaking fastest backgrounds.in 300 an growingoffered attemptpupils Theofto20cities encourageboth scholarships dame in sexesBritain schools for from to alsoa addfee 1875 flourished ofto theto nine attendance at school by children from working- 1900 (Allsobrook 1990). Manyin Cardiff which was one ofexisting privately-funded onlylocalearn1971). partly a heavy living,Schools be explainedindustries especially were irregularly by thansince poverty in opportunities the attended, andmore the common and needfor the for common textile children industries early to bewithdrawal sent in out tocan children were less frequent in the England one-teacherInprivate 1889,theory houses although all-agethere wasin private anyPark universal higher Place,schools. standardfree where elementary theof education, university education such now as available in Wales beforethatis, required for example, to enter were a attendancedown(Evanscontinuedno pointthe 1971). mines, atin in schoollearning EvenSouth for examplemay so,Wales beyond ashave late untilin beenones Caerauas fairly 1928 condoned sphere Colliery, recently. infant in by boys Maesteg "Theparents were main who(Keen still reason felt employed1979). that was there the to lackwas go life, and this attitude to schooling Irregular of theiraccordingthesesense,university, sons wereall nineteenth toto inconsidered onethe practice writergreat century Englishrequired"theto be secondaryelite Public publicstudents among Schools schools the to Welshattend in since the the schools were private. However, none of landowningfee-payingEnglish schools. gentry tradition. had In thatsent In fact, sixteenth century and well-qualifiedTraditionallyappreciation1971 p. 262). of there school [its] have importance leavers not been and for sufficientthis the has future had jobs welfare two in implications.Wales of their of a children" kind Firstly, suitable a high for (Evans wereEtonwould wasnot"few, not sufficientan have relatively absurdity" contemplated in numbers poor, (Jones compared 1990a suchto support provision p. 62). many The in middleWales. with their English counterparts and far of the foundation schools, which nineteenth century"and (Jones lower-middleThe thought classes of a Welsh furtherhelpsecondlyproportion in thestudy. parents of family the In wishingbest periodsfarm educated orto businesskeepsuch locals their as movemay thefamily inter-war not elsewhere together have provided years inand the obtain whensearch any their stimulusforWales children'sjobs, was and for removedandfeessecondary1990a Technicaland from offeredp. age 63). the Schoolintermediate scholarshipsThemain Welsh incentres Merthyr schoolsIntermediate to of the populationcharged poor.which, By £3Education although inper1911 the year, for stateAct example,but of 1889 established thehadsupported, 53% of did pupils charge on the Intermediate educationCardiganshire(Websterdepopulated,Suitable did 1990).jobs itnot from werewas leadFor nearly 1933-44,often toexample, a available suitablealways none of thelocal livedin24 England,most scholars job in theinable a area and primarilypupilsin onethatby 1950.who isvillage agriculturalwhere left Intermediate schoolthemany region area. young in familieselsewhere,beingfree places elementaryto support which(Fletcher the wasschools, selective 1981). the origin but Since intermediatesome of somethere became ofwere schoolsthe boarding insufficientpresent in Wales, many schools takingprivate pupils schools. from wealthy middle-class reverted to inthesuitableCaernarfonshirepeople some majority went. localfamilies, of Asjob school another (Evans inand 1938, leaversso example, 1990a).education 26 wentleft In theirof industrialtowas 60 England home leaversseen communities.areas,by frombecause them the Penygroes as exodus theyan This evil, could was countywas as greater, withnotunpopular school, find some and a Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 4 AmishEducation families and training in in the Wales USA - Gorard (cf. et al. Coleman 1990). An Alderman of Cardiganshire is 5 By 1971, only 21% of the people in the whole of Wales reported themselves as continuesfarmsbeendon'tquoted rifegive (Websteras in insayingthem Welsh some anv at1990), areasrural thiseducation despite schoolstime and "if atthis urban since all"you culture, (Jones wantindustrialisationyoung to 1982peoplestemming keep p. your were197). (Allsobrook from childrenrequired Early the leaving in to 1990).countryside, thework hascountry, on long the rising,lowerbeing1991 able(indications the (OPCS tonumber speak 1994), are anyactually that whileWelsh while speakingamong (Webster the thenumber it 1990), youngeroutside of and young lessonsage that groups had is people learning Welsh is droppedthis figure to 18.7%falling). was evenby In primary densitynoAfter longer the was 1944 charged so Education low fees. in parts In Act, principle, of many Wales intermediates selectionthat it proved was became byimpossible merit Grammar but to the implement schools and a population schoolsspeakingthe14,830 primary by speakers 1990 Welsh school there of at Welsh populationhomewere 15,833 ashas a firstfallen (Baker speakers language, every 1990). of year representing,Welsh The since as a1986, to a number of children actually enteredsecondin total,via language, Welsh. only 11% Inand of low of 6.5% distancesviablepupilsschools tri-partite who to in get South were to system. their bussedWales selected There atfrom all were school.Camarthen(Evans no Forproperly1990a). example,fifteen Some equipped miles Whitland pupils away specialist had inGrammar theto traveltechnical1950s, took great and many(Welshpredominantly cases Office these 1995a), English-speaking children with onlyare from 5.4% areas middle-class of (Gorard the 1994 1997b). GCSEs bilingual families living in the Ysgol commonratesome1950s for children the in rate Wales, grammar ofhad 10% whereto travelschool in 36England). 50to in 50%or Narberth more ofJones pupils miles. was (1982) attended Fromover gave 40% 1951 grammar similar (compared to 1955 schools figures the to selection compareda for more the mediumproportionCymraegInterestingly, of or toWelsh Welsh-medium thethe numberone takes type place of of Welsh schoolstate-fundedin 34% speakers - ofhas primary grownschool (Baker schools, inpeculiar 1990). numbers and Teachingto Wales 18%in - almost inverse506 Ysgolionof classes ofthrough the streamed.becamemodernorto 18a differing to school25%bilateral Around ineducational near England. grammarMerthyr enough. Inphilosophy, Tydfil, andmanySome secondary acasesschools lack but thisof oftenlike suitablemoderns, was St because notDavid's sites because in theremadewhich School, of wasit theadifficult Pembrokeshire greaterno pupils secondary to ability were have schoolswhereaboveCymraeg,all ages suggestsWelsh-speakers didare teaching notnow speakthat taught although79,977 Welsh mayin Welsh pupilsbeforebe many in (Welsh a andattendingofmajority, these comparison Office schools school, over 1995a). 60% ofareand these inofTheredo pupils not figures arespeak Gwynedd and Dyfed, attending such withit at those home. largechancesboth comprehensives,grammar of most and families non-grammar although (Fletcher sometimes 1981).schools onAfter nearseparate 1964 each sites most other, (Jones schools thus 1990a). limitinghad become the occasionallyIn (Aberystwyththesome necessary cases to there incompetent Policydepartments are not Group enough appointments, and 1990). teachers this Also, has especially capable led as ato result problems of for teaching Mathematicsof offering for only and a recruitmentin Welsh to staffand PhysicsWelsh- One3. teachingbilingualismBILINGUALISM growing faces challenge (WJEC several AND 1994).for problems. the TERRITORIALITY Theeducation current The impactsystem legislation ofin theWales concerning recent has scalebeen Welsh theof population issue language of Welshmediumthelegislated same and education sometime nature (Aberystwyth who ofin theGwynedd,can school, only Policy speak classroomsome Group English, classes interaction 1990). havewhich Despite pupils goesmeans theseonwho in canproblems,both only languages at that whatever the Welsh- speak onAberystwythchangeWalespopulation 66 pupils revealed it has changesPolicy newbeen by claimedtothe Group can the censuses also area (1990)that be less inseen (Gorard onethat than in oneacademicthe 17% 1997) declinerural of inhabitantscan school ofyear. be the seen withWelshThe spoke in aimpact therolllanguage. any reportof Welsh,800of Intheseof took South theeven occupationalmeasuresmediumFurther, schools in classschoolsmany in profile Southrespects teaching among Wales (Jonesthrough their boast 1996),users the better medium (Packer perhaps than ofaverageand English, Campbell raw-score the 1993).Welsh outcome because of an elevated language Educationin 1901 and before training in the Wales biggest - Gorard et phase al. of development of the coalfield (Lewis 1993). 6 Educationis taught and in training addition in Wales to- Gorard all ofet at the subjects that appear in the National Curriculum 7 Technologyreachfor England, the sameat whichKey attainment Stage means 4 thathas targets localnow aspupilsbeen in Englanddropped appear to inat have allWales). Key to work StagesThis harder, policy (although just is to extent.suggestedaltered Awith national that only schools, surveythe high ofor failure non-attendancepupils, rate in Walesretained. at schoolwere As under-performingearlyfound as 1974 some to reports some the situation in Wales havelanguagehome,implementedschools, been perhaps policyintroduced lack despite of sincein resources all thesooner theirschools, fact absolute (Welshthatand and somesufficient throughoutOffice number pupils 1990),trained speak is the smallbut teachers,neitherage as range,(Gorardwith Welsh amongthe was Welsh-medium nor originally other English factors, asto I 997b). This Tydfildisadvantagesandfoundmuch thatand thatworse Cardiffconsequently Welsh (Reynolds than inschools inthe England, 1980s too1995) seemed many (Reynolds but evenoverly ofparticularly the in concerned others1990).areas in withwereThe urbanwith 1981similar leaving the areas Loosmoremost schoollike able Merthyr children,reportwith no socio-economic onlyfirstschoolsmaterialsheld teaching languageup stillits and Welsh implementation. do hasshortage not as dropped teach a second of any Welsh-mediumdramatically language Welsh,For such while (Welsh practicalsince the assessors Office 1986, proportion reasons 1995a). with (WJEC 63% teachingas lack 1994),of schools ofWelsh learning 3.2% nowas ofa England.qualificationqualificationswasno qualifications, 17%, Even twice(Jones at by all. 1989,the andIn1990b). size1977/78, thiswhen (Reynolds figure This only 28% "failure"was 9.5% of 1995). decreasing pupils of rate children The left has every school always in England year, in been Wales lefthigher without school than withany introduction of league tables of the figure for Wales in While4. ofhavePERFORMANCE female the allowed rest headteachers of the the number country MEASURES in of Wales has women implemented has inFOR actually authority INITIAL equal fallen in schools opportunities EDUCATIONsince 1985,to rise, and policiesthe partproportion ofthat the qualificationsoftheGCSE Wales, levels1993, examination ofWelsh 1994, social is higher schools 1995).deprivationresults in Wales aresinceThe still in proportion1993than some producing inhave EnglishEngland shown of significantly childrenregions and a similar rising, are leaving picture. nowwhileworse similar the resultsschoolsEven proportion to though those with no (TES largersimilarhigherschoolsblame partfor levels totend thosethisof toexpenditure ofhas be in physical verybeenEngland, traditional,attributed going punishment. there on are tosalarieswith poor lower moreAlso, staff and levels assemblies although buildingspolicies of chalkface (Reynolds their(Reynoldsand until resources spending, quite 1990).1990). recently, may WelshwithMany be a of qualificationsincludingindicationchildren with thatCardiff 5+localin WalesGCSEs hasprosperity the (18.6%), at secondgrades plays while A-C highestlittle is itpart lower rate in outcomes, of(TES pupils 1995). South leaving As Glamorgan, a furtherwith no is an area of relative affluence, canstaffingof the be primaryexacerbated the specialist schools by requirementsthe are problems so small of that theteaching thereNational inis Welsh,also Curriculum, considerable as already and discussed.thisdifficulty situation in Walesaccordingpupilsexaminationstandard, which performed to soReynolds has groups.that been theworse However,(1990). suggestedWJEC than Onepapers their Reynolds is possible that peers are the not (1990)in reasonexaminations Englandcomparable also for foundthison standardised totakenhigh that those "failure" Welshare of of the testsasecondary ratehigher English given in schoollessmonolingualimplementationGiven than tradition,these impressed region,problems of after aby bilingualit the1944,is ofperhaps levels remoteness, polarised programme of not attainment surprising high relative across attainment in thatschools the economic manywhole inand observersWales. of high povertya predominantly Thefailure have grammarand rates, been the lessonsonlyMajesty'sby the manifested Assessment(OHCM1 Inspectorate 1993).in examination and the The Performance relative same results,reportlack of Unit.concluded achievementbut alsoAdditionally, inthat the in "in Welshquality Wales according schools overall...of day was to much dayHer not thatproportionadventwasting were of talent completelycomprehensivisation of relatively and encouraging unqualified well-qualified in social the(Delamont 1970s, divisionschool schoolsand leavers (Istance Rees in as 1996).Wales and well Rees asThishad a 1995).produced highmodel proportion Until has a highnow the thatunder-achievementbyIn Welsh fact,the WJECthe children picture compared are,remains" may in notsome the be(OHCMI GCSErespects, quite thisresults 1993 "schooled bleak. p.2) from An and to each unpublished fail". Reynolds of the Welsh (1990) study LEAscarried decided with out Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 12 8 Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 13 9 yearcommunicationevidencethree oldsLEAs inthat inWales EnglandWelsh with are author). schools averagewith similar Participation werein terms socio-economic underperforming of therates UK in aseducation profiles. a (Heycock, This for theprovided personal 14 to 21no whole, and the overall Although5.(Istancea long-standing PRE-WAR and there Rees isADULT tradition always 1994). a EDUCATIONin Thisdanger Wales tradition of romanticising of AND respect TRAINING the for past, of support for adult training and education and economic poverty (Gittins education in Wales may there are accounts of Inthemrest(Eurostatlevel some of directof the regionseducation 1995). UK, continuation and Moreof Wales, infewer peoplethe to population gainsuchacademic leave theas the educationqualifications, Higher coastalaged 25Education empty-handed regions, to 592+ is A the(Istance a levels, littlebenchmark in Wales andbelow Rees than figures average 1994). in the of that will allow collieries,historyReportstemphilanthropists from of1967). Sundayanda culture tinplateBefore and schools, based the theworks workers upon eravoluntary paidof non-conformity compulsorythemselves for societies by benevolent (Nash universaland schoolset employersal. 1995). The education there was a based on ironworks, first(Evans organised 1971), explainbottomparticularlypupils havetheachievers high the improved rurallevel (Hackett areas,of "failure" from there1995), 1992 inis andincreasingSouth to it1995 isGlamorgan this polarisation(see polarisation Figure mentioned between 1), that but above. could thein others,Intop partly fact, and formtheseSchoolsSocieties of wereadult may (Welsh theeducation have Eisteddfodau, Department been may a distinctively have the1937) been workers and the Welsh this Sundaysociety tradition phenomenon lectures,Schools of teaching (Ellis the Drama movement,and Church Literacyprevalent in Walesadults1935). in Sunday Added to equivalentbetter36%improvingIn termsof in 16 English, (Welshyearof qualificationsin olds Wales,40% Office gain in Mathematics with1995c).no forGCSEs 37% the However, mostof grades and the qualified39% workforce thisA to in improvement C, Science schoolwhile now (Welsh onlyleavers, having is 46% no Office betterthe 2gain A situation 1995c) levelsthana C orin or is festivals,thatlearningCo-operative(Lowe "together choirs1970), in the and societies,thethey pit, traditionalYMCA, workshop,have university helped League societies public to of produceclasses, whichNations house were the thatand Union, Communist interestespeciallybarbers Independent inshops religion, Party (Lewis 1993) so Labour Party,and informal philosophy, in-exchangesuggestionthe rest of that the and the UK, by qualifications thestarts very from high themselves a "failure" lower basemay rate. be figure There decreasing andhas alsois in tainted terms been of a by risevalue- the in a educationcontinuous1937letters p.7).and ismusic learning Thisvery whichmuchled in some Wales,isgreater characteristic observers soand that the "public habitofto thedetect ofWelsh participation community a deeply-rootedpeople" co-operation in(Welsh various is very Departmentdesire for forms of Accordingfiguresfigurestaying higherin on some rates to than theindustrial at Welshin16 Englandfrom areas Office 55% ( -Istance but of(1995c), thethis and age average Reesschool cohort 1995). figure leaversin 1990 disguises needto 69% to much inbe 1993 literate, lower Schools,learningmuchthe localstronger inconcerts SouthChapel, than Walesand and in penny England"YMCA were readings religion classes (Lowe inand (Jones the 1970 the late 1991)workplace. p. nineteenth 315). whose The The centurytraditions two first roots led to of organiseddiscussion by of adultSunday despiteofsincefuture.numerate, work these Linksthe and competent arehigher necessary are important to staying be in encouragedsupport the for on use careers rate forof today,ITbetweenthe education, and teaching moreconfident schools, studentsanof vocationalenrichment in colleges their from ability andWalessubjects. view places to of arelearn theHowever leavingof world inwork the theseLeague,theand WEA,close developments and textual Trade the Labour analysis Union was College that activities,became they Movement. onewere workers model largely What for societies organised what was followed.especially and at theInstitutes, localThe backers, and users. There is significant about second led tolevel with a the Plebs schoolthisan 1997b).important wherewith no necessary, qualificationsrole for the perhaps adult than ineducation in the the form rest and ofof thelifelongtraining UK which sectorlearning means in (see that Gorard there et is al. compensating for onpersonalthereforevery learning close andfor a relationshiptradition economicsocial mobility in reasons Walesbetween which (Reesof theeducation is 1996). inproviders, marked for contrastcultural toreasons the current as well as emphasis for Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 14 10 Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 15 11 andformedAs in to Scotland start partly with to and combat were North little drunkenness East used England, (Nash and theet intemperance al.workers 1995). institutes In among the early maythe workforce,nineteenth have been for those in the depression.pushed perhaps by the events in the Soviet Union and pulled by the onset of the ownoldercentury1870s1995). libraries iron many and But, and the to ofastinplate includethe Sundaya growing institutes communities secularschools, proportion lacked books, as wellsucheducational theof asas theuse helpingTredegar workforce of facilities, libraries to andteach was Gorseinonexceptgrew. literacy, able to extended(Nashread after et their The first public theal. accordingByclasses,The1935). 1918 WEA the Athe toshared YMCA residential onesuccess observercontrol and of theadult theof theyNational education universityeducation could Council have in collegeextra-mural liberal been of Music subjectswasextended foundedclasses(Welsh with "without Department wasuniversityat Harlech so limit" great tutorial 1937). in(Ellis that 1927, ThewhichMechanicslibrary Workers undertook in Neath Institute, Educational local opened whoseadult Associationin classes 1834,early (Eatonteaching and (WEA) was 1987). staff followed was included formed nine inAlfred yearsWales Wallacelater in 1903 by andtheas a socialisationthisstudentstaking1993). influence over returningThe studentsinto college meant a asliberal ahadafter adesirable cascading democracyan the inherited closure influence of (the tradition radicalof tensions theon theirCentral socialism,of betweencollectivist local Labour community. thesefor education, othersCollege views Foritand (Lewis meantwith some their ex- TradefederationtheyWEAindependence Unionssought district of working to(Welsh for ofeducate workersSouth Departmentclass there Wales educationsocieties was followed nothing1937), andmovements educational perhapsinparticularly 1907, (Lewis asbut angroups Welshlike attempt 1993). many withabout Anto of links curtailitsautonomousthe founders, toworkers the collegetraining,someimplications1997b). men after it Theleftwas fora their Co"glimpsethose a learningleg jobs whoHarlech after of returned societythe the was vision courses todayalsoto theirsplendid" over-subscribed, inare normalorder discussed (Ellisto stationstudy 1935further and for from p.despitefurther in201) the Gorard residential coursesthewho fact et were al. ofthat fuelculture. ismembershipsincewho to werethe asNor onelocomotive" anglicisedwas observerof thethe organisationbranches and commented(Lewis not seenbefore 1993 seen asin p.the inheritors 1900as 48). Greatpolitically "education Accordingly Warof the -active attendancetraditional ... isthere enough to social wasbardic/eistedfoddat classesat noreform that mass time,mostly what were"deepandmost local influentialalso hunger debating weekly for in learning classessocietiessustaining foramongst in theaNeath demand miners the were people"for paid well-attended more for there learning.by the (Eaton andeducation By there 1987, 1920 was authorityp.153). WEA said classes toThere andbe a wasuniversitiesteaching1912 a course toeconomics 505(except run inby 1914 aCardiffand Professor industrial- and which ofthe Greek refusedhistory organisation and roseto antake fromambulance part).came 204 The topeople class befirst dominated insession South in Wales 1907by the (Ellis 1935). In SouthThiswell-attended1887 period Wales, (Jones encompasses lectures such1991). as Theseinthe thea Victoria spate werelibrary. of often Institutegrowth paid in andfor the by library number a penny started of in Workers the in pound Port Institutes Talbot taken from inin resistanceexplore(LewisatWales Ruskin there 1993). what College to was the Thewas awar. beforerelatively Greathappening The 1914war ensuing large led as and welltonumber coal apartly surgeas strikea of smaller asofpostal demandcoincideda symptom numberstudents for with of new("distance-learners")of residential thelocal classes, growth unrest partlystudents of and the to (NashBritain,miners1919, et wages and theal. 1995).thisMiners and money matched For Welfare example, was by used Fundthe thecoal to paid Oakdalehelp mine a improve penny owners, Workmen's for or or everyincrease by philanthropists.Institute ton the of localcoaland Library raised'Stutes After in continuedPlebssupport League toof grow andthe minersthe after Central 1918, of South Labour particularly Wales College (Lewisin andwhich around 1993). was utterlySwansea The demand dependent (Lewis for 1993),on classes the etpoliticalroom,Companywas al. founded 1995). committee meetings, and Evening inrepaid 1917,room lectures, byclasses andfinanced miners andconcert at clubs theover by hall.Institutes andadecades. loan Itsocieties was from and Thisused hallsasthe includedforwell Tredegar includedconcerts, as entertainment a Library, readingIron Eisteddfodau, and reading (Evans (Nash Coal Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 12 Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 17 13 classesstudents,1971). in mostlyBy South 1926, miners, Wales, during were while the attending lattera further stages 65 500 Independent of or a more second were Working coal in 31dispute, Class WEA Education overclasses, 2,000 and6. ByA an POST-WAR1950, elaborate the Miner's programme LEARNING Institute of ineveningSOCIETY? Tredegar classes had aand library the positionof over 23,000 was similar books, Unemploymentworkers.growing to over during 1,000 the by depression1929 (Lewis of 1993),1929-35 of was whom at itsover worst 80% in wereSouth manual Wales, internalinitialworkedacross and all mainlylabour ofcontinuing the inmarket coalfield nationalised training leading valleys were industriesto supervisory(Francis provided such 1976). for andas all.coal, Bymanagerial These this steel time, organisations and posts institute rail in(Istance which had bothand an members becausehadwork,and atalthough there least of werethe135 a depression.workersquarter entire villages ofInstitutes a Formillion of example, menwhich people on were the 250 left dole.well-attended, people to goNevertheless, to attended England despite a South inmeeting or search perhaps Wales on of 40%courses52,000Rees of 1995). inall grew 1946manual In from Britainto 185,000 workers54,000 as a to whole,werein 273,000,1966, voluntary the students number while participants it onofhas universityother been full-timein estimated WEA students classesand that grewsandwich around (Kelly from librariessuchandgeology Victoria as Richardat came Oakdale Institute inBurton 1926, in thrived, 1928 and with Anthony(Nash eventually a record et Hopkins al. 1995),ofproducing 49,161 (Jones and annualactorsdrama 1991). of groupsTheloans world-wide peak inat onetheuse YMCArepute ofsmall the althoughbutwas1992) with not awhichsocial declining solely continuedmobility to wider allow after after role an 1945 1944(Lewisindividual was as 1993). substantial,a supplier to riseThe aboveofpurpose with liberal several their ofnon-vocational workers class children background, education of Southcourses althoughEvenThecommunity issue here workers ofadult and non-fiction neweducation were branch noin may particularlonger libraries be seen grewsuch byas asduringsomea revolutionarythat as theat anAberafan depression attempt threat, opening at (Eatonconstraint, the enforced in 1987). 1936. for settlementofexample.Wales the whole workers Another included community taking purpose the changes high (Rees of workers office in1996). socialisation ineducation successiveIn this way,springingwas toLabourthe raise post-1945from the Governments the educational nationalisation educational level for durationByleisure 1935/36 of andunemployment there these were were 517 made in separate addition them seem adult to those a courses social in whatmenace in Wales were to ofsome termed at least (Lewis recognised one 1993). years moreensuedof the obviousmajor and the industries reforms rapid increase of in the the Education inregion, Higher the and Act formal Further1944. training This Education period, opportunities as in well which as thatthe WEAcateredcoursesplaces (224 of fortoday, learning. 10,246classes). being students They Thepartly mightsupply andinvisible thebe of considered majorityclassesand the wereforgottenwas the instill equivalentSouth notsector equalWales of of education.to anduncertificated the run demand by They the opportunitiesbackgroundsUniversity of in (JonesWales Wales had1982)than anmay represents intake have beenof whicha availabletime 40% when to were manytheir frompeers adults working-class in England.had greater additionDepartment25(Welsh years Department toof theage, 1937). more most 1937).The normal frequently growth Most evening fromwerein demand miningtrainingfare also forand lectures, ledday quarrying to and the attracting weekend establishment occupations students courses (Welsh of over 20in reorientationretrospecteducationalIt should be as notedopportunities byeconomically all by parties planners took and"affluent" of place anyintelligent future in (Kelly a periodlearning political 1992) that society asstrategies has a result beenthat these byofdescribed economicall post-war parties in werepoliticalthereLabour bothwere Collegesissues well-read31 such such in adultSouth andas the well-informedday Wales rise schools of by fascism, 1937, taking during catering so5,716 the that inter-warstudents manyfor 2,243 local foryears students. classesmen (Lewis and in By women1993).current 1938 aboveMcllroymodellingapparent(Mcllroy inflation 1990), upturnin Gorard andhigh p.a.,in learningthiset job Mcllroyal. increase security, 1997). than 1990) There inthe a affluence rise otherand was in so realwaynear isa morebetter incomearoundfull employment likely bargaining (seefor to many sectionbe a(less peoplecauseposition on than causal of (2% 1%, thefor Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 18 14 Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 19 15 enactmentstheirbeneathlabour. own There all 1944-46. cars, of thiswas while theredistributivePerhaps welfaredentists for state, thedecorated taxation first an timeedifice in their favourplumbers completed own of lowermateshouses by income drovethe (Kelly great to groups 1992). series and Aof work in SuchwithinMarxist provision(Mcllroy oppositional 1990). of, and stance interest towards in, adultone of education reforming in the Wales capitalist will surelysystem have from workersdevicesmoretendency leisure inhad for the peopleclericalin home. middle-age, to andThe marry administrativepopulation aearlier, leisure andwas assisted jobs haveageing with fewer by and shortera andhostan increasing earlier ofhours. new children The proportion growth bought inof labour-saving beingexaggerateHowever,provided in-migrants some this the situationneed compensation to for the compensatorymust region not for be during earlier idealised. education apoor boom On initialat thistimethe educational stage,one for handSouth since it experiences.manyisWales possible workers were to andownbothPublishers therehomespublic was asand like "nuclear" an private Penguin upsurge familiestransport popularised of interest and created started thein musicmobility.paperback homely and interestsMore otherbook people fromarts such (Kelly1935, livedas 1992).inso their books gardening proportionately(Johnsonofeducated less formal elsewhere, 1979, education twice West and as 1994, manysome was Tooavailablereportschildren ley anyway 1996).went to many to suggestIn school fact,even that itinbefore has Wales a reasonable been state in theclaimed compulsion 1930s standard that as Televisionformallyincreasedbecame bycheaper,and dramaticallythe radio creation libraries were ofdespite also the became aUniversity powerfulthe betterconcurrent of educational stocked the Air growth (later and force, readinginthe television Open realised as University) a pastime output.most emigrationWelshitthey could did society,also in England befrom thatraising the (Reesthe principalityfalseadult 1996). hopeseducational Also, ofperhaps betteras systemwith employment, asinitial has a formeducation been of aleading weakening"brain at the eventually drain".same factor time, For into alreadyInby Souththe 1960s haveWales (Kelly been therefore, 1992). in place some in theof the earlier characteristics twentieth centuryof a learning - e.g. society access may to getAccordingexample,1918 a better was theto job theone chief (Ellislack report, limitation of1935). qualified the bestThose on tutors, theteachers remaining expansion most went of tended whom to of England adult workedto be extra-mural bothafter on uncertifiedatheir voluntary trainingclasses andbasis. to in frequentlytheandeducation formsdevelopmental oflifelong,cited knowledge social reasonslimited mobility available controlrather of than ofindividuals.to one'sthe exclusively working own The education, economic class tradition in addition ones,learning of adult and to for educationchanges the cultural more in risetutorsdistrict.parochial in tolocal SimilarlyEngland in demand their ledduring viewpoint, (Lewisto the the collapse 1993). chronic with When noof unemployment many knowledge times adult are classes hardof 1929-35,areas it despitetends beyond the to the be migration concurrent theirthe better- own of programmesdevelopmentalrelatedamong working-classtraining were inopportunities relativelyenriching men was stableand strong. via practical, theoccupations, They Institutes withreceived a andcultural initial widerworkers aseducation, educationalwell Halls. as aplus careerThese andjob- Also,beeneducated athis clear "goldenresidents policy age" to who replace of leave voluntary them Wales or adult tempt and learning neither them back. nowwas norheavily in the gendered past has and there of threeonprogresssuch at majorschool men emphasis local receivedhas industries been (Istance through for later and work generations. Rees may 1995). have beenInThe 1944 socialisationas importantthe nationalisation andto them training as of staying thatthe steel, coal and rail was part of the same package as dominatedelsewhereprovidedlimited geographical for inthe menWales economy and (Istance application.has of been South and much Rees WalesTraining more1995). in the inprevalent SinceWales first halfmining, has in of the traditionallythis especially industrial century, ofsouthonly gradually coal been than has collierywithinsettlementthe Education or society, steelworks as theAct, independent free waswith schooling aswhich much working-class it has partof children. a of neat the educationalcongruence.education Despite the moved climate The continuing socialisation somein the inequalitieswaypost-war fromin the a inwomenminingreplacing South orhave Wales agriculture, its beenlinked with limited. onlyindustries and three sinceThe womentraining ofwomen metal of have andthewomen 200nottransport, wasortraditionally so an students localarea beenofopportunities in"gross WEA employed neglect" classes for in Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 0 16 Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 17 of 1911-12 (Lewis 1993). Most women were employed in agriculture and Homer, became local political officials instead. The gospel of socialism almost constraineddomesticprejudiceprogrammes.1914 so service didand by localinherentcurrent (WilliamsEducational job perceptionsconservatism opportunities 1983). development As of these(Evans family, for areas women1990a). for the of women employmentlaw, Women'sand medicaltheir in South groups related declined opposition, Wales did training useafter was the andaccount,entirely"blood"began an awakening replaced tosome of fear the Welsh at Welsh,the interestthis gospel nationalists, time and in thatofremedyingin non-conformitya classunique threatened loyalty serious period mightby socialof(Lewis the growing turn growth and 1993). out economic international ofto According beinternationalism thicker inequalities, awareness tothan this the someemphasised.al.organisation,facilities 1995). cases Howeverof the theMuchwhile relevant men's thethislearning attendance genderinginstitutes statistics is informal offorbut learningchildren Wales were anyway never areopportunitieswas notand heavily allowed availabletherefore discouraged should to for unrecorded.be not apart variety be(Nash of over- the ofIn et Today,7.ofonly thePERFORMANCE seemed educators the nature interested in ofthe lifelong WEA. MEASURESin the prospectivelearning FORin Southloss ADULT of Wales the language, EDUCATIONis different to the without bafflement being providedformalNevertheless,simplyadministrative post-warbeen evening renderedaccording reasons adult institutes education (Gorardinvisible to some whose 1997). observers(Kellyin intakes accounts In 1992). others werewomen written This over the have participationis 70% by true always men women not (Spender justpredominated offrom of women the 1946 1989). LEA- has toin growingwithclearlybuilt11% it. better.Thefromin population. 1961, number 1974 The and industryto of In all1986 books Neath of (Eatontheminfrastructure issued the graduallynumber 1987). by libraries has Theof switched bookschanged last in theworkers issued toandUK being eachtheis institute in training primarily declineyear droppedin provision despiteWales places by wasa of quartersWomen'sbyextra-mural1966, 1966). ofbut Institutes aThere alsoprovisionmillion the was and inclasses (athe inTownswomen's rise addition1960s of from the (Kelly responsible55% a huge 1992).Guildswomen rise bodies whose instudents the suchmembers post-war in as 1946 WEA numbered popularityto andnearly university three 70% of sinceearlyformmuseumentertainment 1980sof1991, a (Nash learning andso thatrather etadult al. society.more 1995),thaneducation recent learning.All perhaps adultgenerationsprovided Oakdaleaeducation symbolic by mayLEAs was in memorialnot Walesclosedhas have shown has intheto 1987declinedthe anopportunities enormouspassing and since is ofnow drop thatonethe a didspecificallybuiltA final not on problemtake many Welsh.place of for the in thisIt thetraditions was notionWelsh Welsh ofacknowledgedlanguage anbecause early and Welshit tookmany above, learningplace of inthe in some participantssocietyWales, respects isbut that itwere itgenerally although was recent not massiveaverageReducingtotheir lack fathers of travelimpact, demandthe did number time(Rees particularly but for ofisand alsocentresstudents Rees a onresult 1980).may female in ofanmake Itthe area students,is lacksenseunlikely of oflimited financially centrescan that be thispublic andseen dropbut courses in transport.it isFigureincreases simply on offer.2. Thedue theOf peopletheimmigrationin-migrants. languagetotal gained area andandof theirThe Wales industrialthe hugelivelihood culture contained expansion development of from the 70% chapel coal, of of disruptedsometimesthe the(Lewis populationSouth 1993). and indirectlyWales diluted (GorardIt explains coalfield throughthe 1997), Welshness why transportwith as20% most its of WEAcourse,whichOfficestill anddiminishing, LEAs now1995d). YMCA offerare The notalso 2,105 now growththe provide approximatelyclassesonly area providersclasses taking is in foruniversity 33,362 15,000of adults, adult students and departmentbuteducation 1,500the in numbers 1993/94, respectively andextra-mural training. of of these which (Welshclasses Theare the dropped,andSecularisationfromor metal candidates outside the production. mine Wales. coincided ownerswho Between Byhad replaced 1911 withbeen 1901 25%this destinedthe cross-culturalisationandAnglicanof all 1911 foradults theclergy73% inchapel ofGlamorgan as the common clergy,miningas attendance wereclass workforcesuch non-Welsh.enemies, as at Arthurchapel came hadtrainingWelsh1995d).14,000 training Office through hadThese off-the-job, fundedany workproportions training 29,916. has 4,000shown in haveDuringthe on-the-job nofour been rise this weeks constant in same Wales.and prior period,2,000 for Ofto the one 940,000 hadthe last survey, numberboth four employees, (Welshyears. of of which people Now, Office only 8,000 in25% Education and training in Wales . Gorard et al. 22 I 8 Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 23 19 theof companies figures for have companies a written with training an agreed plan, which annual is atraining rise from budget 16% inare 1991, broadly and trainingHowever, in the the proportion previous four of employees weeks was in higherWales thanwho thehad nationalreceived average, any job-related 13.9% TheyleftVocationalsimilar are to window-dressing, employers(Welsh training Office who in Wales,1996). tendindicative toasHowever, focusin ofthe but reston plans not a of relatively theBritain, and same budgets isas low largely training. areskills easy deregulated equilibrium, to increase. and different,versusmanyrespondentstraining 13.4% cases this and the(DfEefinding hadcertification. training no 1995). clarifiestraining available Given On inthe the past crucialthatmay other 12 the be months hand, distinctionfiguresgetting in (Istance shorter.for1992 betweenqualifications 75% and ofRees participation Welsh 1995) working and in in A growth in half-day look very usedcomparedmultiskillingVery to motivate few to Germany,small/medium since and certify they for instance.are training sized dominated companies thatQualifications employers by the in fear Southweresuch of asalreadypoaching Wales NVQs giving offer are(Cockrill generally consciousanyway. et al. currentopportunitiestrainingappearancehealth and rigidtakes'place, safety of gendervary more or significantly simpleregular word-processingsegregation increases training by in gender theforin courses numbers workforcemany and forpeople. class. cannot example of Perhaps SouthEven disguise could where Wales, because the lead fact women toof that the lengthier oldsthanpopulationwhole1996). qualifiedany andGBIstance who 70%region. at hadNVQand for receivingWalesReesScotland level (1994) consistently 2, (Df job-related56% reportedEe in 1995). 1995 has trainingthat the Similarlycompared thelowest percentagein 1992for proportionto NVQ64% was of forlevellower the of the 319-21working-age inandUK Wales higher,asyear a 35%oftenthereceive takesandwichof men farevening, less aged and employer-funded open FE 16-64 block and distancewere and day trainingdoing learning release or ( Istance places.course,completed andIn while 1994, Rees amen recognised whereas1995). still monopolise Women around trade more20 to relativelytheNational34% Foundation Wales, targets poor 38% performanceTarget for UK, education I 46% among Scotlandof andthemales hometraining, ()stanceand countries also Wales and for byReesNVQ had 1993, the1995). level lowestpartly 4.A In similarbecause attainment terms picture of the of educationmanyqualifications,apprenticeship,1995e). men orWomenin training,Wales but only even are,are 7%apart doing ofhere ofcourse, from women theso poorly progressleisure making were in classes, termsis relativein more the of also same marked certification.progress declines position precisely in with terms (Welsh age, because of 63%academic Office soof Participation in pencilling"fastperformingappliesthis as isin to despiteEngland Foundation poorlyNVQ primary (DfEe certificatesin Wales. 1996c)Targetevidence The in and 3, orderfigures from except not tothisas are meetfast thatstudy improving as theirin neededthat this own some (Jonescase, to targets. meetemployers women 1996), the Much targets, but are ofnot "sharp-also andthe as morethatthose16-19 the markedwho increase year are than olds,50+. in for participationThe22% men trend of (Welsh 20-24, for and women Office 10% qualification of 1995e).is 25-34,the same for 8% asthe of the younger35-49, overall and age trend only groups except 2% is of ageTrainingWalesretire,improvement in ratherWales,also (39% has than also27% compareda lowbeing comeshave proportion dueno fromto qualification to47% annatural of nationally,increase trainees inflation at inall, gaining DfEeinvestment 19% of qualifications 1996c). havea qualification ina GCSE,trainingOf those as 24% olderafterfor of allworkinghave Youthpeople ages. an Withtrainingmuchdecline1996). women of of and the Evenstapleas soawork relatively theywhere industries, that gain demand theyuntapped little workers are of exceeds offered supplytransferable are in ofissupply, abundant labourso routineor developmentalasin supply Southit doesthat Waleslocally. they for somerequire andvalue In aaddition, craftrapid (Rees little and ofqualificationsdegreeA level,35-49 or 9%and equivalent have14% is higher ofa higher 20-24 (Welsh in the forqualification older exampleOffice age 1996). (Welshgroups, below The Office43%degree number of 1995e) and60 to a of 64further people year 9%olds, with have 26% no a (CockrillWalescompanies.in-migrantsmanagement mentioned et Intojobs,al. theone 1996). training difficultiesregion small However, recentoris almostrecruits in studyrecruiting non-existentthese are a clear takenreports skilled majority on and mustfavourable workers such beof jobs employersviewed for areterms some often with from positionsintaken Southsome other by Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 24 20 BEST COPYEducation AVAILABLE and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 25 21 job performancenumeracyscepticism, and sincein there many the is cases, anskills indication merelymentioned that a necessity these were are most fornot furtheraoften necessary basic study componentliteracy via day and of andforcontinuing lifelong travel, overseas andlearning with investment. toincreased help prospective flexibility The Welsh learners of Office provision. with has planscosts, Their in including aimthe formis to childcareofassist action all willpeopleofasrelease muchskill not havecoursesin moveas the reflection left andprospective (Spielhofer the for region of whom the workforce.payin1996). South search and InWales conditions ofaddition, While jobs, is a therepermanent it advertisedlack is evident remainof suitable home.by athat thecore applicants Inhighlyemployer ofgeneral people educated ascanterms wholack be likelymustEnglishTheyadult betoalso to andreachnoted be suggest thata athatsource minimumevery asthat with ofadult training considerable thestandard should programme should be of able education weaknessbe for toavailable learnWelsh necessary inWelsh intotraining initialall for in for their educationbothat further least jobs,Welsh forstudy. andthis theand itis (Cockrillonetheypay,in occupationWalesmay low etbe (seeal.skill less 1996). Figure sincewell-trained,economy. Despite they3), there mustIn thealthough the is berecentstill first prepared a theyplacedanger increases will thereto of not take Walesin are beparticipation any insufficientrestricted becoming reasonable toin a theopportunitiesrelativelyHE local skills and jobFE oflow opportunitiesTheimmediateCONCLUSION major future. purpose available of to thisthe respondents paper is to in paint the survey a backdrop component of the of thislearning study Wales,thesethelocally highly 17,000 aroundmay for nevereducatedthe in8,000, numberall, return. are attendcontinues from of In graduates universitiesaddition, outside (Delamont Wales,producedthe outside majority and although locally,ReesWales of students1996).this andso situation the a Many fair atexodus the proportion studentsis University changing or waste fromof of Archive.providersregionsinstance).who have (GorardIt with providedThese is only long data1997), in retrospectivememories, the will light new be combinedof andmaterial the learning oral opportunities accounts fromwith histories theinterviews from secondaryavailable (going the South withback at data the tolocalWales time on1931 the training Miner'sthat in study oneit is Thetraditionalshiftwith Welsh atowards shift Office HE towards institutions,older (1995c) studyless is "traditional"suchnow nearer tryingas thehome, Opento studentsincrease the University expansion andvia improve Access(Istance of FE local andin Wales Rees training 1995). and in the courses and less evidenceandpossibleshowing training to relevant thatexamine or progress not. to the theOne decisionstowards nature further ofsuch of apurpose individuals learningan objective of society this to may participate paper (seebe described forthcomingis toin provideadult as mixed,education paper), some non- (WalesWithindividualorder otherto stimulate"2000" potential,agencies 1996). growth theydevelop formThe of localthe aWelsh part Welsh talent, of Officewhat regional and hasoutperform provides beeneconomy, described competitor finance, as well the economies. Welsh as Team Wales as to fulfil flexiblemustplannerslevel,linear not thisand labour, tobecome papereven ensure whichretrospectivealso seen a betterprovides is simply certainly educational a inas part some aone supplier of possible respects.the future picture of forfuturerelatively However, theneeded forregion. the low-costby on regionpolicy-makers Above a more semi-skilled (Istance all, practical Wales andand TrainingthebackupDevelopment skills and in training theEnterprise formAgency and of monitor Councils economic(and the equal stimulate Development regeneration opportunities. and define andBoard However, attracting local for Rural skills such investment, Wales)needs, agencies provide provides and play the a fromthing.Reesregeneration (1995).the Genuine instructor Fitting education for isWales people another. in thatits to pseudo-paradoxicalnewThe some latteror seek,existing is notbut jobs certainit wouldsense by reactiveto of almost produce teaching re-training certainly the independence economic produceis one whichhigh(Cockrillandvery Enterprise speedminor is wellet road roleal. suited 1996). Councils,andin many rail to Wales thelinks local for demands is toexample, employers described European of seen modern bytraining markets, themerely Welsh technology provision, a asworkforce Officea way with of of getting thehigh Training quality funds as evidencedas a region by with dramatic social and political changes that may well be preferable in retrospect. Education and training in \Vales - Gorard et al. 20 22 Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 27 23 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Evans W. (1990b) The Welsh Intermediate and Technical Education Act, 1889: a REFERENCESprovidersWalesThe ESRC Training for (Grant participating. Enterprise Number L123251041),Councils for funding. Gwent, TheMid familiesGlamorgan and and training West Fevre R. 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(1996) The socialforofphenomenon, adultanalysis, determinants participation paper in Educational presented in toeducationReview, British 48,1Educational and training: Research a framework Association ColemanCockrill J.A., (1990) Scott Choice, P. and Community Fitz J. (1996) and FutureTraining Schools, for BERAcomparisoneducation,multi-skilling: p. ix, conference,in Clune London: of W.British Lancaster Falmer and Press1996 German experience, paper presented at a Gorard S. S. (1997b) (1997) Paying Patterns for a ofLittle participation England: School in adult choiceAnnual Language,Education,training.education and Conference, the Working WelshISBN in and Welsh 1Lancaster. 872330 paper Journal 021: Also 9Theof Education,available region inof Education-line 6,study, 1 Cardiff: School of DfEeDelamont (1995) S. Trainingand Rees Statistics G. (1996) 1995, The London: Sociology HMSO of EducationAssociationfutureVolumeand inWitte Wales:agenda, 1, Annual London:J. (Eds.) Conference,paper Falmer Choice presented Press Lancaster and Controlat 1996British in EducationalAmerican Education, Research a Gorard S.,S., Rees G., Furlong J. and Fevre R. (1997) Patterns872330methodologyin of adult participation 03 7 education of the study,and training. Cardiff: SchoolWorking of Education, paper 2: Outline ISBN 1Furlong J., Fevre R. and Rees G. (1997b) Patterns of EurostatEllisEaton T. G. (1935) (1987)(1995) The A Education History development of Neath,across of Swansea:theHigher European Education Christopher Union inindicators, Wales,DaviesHughes Wrexham: and Brussels: Son Statistical Office of the European Communities - statistics and Hackett G. (1995) A Flawed Spur to The1participation Learning Society, in adult Cardiff: education School andof Education, training. ISBN Working 1 872330 paper 06 5: Improve, Times Educational Evans W.L. (1971)(1990a) Eduation Perspectives in on a Century of SecondaryWales,Avalon Education Aberystwyth: in Centre for Educational Studies Industrial Wales 1700-1900, Cardiff: 'stanceIstance D andand ReesRees G G (1994) (1995) Education Lifelong andLearning training in in Wales: Wales:NIACEforparadoxesSupplement Prosperity,A problems Programme revisited, 15/12/95, and a NIACE in Contemporaryp. 12Cymru policy Wales, discussion 7, p.7-27 paper, Leicester: Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 28 24 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 29 25 Jones G. (1982) Controls and Conflicts in Welsh Secondary1889-1944, Education Cardiff: University of Wales Press Reynolds D (1990) The great Welsh education debate, History19, of3, p.Education, 251 Jones G.G. (1990a)(1990b) From Which Intermediate Nation's Schools?, to Comprehensive Cardiff: UniversityEducation,PressinEvans Wales, Wof Aberystwyth: (Ed.)Wales Perspectives Centre foron Educationala Century ofStudies Secondary Education p. 60, in RobertsReynolds C. D. (1983) (1995) The Creating sociology an of Educational education and System Wales, for in Wales,CrisisJournal Williams1980, ofThe BSAof Economy G.Education, Welsh Sociology(Ed.) and 4,of 2,Ideology.Wales pp. 4-21Study Essays Group, on p. 231Welsh Society 1840- JohnsonJones S.B.G. R. (1991) and(1996) (1979) Lewis The Wales "Really I.History (1995) 2010 useful of AThree Port Curriculumknowledge": Talbot, Years On,PortCymreig, Radical Cardiff:Talbot: education The GoldleafAffairsInstitute WelshEducation, and Journalof working Welsh 4, 2, of pp. 22-35 Simon B. B. (1990b) (1990a) The The struggle Search for for hegemony Enlightenment: 1920-1926, the in workinginSearchWishart,adultSimon the twentietheducation B. forpp. class(Ed.) Enlightenment:15-70 andThe century, in the twentiethLondon: the workingLawrence century, class and London: Wishart,and adult Lawrence pp. education 15-70 and Keen R. (1979) Old Maesteg and the Bridgend ValleysBarry:HutchinsonWorkingclass in Photographs,culture Stewart Class 1790-1848, Williams Culture: in StudiesClarke J., in Critcher history C. and and theory, Johnson London: R. (Eds.) TESSpielhoferSpender (1993) D. (1989)T. Times (1996) Invisible Educational Attitudes Women, of local SupplementLondon: employers Women's Secondary towards PressResearchand theiryoung School Association previous people education, Annual Conference, paper presented Lancaster at 1996 British Educational LoweLewisKelly J.T.R. (1970) (1992)(1993) Adult ALeaders History Education and of Teachers.Adult in England Education Adult and education Wales:inofchallenge GreatLiverpool:Wales A Press Britain,and of Liverpool labour in University South Wales Press 1906-1940, Cardiff: University critical the TooleyTES J.(1995)(1994) (1996) TimesEducation EducationalEducational without the Supplementstate, Supplement London: SchoollEA SecondaryPerformance and College School TablesTables 1995'93'94 NashMcllroy G., J. Davies (1990) T. The and demise Thomas of B.the (1995) National Workmen's Council of Halls LabourandSimonsurvey, and Wishart,adult Colleges, London:B. education pp.(Ed.) 173-207 Michael The in Searchthe Joseph twentieth for Enlightenment: century, London: the working Lawrence class Institutes, in WelshWebsterWales 2000 Department R. (1990)(1996) EducationWales (1937) 2000 Educationin Issue Wales 7. andPublished in the Wales: Rebirth with Memorandum theof aReportofWestern Nation, 1996Education, onMail,in No. Historyadult 19,July 3, education pp. 183-194 in Wales 1936, Cardiff: Board of 5. PackerOPCSOHCMI (1993) A. and (1993) 1991 Campbell AchievementCensus. C. Report(1993) and forThe Wales.Under-achievement Reasons Part for ParentalWelsh-MediumSchoolsCardiff: in Choice Secondary Nationalin Wales Museum Education,1991-92, of Cardiff:Wales paper presentedOHCMI occasional at Minority Languages one, London: HMSO paper 1 of Welsh Office Office (1995a)(1990) (1995e)(1995b) Welsh Welsh PeopleStatistics in in the the and National Nationalof prosperity: Education Curriculum, Curriculum, anand agenda Training Cardiff: Schools,EducationCardiff: for HMSO inHMSONo.action Wales: 2, Cardiff: in HMSO Rees G. G. and (1996) Rees T. Making (1980) Educational a Learning Inequality Society: in Education Wales: Inequalityparadoxes,SomeConference, and problems work in inWales, Cardiff Rees London: 1993 G. and Croom Rees T.Helm (Eds.), Poverty and Social and in WelshWelsh Office Office (1995e) (1995d) 1994/95 Further Welsh and Training Higher Educationand EducationCardiff:StatisticsWales, and Cardiff: WelshSurvey, Training in Wales Office HMSO No. 3 1995, Cardiff: Welsh Office Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. SocietyIndustrial for SouthWelsh Wales,Labour TheHistory, Arthur Aberdare Horner 3/5/96 Memorial Lecture, for the 26 Education and training in Wales - Gorard et at. 27 Welsh Office (1995f) Wales in Figures, Cardiff: Unit Welsh Office Publications APPENDIX A - Educational participation and outcomes WilliamsWestWelsh E. Office (1994) G. (1983)(1996) Education CrisisDigest and of of the EconomyWelsh State, Local Indianapolis: and HMSO Area StatisticsIdeology. 1996, Cardiff:Essays on Welsh Liberty Fund Figure2 A 1level - Percentage equivalents5+ GCSE of pupils grade inC Wales gaining benchmark figures (Welsh 1991 2452 1994 60Office 1995c) WJEC (1994) The Education and Training Society19: What's 1840-1980, it all about?, BSA Sociology Cardiff: ofWelsh Wales Joint Study of Young People Aged 14- Education Committee Group Figure 2 LEA based adult education in Wales (Welsh Office 1995d) 36 Female studentsMale studentsLEA centres 50,0351991/9219,672 341 1993/9437,69813,227 197 Figure 3 - FE and HE students at institutions in Wales (Welsh Office 1995f) Full-time/Sandwich Pan-time day Evening Total 92,85133,22924,16535,457 F.E. 77,78817,26458,7451,779H.E. BEST COPY AVAILABLE Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 32 28 Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 3 3 29 (Source:APPENDIX Mid B Glamorgan - Mid Glamorgan/Ogwr/Brvntirion Careers Ltd) Destination of school leavers 1987-1996 mostlyRoughly in twothe same thirds school of those as before. returning to school in Mid Glamorgan are taking A level courses, Year 11 Figure 4 - Mid Glamorgan, destinationRTS% of school leavers FE% TIT% YTE% Job% Unempl% A majorityoffice(10%)manufacturing secretarial as ofthe leavers most sector. (13%). frequent in This 1991 In Ogwr/Bridgendsector for (21% boys, is followedof whileboys alone andbyfor construction engineeringgirls36% the of girls) was(16%), more popular choices were hairdressing (16%) and who gotHM a job forces were (10%) in the and sales for boys than the 198919881987199(1 753682728636 37 12 17 13 Ofstudentsarmed those forces, leaving in employed while Bryntirion sales status were went YT, more into construction sales.popular for (52%) girls andthan engineering both secretarial (29%) and were hairdressing. most frequent Most 1994199319921991 5992628368087085 42 17 1014 24 9 74 forfiguresOgwr/Bridgend, boys,males, for office/secretarial traineehairdressing manufacturing status (32%),YT 41%, were: textileswasand construction salesmore (32%) 23%frequent forand32%, girls. formanufacturing manufacturing In Ogwr /Bridgend (24%) motor both boys and girls. The corresponding 18%, and engineering 15% for females. But in vehicles were 199719961995 7201742567986068 4648 19l8 9 1 9 54 Ofmore favouritegirlsthose frequent health/caring entering for than males FE engineering most(31%) after boysengineering, and wentforbusiness/secretarial boys. into and engineering catering (30%).is (24%), the third In then Ogwr/Bridgcnd favourite business/secretarial for females. (12%), catering is the second and 1987 2113Year II Figure 5 - Ogwr/Bridgend district, destination of schoo leavers RTS% I FE% TIT% YTE% Job% Unempl% 19921991199019891988 21061549166617791872 4437 1411 1312 38 1015 64 199519941993 154314391498 4347 1716 910 3 1 912 65 19971996 Figure 6 - Bryntirion Comprehensive School, Bridgend, destination16781707 of school leavers 1990198919881987 173Year 11 36RTS% FE%12 25YTF% YTSYTE% total Job%18 2Unempl% 1994199319921991 137177 54 1310 12 1 11 5 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 19951996 150 eavers aged 4759 , 21 an 613 . . . to employment 12 . 810 36 Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 34 30 Education and training in Wales - Gorard et al. 3 I Cleo F 0 330
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