The Competition for the Tallest Skyscraper - Implications for Global Ethics and Economics

ctbuh.org/papers

Title: The Competition for the Tallest Skyscraper - Implications for Global Ethics and Economics

Author: Christopher Michaelson, Associate Professor, University of St. Thomas

Subjects: History, Theory & Criticism Social Issues

Keywords: Economics Ethics

Publication Date: 2014

Original Publication: CTBUH Journal, 2014 Issue IV

Paper Type: 1. Book chapter/Part chapter 2. Journal paper 3. Conference proceeding 4. Unpublished conference paper 5. Magazine article 6. Unpublished

© Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat / Christopher Michaelson History, Theory & Criticism The Competition for the Tallest Skyscraper: Implications for Global Ethics and Economics An iconic skyscraper has aesthetic significance that may have meaning for other aspects of human experience – serving, for example, as an expression of cultural and ethical values and a symbol of economic power. This study examines the competition for the world’s tallest skyscraper as a symbolic, but also substantively significant, window through which to understand the relationship between economics, ethics, aesthetics, and human well-being. Christopher Michaelson The study consists of an empirical component, analyzing skyscraper economics; and a philosophical inquiry on the social and ethical implications Authors of the empirical data. The empirical component connects architectural data Christopher Michaelson, Associate Professor Opus College of Business on the world’s tallest skyscrapers to indicators of economic and ethical University of St. Thomas 1000 LaSalle Avenue performance. The philosophical component explores the relationship Terrence Murphy Hall 443 Minneapolis MN 55403 between economic power and aesthetic and ethical values, raising normative United States concerns about the race to growth, without succumbing to the cultural t: +1 651 962 4349 e: [email protected] paternalism that often pervades contemporary Western commentary on www.stthomas.edu Eastern economic practices.

Christopher Michaelson The Skyscraper as a Window on the World center of tallest skyscraper gravity, which from With a PhD in Philosophy, Christopher Michaelson helped launch a business ethics consulting practice 1998 had visited Malaysia in the form of Kuala with PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) in 1998 before If the Kingdom Tower in Jeddah is completed Lumpur’s twin Petronas Towers and then taking a lectureship at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Now associate professor according to plan, it will become the world’s Taipei 101 in 2004. The one-upmanship has of Ethics and Business Law at the University of St. tallest building in a few years time by a long not been this intense since it played out on a Thomas, Opus College of Business, he has also been on the Business and Society faculty of New York margin. At more than a kilometer high, it much smaller field in Manhattan during the University’s Stern School of Business since 2005 and would eclipse the Burj Khalifa, less than a Great Depression. In the aftermath of the maintains an advisory role with PwC. Michaelson’s Figureclients have 1: included In one-fourth MNCs, NGOs, and the government time (1995-2020),decade after the the location Dubai landmark of the became world’s the Great Recession, the contest to build the tallestinstitutions. skyscraper His research integrates will move management about ﬁve world’stimes firstthe distancemegatall (600+ it moved meters) building.in the world’s tallest skyscraper will continue as long and the arts to explore global ethics and meaningful work. century before (1875-1975)Together, the buildings represent a shift in the as new entrants are intent on announcing Skyscraper data from CTBUH 2008, 2011; Distance data from timeanddate.com Distance Calculator their fitness for a manufactured competition 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 for global supremacy. 12,000 12,000 Kingdom Tower, Increasingly, skyscraper construction is est. 2019, Jeddah

D occurring in developing markets, and on one Burj Khalifa, i s

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r Bank of Manhattan Bldg, Park Row Building, l f l

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1899, NYC s c t (km) n at the potential expense of well-being. The a t Taipei 101, Sears Tower, 1974, s 3,000 i 3,000 2004, Taipei Chicago Burj Khalifa became a financial liability for an D Woolworth Building, emirate needing outside assistance to 1913, NYC Chrysler Building, 1930, NYC weather a global recession. The Kingdom Manhattan Life Singer Building, Empire State Building, One World Trade Center, Building, 1894, NYC 1908, NYC 0 1931, NYC 1972, NYC 0 Tower is rising in a city woefully lacking in 1875 1895 1915 1935 1955 1975 basic infrastructure, where in 2009 floods led 1995-2020 1875-1975 to death and destruction, merely because the city did not have a basic drainage system Figure 1. In the 25 years from 1995–2020, the location of the world’s tallest skyscraper will move about five times the distance it moved in the entire century before (1875–1975). Source: Skyscraper data from the CTBUH Skyscraper (Al-Ahmed 2009). Center; distance data from Distance Calculator, www.timeanddate.com

20 | CTBUH Journal | 2014 Issue IV The recent history of the skyscraper is a product and symbol of industrial advancement, and thus provides a window As a species of the technological sublime, the on the world through which to examine some of the most important ethical challenges “skyscraper evokes ‘awe and wonder, often arising from economic growth in developing markets. These challenges include such tinged with an element of terror’ whether tangible issues as corruption, for which standing near the top looking down, at the base opportunities and incentives multiply as markets grow in size and complexity; and the looking up, or even from afar, contemplating the natural environment, the stewardship over which is complicated by externalities and magnitude of the enterprise. competing priorities. They also include intangible philosophical questions with ” practical consequences, including how to wonder, often tinged with an element of term “supertall” to refer to buildings over 300 preserve cultural values while engaging in a terror” (Nye 1994: xvi) whether standing near meters in height, and now uses “megatall” for global marketplace, and how to balance the top looking down, at the base looking up, buildings at least twice that height. Among future investment with present needs. Much or even from afar, contemplating the completed skyscrapers, 7 of the tallest 10 in the as the skyscraper competition transposes the magnitude of the enterprise. world in 2014, and 72 of the tallest 100, were inherited value of “growth for growth’s sake” completed in 2000 or later. Although only two into the economic present, these challenges The biological aspiration to achieve, and the completed megatalls existed in 2014, five more have been confronted over and over respectful fear of size, have roots in animal were in progress (CTBUH Skyscraper Center). throughout history and proliferated with psychology, as demonstrated by the alpha Twice as many supertalls were completed in industrialization. Can the skyscraper help male chimpanzee who deploys tree branches 2010 than in 2000, and nearly four times as societies learn from the mistakes of the past, to enhance his stature when displaying (De many will be completed in 2020 as in 2010, and or are we doomed to repeat them? Waal 1998, Goodall 1971). In ancient remnants the average height of the top 20 skyscrapers in of human civilization, height elicits awe, 2020 will be almost megatall, at 598 meters deference, and spiritualism, from the Great (CTBUH 2011). The Skyscraper as Symbol of Economic Pyramids at Giza, to the location of the Ambition and Ethical Values Parthenon on the Acropolis, to the tiered form The shift in the geographical center of the of Ming Dynasty pagodas (Dupré 2008). In skyscraper’s gravity is equally dramatic. As Symbolically, a skyscraper communicates scripture, the Tower of Babel represents shown in Figure 1, in recent history, in roughly meaningfully through its size, design, and reaching for the seat of God. But another one-fifth the time, the location of the world’s technology to biological, aesthetic, and reason the skyscraper stands as a particular tallest skyscraper will move approximately five ethical values of human beings (De Botton and compelling symbol of contemporary times the distance that it did in the span of the 2006, Goodman 1985, Kingwell 2008, Petit power and values is that its technological so-called “American Century.” The changing 2002). Like literature and other arts possibility dates back only as far as the dawn geography of the skyscraper is a fairly sudden (Michaelson 2012), a skyscraper may reflect of modern industrialization. shift from West to East. From the 1930s to the cultural values at the same time that it 1970s, more than 90% of skyscrapers were in influences them. Unlike other arts, however, a Although much of the positioning for North America, dipping slightly to about 80% skyscraper is necessarily and always will be a ultimate supremacy occurred early in the in the 1980s and 1990s. By the 2000s, more major public-private venture, requiring skyscraper’s life – 10 of the 16 world’s tallest than half were outside North America – mostly aesthetic disinterestedness and economic buildings were completed in the first 50 years Asia – and by the 2010s, more than 75% were interest, architectural imagination and (CTBUH 2008) – the skyward competition has outside North America, about equally practical engineering, and financial capital accelerated dramatically in the past two distributed between Asia and the Middle East and resource coordination. In today’s world, as decades. This changing landscape of (CTBUH 2011). In this global society in which a product of political, economic, social, skyscraper construction is part of an citizenship might transcend traditional political technological, and environmental negotiation, urbanizing trend that renders the city an borders (Frey 2003), skyscraper symbolism is the skyscraper is arguably a market’s most important locus of economic and, potentially, distinctly provincial, a source of jurisdictional audaciously tangible evidence of democratic, life (King 2004). It is also reflected pride and power. achievement and intangible representation of in skyscraper vocabulary: the term “skyscraper” ambition. As a species of the technological was applied to the first steel-framed buildings, sublime, the skyscraper evokes “awe and but more recently, the CTBUH coined the

CTBUH Journal | 2014 Issue IV | 21 GDP share of world total est. 2014 based on PPP Height share of top 100 in 2014 based on # of buildings (Source: IMF) (Source: CTBUH)

China: 16.06% Vietnam 2% China - 49% China India: 5.96% India - 4% 16.06% USA Indonesia:1.51% 11% Indonesia - 0 Kuwait: 0.18% Kuwait - 1% India 5.96% Malaysia: 0.62% Malaysia - 3% UAE Rest of world Indonesia 1.51% Qatar: 0.23% Qatar - 4% 0.62% 16% 48.48% Russia: 2.89% China Russia - 0 Russia 49% 2.89% Saudi Arabia: 1.09% Saudi Arabia - 4% 1.09% South Korea 1.93% South Korea: 1.93% Taiwan 2% South Korea - 4% 1.07% Taiwan: 1.07% South Taiwan - 2% USA Korea 19.24% UAE: 0.32% 4% UAE - 16% Saudi USA: 19.24% Arabia USA - 11% 4% Qatar Vietnam - 2% Vietnam: 0.42% 4% Malaysia 3% India Rest of world - 0 Vietnam Kuwait 4% 0.42% Rest of world: 48.48% 1%

Figure 2. GDP share of world total est. 2014 based on PPP. Source: IMF FigureCh 3.in Heighta - 49 share basedQata onr - 4 number of buildingsUAE - 16in top 100 in progress, topped out, Iornd completedia - 4 as of AugustRussia -28, 0 2014. Source:USA CTBUH - 11 China - 16.06% Qatar - 0.23% UAE - 0.32% Indonesia - 0 Saudi Arabia - 4 Vietnam - 2 IndiaSkyscraper - 5.96% Economics,Russia - Ethics,2.89% and USA - 19.24%North Korea, Russia, Saudi Arabia,Kuw aSouthit - 1 Korea,S outh Kdevelopmentorea - 4 R eandst o fthe wor otherld - 0 measuring IndoAesthetics:nesia - 1.51% Data andSaud Methodsi Arabia - 1.09% Vietnam - 0.42%Taiwan, the UAE, the United States,Malays andia - 3 Taiwancorruption - 2 perceptions, were chosen because Kuwait - 0.18% South Korea - 1.93% Rest of worVietnam.ld - 48.48% Data were gathered on skyscrapers, of their widely accepted (though not MalaTheysia -empirical 0.62% dataT thataiwan follow - 1.07% accentuate the economic, and well-being indicators for those uncontroversial) authority, the contrast in relationship between skyscraping ambitions 13 markets, along with selected data on two thematic focus between them, and the and emerging economic power. That more (Indonesia and Qatar) anticipated to join longevity of available data. The UNDP Human relationship is fairly well-trodden by experts the “Tallest 20 in 2020” list (CTBUH 2011). Development Index (HDI), calculated since and even well-known to laypeople. While 1990, measures human development relying on such data, the present study seeks The skyscraper data from which this analysis primarily as a function of education, health, to find potentially interesting stories within materializes come primarily from the and economic data, suggesting that cracks and crevices between the economic Skyscraper Center database of the CTBUH. well-being is not a measure of economic and height data, pointing in the direction of Additional data on aesthetic and growth alone, but also of wealth distribution normative analysis about the relationship environmental values were procured, when and other complex, non-economic factors. between economic power and aesthetic and available, from design architect and building Transparency International’s Corruption ethical values. The goal of the analysis is not websites and other searches. The purpose of Perceptions Index (CPI), available since 1995, necessarily to provide new information, but gathering this data was to answer such measures perceived levels of public-sector rather to present a finer way of looking at questions as: corruption, which is relevant not only to human advancement in at least three quality of life, but also particularly to such dimensions. In doing so, this study seeks to Did the design architect have a cultural – as major infrastructure projects as skyscraper raise normative concerns about the race to imperfectly indicated by geographic construction. The construction industry is growth without succumbing to the cultural proximity – connection to the market in regarded by reputation as being vulnerable to paternalism that often pervades which the building was located, corruption and highly dependent upon contemporary Western commentary on Was the design of the building collaboration (and sometimes collusion) Eastern economic practices (Michaelson 2010, internationally renowned? between the public and private sectors. Said 1978). Was the style of the building influenced by cultural markers? All of this is likely to give the false impression The present study utilizes a list of the world’s Was the building designed for that this study is more empirically grounded 100 tallest skyscrapers that were under environmental sustainability in any publicly than it is intended to be. There are legitimate construction, topped out, or completed (not recognizable way, given that buildings and reasons to challenge; the statistical including proposed, on hold, or demolished) the energy they consume account for more significance of the data as collected here, as of the date of download from the CTBUH than half of greenhouse gas emissions? including the arbitrary cut-off points and Skyscraper Center – March 27, 2014 (as a sign (AIA 2009). dates of lists of 10, 12, 20, and 100; the small of the times, 7 of the top 10, and 51 of the top sample sizes of markets, data points about 100, were classified as under construction). Economic trend data come from the IMF’s markets, and skyscrapers within lists; the The countries represented on this list are: World Economic Outlook 2014 database. Two general lack of availability – and presence of China, India, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Malaysia, well-being indicators, one measuring human subjectivity – of design and environmental

22 | CTBUH Journal | 2014 Issue IV Height share of Height share of Height share of Height share of Country Average 2014 2019 Country top 20 in 2014 % top 20 in 2014 % top 20 in 2020 % top 20 in 2020 % 1996–2005 (# of buildings) (m) (# of buildings) (m) China 9.2% 7.5% 6.5% China 13 65% 7,341 62% 9 45% 5,065 42% India 6.4% 5.4% 6.8% India 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% Indonesia 2.6% 5.4% 6.0% Indonesia 0 0% 0 0% 1 5% 638 5% Kuwait 5.0% 2.6% 3.9% Kuwait 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% Malaysia 4.7% 5.2% 5.0% Malaysia 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% Qatar 9.7% 5.9% 6.4% Qatar 0 0% 0 0% 1 5% 551 5% Russia 3.8% 1.3% 2.5% Russia 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% Saudi Arabia 3.3% 4.1% 4.3% Saudi Arabia 2 10% 1,601 13% 2 10% 1,601 13% South Korea 4.8% 3.7% 3.8% South Korea 1 5% 555 5% 3 15% 1,705 14% Taiwan 4.4% 3.1% 4.5% Taiwan 1 5% 508 4% 1 5% 508 4% UAE 5.8% 4.4% 4.2% UAE 1 5% 828 7% 2 10% 1,344 11% USA 3.4% 2.8% 2.2% USA 2 10% 1,082 9% 1 5% 541 5% Vietnam 7.1% 5.6% 6.0% Vietnam 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%

Table 1. Estimated annual GDP growth. Source: IMF Table 2. : Height share in # of buildings vs. in meters. Note: Blue means greater or equal share in # of buildings as in World Economic Outlook (August 2014) meters; red means greater share in meters. Source: CTBUH Skyscraper Center (August 28, 2014) and CTBUH 2011. data about skyscrapers; the time-specificity almost 49%. However, 100% of height share skyscraper construction, gaining momentum and ever-changing nature of data collected, among the tallest 100 skyscrapers belongs to in the era of the megatall. Or second, in the and so on. This list will change dramatically in just 13 countries, as illustrated in Figure 3. One race to the tallest, some markets take the the coming years, and so as an historical, method of measuring height share of the top principle of “tall for tall’s sake” to a greater time-bound document, this article is of 100 skyscrapers in 2014 is to count the extreme than others. limited use. The empirical data here have number of buildings a country places in the been collected from a host of reliable sources, top 100. Indonesia, Qatar, and the rest of the Symbolic power, in the form of an iconic but they should be considered directionally world each have a 0% share in 2014. Height skyscraper, can be purchased, unlike interesting rather than statistically significant. share thus far outstrips market share, substantive progress on human well-being The data in this study are thus a short-term suggesting that the symbolic ascent to power measures means to a long-term end, enabling occurs ahead of the substantive realization of There is a complicated relationship between normative analysis of attitudes toward power power. Moreover, as is evident from GDP skyscraper growth and economic growth, and and associated aesthetic and ethical values. growth rates in Table 1, GDP market share is economic growth has an equally complicated not about to catch up with height share. relationship with general well-being (Friedman 2005, Nussbaum 2011, Sen 1988). Skyscraper Economics, Ethics, Moreover, interestingly and ironically, small But is there any discernible relationship And Aesthetics: Analysis differences might have large significance. between skyscraper growth and general Table 2 compares height share as a function well-being? Height share is a leading indicator of of number of buildings in the top 20 to height economic ambition, not a lagging indicator share as a function of the number of meters of To explore this question, performance on of economic achievement total height in the top 20. In 2014, five markets well-being indicators was examined in the This study introduces the concept of “height (China, Russia, South Korea, Taiwan, and the period of time between a country’s first entry share,” the rough skyscraper equivalent of the United States) have a greater or equal height into the community of supertalls (the date of economic notion of market share. All other share in terms of number of buildings than entry was considered to be the date of things equal, if skyscraper height were a their height share in meters, whereas two completion of the country’s first building that symbol of actual economic power, we would have the reverse (Saudi Arabia and the UAE). is on the current top 100 list, which cuts off at expect to see great skyscrapers arise in relative In 2020, Qatar joins the five markets in the about 330 meters) and the date of data proportion to great economies. However, former category. What this shows is that the gathered for the most recent reports issued what we see in fact is dramatically different. As former are generally building more but lower, for the HDI and CPI. Unfortunately, the sample shown in Figure 2, the combined GDP (i.e., and the latter are generally building fewer and size of available data is small, an indication not market share) of the 15 countries represented higher, in relative terms. There may be at least only that the supertall skyscraper is young, in this study comprises just over half of global two explanations for this contrast. First, Saudi but also that the interest in non-economic GDP, meaning the rest of the world comprises Arabia and the UAE are newer to the game of indicators of well-being is at least as young.

CTBUH Journal | 2014 Issue IV | 23 Completion HDI rank as HDI value as HDI HDI rank date of first available for available for year closest value in 2013 Country building in Building year closest to to date of in 2013 (in 20140.9 00 0.900 current top date of building building (in 2014 report) ChinaChina 100 completion completion report) (n=187) 0.800 0.800 KuwaiKtuwait China 1999 Jin Mao Tower 87 0.718 0.719 91 MalayMsialaysia India 2015 World One NA NA 0.586 1350.700 0.700 SaudiS Aaruadbii aArabia Indonesia NA NA NA 0.684 1080.600 0.600 UAE UAE Kuwait 2011 Al Hamra Tower 63 0.760 0.814 46 0.500 0.500 VietnaVmietnam Malaysia 1998 Petronas Tower 1 61 0.772 0.773 62 TaiwaTnaiwan 0.400 0.400 Qatar NA NA NA 0.851 31

Mercury City 0.300 0.300 Note: Data not avail- Russia 2013 Tower NA NA 0.778 57 able before 1990 and Saudi Makkah Royal after 2013. Data not Arabia 2012 Clock Tower Hotel 57 0.782 0.836 340.200 0.200 available for Taiwan.

South 2016 Lotte World Tower NA NA 0.891 15 Korea 0.100 0.100 Taiwan 1997 Tuntex Sky Tower NA NA NA NA 0.000 0.000 UAE 2000 Emirates Tower 1 46 0.812 0.827 40 HDI valueHDI as value available as available for HDI for valueHDI in value 2013 in 2013 USA 1931 Empire State NA NA 0.914 5 year closestyear toclosest date toof date of(in 2014(in report) 2014 report) Building buildingbuilding completion completion (0=low to(0=low 1=high to 1=high (0=low to(0=low 1=high to 1=highhuman human human human Vietnam 2012 Keangnam Hanoi 127 0.617 0.638 121 Landmark Tower development)development) development)development)

Figure 4. Change in UNDP HDI value from completion date of first building in current top 100 to 2013. Source:China UNDPChina MalaysiMa alaysia UAE UAE

Where comparative data are available wrought with significant potential Kforuw failure.aitKuwa Itit Sbuildingaudi ASraaubd ilocationai Arabia wasVi eexaminedtnamVietnam as a potential between yesterday and today, the early raises the question: where does achieving indicator of the designTai wrelevanceanTaiwan of home- returns are inconclusive about whether human well-being stand in priority relative to country culture and values. Other design data skyscraper growth attracts the kinds of constructing a skyscraping symbol of power? gathered included design awards (including growth that bring about non-economic CTBUH awards, which do not date as far back well-being. As shown in Figures 4 and 5, the Height falters, but design endures as the completion date of some buildings in change in HDI and CPI values where Building tall is a one-dimensional sign of the sample). Environmental certification, as comparisons are possible are unremarkable, greatness in a multi-dimensional world, which well as design for sustainability features, were with as many going up as down, and more is why most of today’s iconic skyscrapers are recorded where that information was staying about the same. Taiwan’s CPI score is likely to be forgotten someday when they available. The building set studied for these the only one showing material improvement appear positively short. Skyscrapers that purposes included not only the first entry of but has had a comparatively long period of endure are not only marvels of structural the 13 countries in the top 100, but also the time (since 1997) for the change to occur. This engineering and technology, but also first world’s tallest building (where different) of suggests that it is comparatively easy to buy emblems of aesthetic and ethical values, in the five countries that have earned that title symbolic value (in the form of skyscrapers) but the form of, for example, design excellence (in order, the United States, Malaysia, Taiwan, it is relatively difficult to make substantive and energy efficiency. When a building is a the UAE, and Saudi Arabia) – resulting in the improvements to general well-being (in the cultural symbol of values other than size, addition of four buildings: the Home form of human development and corruption harking back to ancient forms at the same Insurance Building in Chicago (the world’s first reduction). time that it pursues future solutions to today’s skyscraper), Taipei 101 (the world’s tallest resource scarcity threats, it stands to be skyscraper from 2004-2010), the Burj Khalifa in This conclusion is a truism that should not be remembered and pays a long-term return on Dubai (the world’s tallest completed surprising, but it has not stopped many a investment. To measure matters of aesthetic skyscraper in 2014), and the Kingdom Tower country from attempting to buy notoriety. design – a longstanding but largely subjective in Jeddah (anticipated to be the world’s tallest One notable failure was the canceled Russia construct – and ethical commitment to the skyscraper in 2019). As with the well-being Tower (BBC News 2008), and a near-failure was environment – a relatively immature field of indicators, it was impossible not to recognize the delayed Ryugyong Hotel in North Korea study – several data points were gathered. the general absence of reliable, objective data (Demick 2008). Building supertall is indeed an The geographical relationship between the on the aesthetic and ethical indicators, impressive achievement, but one that is design architect’s headquarters and the suggesting their – regrettably – relatively low

24 | CTBUH Journal | 2014 Issue IV 70 China Completion date CPI rank CPI value in year of in year of CPI value CPI rank Kuwait Country of first building in Building building in 2013 in 2013 current top 100 building (n=177) 60 completion completion Malaysia China 1999 Jin Mao Tower 58 34 40 80 Taiwan 50 India 2015 World One NA NA 36 94 Vietnam

Indonesia NA NA NA 32 114 40

Kazakhstan 2016 Abu Dhabi Plaza NA NA 26 140 30 Kuwait 2011 Al Hamra Tower 54 46 43 69

Malaysia 1998 Petronas Tower 1 29 53 50 53 20 North Korea NA Ryugyong Hotel NA NA 8 175

Qatar NA NA NA 68 28 10

Russia 2013 Mercury City NA NA 28 127 Tower 0 Makkah Royal Saudi Arabia 2012 Clock Tower Hotel NA NA 46 63 CPI value in year of building CPI value in 2013 South Korea 2016 Lotte World Tower NA NA 55 46 completion (0=highly corrupt (0=highly corrupt to 10=very clean, x10 to to 100=very clean) account where appropriate for Taiwan 1997 Tuntex Sky Tower 31 50 61 36 methodology change)

UAE 2000 Emirates Tower 1 NA NA 69 26 China Malaysia Vietnam USA 1931 Empire State NA NA 73 19 Building Kuwait Taiwan Keangnam Hanoi Note: Data not available before 1995 and after 2013, and for UAE in 2000. Vietnam 2012 Landmark Tower 123 31 31 116

Figure 5. Change in Transparency International CPI value from completion date of first building in current top 100 to 2013. Source: Transparency International priority in the general study of global building on it could be the subject of debate. enduring than those that can be quantifiably economics and culture. In that spirit, the Kingdom Tower might be measured. Like the Empire State Building, the derided as representing the vain ambitions of design of which endures more than eighty Notwithstanding these data collection wealthy power-brokers intent on hiring years after its completion, Taipei 101 is more challenges, and the subjectivity of the foreign architects with little appreciation for technologically and humanistically advanced enterprise, buildings were categorized with local cultural values in order to achieve “tall for than many tall buildings that have been some level of confidence in repeatability into tall’s sake.” By contrast, Taipei 101, with its started or completed or contemplated since. three general categories (see Table 3, page culturally significant design features and its The Empire State Building holds a record not 44–45): effort to retrofit for energy efficiency several likely to be broken soon: that of world’s tallest years after completion stands as an iconic for the longest period of time. This record 1. Skyscrapers designed for substantive representation of values more important and stands as a reflection, for good or ill, of well-being (generally, these reflected the intentional incorporation of culturally meaningful signifiers and a concern for the environment) 2. Skyscrapers designed for growth symbolism (generally, these reflected It is comparatively easy to buy symbolic height as a primary priority to the general “value in the form of skyscrapers but it is exclusion of other good things) 3. Skyscrapers with ambiguous cultural relatively difficult to make substantive meaning (by far the largest group of buildings, which did not cleanly fit into the improvements to general well-being in the form other two lists). of human development and corruption No doubt, critical bias played a role in the reduction. formation of these three lists, and every ” CTBUH Journal | 2014 Issue IV | 25 Completion date of first Height rank Height rank Design architect HQ Design architect Environmental Environmental features Country building in current top 100 Building in world in country Design architecture firm (Firm website first geographic connection? Design features (from web search, CTBUH design awards and other global designations certifications (from web search, (*or of world's tallest) 2014 2014 (CTBUH first listed if multiple) listed if multiple) (author analysis) including firm or building website) (from LEED public database) including firm or building website) Skyscrapers designed for substantive well-being

Pagoda style with bamboo stalk, significance of 2004 Popular Science’s “Best of What’s New” Award – Grand Retrofitted and redesigned in 2011 to achieve Taiwan 2004* Taipei 101 14 1 C.Y. Lee & Partners Taipei, Taiwan Yes Award: Engineering Category; 2004 Emporis Skyscraper greater energy efficiency to become world's tallest lucky number 8 (8 sections, 8 supercolumns), Award – Gold Award; The 5th Far Eastern Architecture Award – LEED Platinum LEED Platinum building (Yeh, J. 2011. “Taipei 101 approved by Feng Shui master Special Award; 2006 Taiwan Architecture Award ‘LEEDs’ the Way Up.” The China Post, May 29, 2011) Lobby contains medallion designating the USA 1931 Empire State Building 53 5 Shreve Lamb & Harmon Associates New York, USA Yes building at the center of the universe Designated a historic place and landmark building LEED Gold Skyscrapers designed for growth symbolism Streamlined form can be interpreted to resemble Saudi Arabia 2019* Kingdom Tower 1 1 Adrian Smith + Gordon Gill Architecture Chicago, USA No desert plant growth, fused with technology Skyscrapers with ambiguous cultural meaning Latticework exterior acts as pollution filter; self- China 1999 Jin Mao Tower 36 20 Skidmore, Owings, & Merrill Chicago, USA No Tiered pagoda form World Architecture Award Asia – Finalist LEED Gold rescue systems for fire/emergency Designed to be one of the most environmentally India 2015 World One 27 1 Pei Cobb Freed & Partners New York, USA No Emphasis on functional design to maximize views Green Good Design Award sustainable developments in the world CTBUH Best Tall Building Middle East and Africa Finalist; Kuwait 2011 Al Hamra Tower 38 1 Skidmore, Owings, & Merrill Chicago, USA No Coiling wings resemble flowing Kuwaiti robes One of the best inventions of 2011 by TIME magazine; 2011 Emporis Skyscraper Award – Silver Award Basic plan of overlapping squares forms 8-pointed Malaysia 1998 Petronas Tower 1 23 1 Cesar Pelli & Assocs New Haven, USA No Islamic star, complex design typical of Malaysian Shading devices built into façade per tropical architecture; peaks and bridge form the letter 'M' location, laminated glass Vertical layout of multiple spheres of life: work, International Property Awards Europe 2013 – Best High-Rise Collects melting water for reuse; 75% of work Russia 2013 Mercury City Tower 84 4 Frank Williams & Partners New York, USA No home, recreation, etc. Architecture spaces daylighted; substantial use of local materials Makkah Royal Clock Overlooks the Holy Haram site; advertises luxury Saudi Arabia 2012 Tower Hotel 7 2 Dar al-Handasah Shair & Partners Beirut, Lebanon Inconclusive living and retail consumerism Curvature and tapered form reflect Korean South Korea 2016 Lotte World Tower 9 1 Kohn Pederson Fox Associates New York, USA No artistry; interior program spaces take inspiration Seeking LEED certification from Korean art forms Shape of building based on a character that Taiwan 1997 Tuntex Sky Tower 73 2 C.Y. Lee & Partners Taipei, Taiwan Yes forms part of Kaohsiung City's name Emphasis by design architect is on luxury: helipad UAE 2000 Emirates Tower 1 68 12 NORR Architects Engineers Planners Toronto, Canada No Frame the World Trade Center tower built by the Winning entry in an unspecified international design with direct flights to airport; built on human-made prime minister's father competition, according to architect island to evoke floating appearance Triple-lobed footprint intended to evoke Office dev. in Burj Khalifa Condensation from A/C used for landscaping; UAE 2010* Burj Khalifa 2 1 Skidmore Owings & Merrill Chicago, USA No Hymenocallis flower, building intended to evoke CTBUH Best Tall Building Middle East and Africa; CTBUH community is designated exterior uses reflective glazing to withstand Islamic onion domes Global Icon Award LEED Gold outdoor heat Home Insurance Transition from masonry to steel frame bearing USA 1885* Building NA NA William LeBaron Jenney Chicago, USA Yes weight; skyscraper pioneer NA Fireproof metal frame Keangnam Hanoi Based on the Leap & Balance concept reflecting Vietnam 2012 Landmark Tower 90 2 Heerim Architects & Planners Seoul, South Korea Inconclusive the leaping morale of Hanoi

Table 3. Comparison of tall building heights, design, origin, and implications on environmental sustainability and national prominence. empires past – while also standing as a sign of – even though such hubris appears to be a References deference to a world no longer in the thrall of universal human flaw. The remedies for such AL-AHMED, A. 2009. “Jeddah Flood Deaths Shame Saudi empires, but rather, committed to the flaws are normative prescriptions about Royals.” The Guardian. December 3, 2009. http://www. guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/dec/03/jeddah- advancement of human well-being. aesthetic and ethical values that warrant floods-sewage-al-saud. Accessed September 30, 2012. priority over, and endure longer than, economic power. Despite the short-lived AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS (AIA). 2009. “Architects and Climate Change.” http://www.aia.org/ Empires Past and Future Well-being relevance of the particular data for this study, aiaucmp/groups/aia/documents/pdf/aias077675.pdf. its messages are likely to remain the same, Accessed May 28, 2012. This study instead shows a modern global even as it hopefully plays a role to reduce the BARCLAYS CAPITAL. 2012. “Skyscraper Index: Bubble competition whose participants are likelihood that its mistakes will be repeated. Building.” http://static.nzz.ch/files/6/2/0/ seemingly more intent on showing their Buying status without attendant regard for Skyscraper+Index+-+Bubble+buildi ambitions before they have the substance to ethical well-being and aesthetic quality only ng+100112+(2)_1.14300620.pdf. Accessed May 26, 2012.  back them up, and on spending their capital earns a fleeting reward. BBC NEWS. 2008. “Moscow Super Skyscraper Halted.” BBC before they have reached economic maturity. News. November 21, 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/ It raises concerns about the danger of fr/-/2/hi/europe/7742538.stm. Accessed May 7, 2012. unmitigated pursuit of power, a concern COUNCIL ON TALL BUILDINGS AND URBAN HABITAT sometimes addressed, paternalistically, by (CTBUH). 2008. “The Tallest Buildings in the World: Past, “advanced” markets to “developing” markets Present, and Future.” CTBUH Journal 2008(2): 40–41.

26 | CTBUH Journal | 2014 Issue IV Completion date of first Height rank Height rank Design architect HQ Design architect Environmental Environmental features Country building in current top 100 Building in world in country Design architecture firm (Firm website first geographic connection? Design features (from web search, CTBUH design awards and other global designations certifications (from web search, (*or of world's tallest) 2014 2014 (CTBUH first listed if multiple) listed if multiple) (author analysis) including firm or building website) (from LEED public database) including firm or building website) Skyscrapers designed for substantive well-being

Note: The above list includes tall buildings which are still under construction.

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