Research and writing: Noreen M. Parks Editing: John Sibert Layout:May Izumi

Cover Photo: Richard Herrmann

~ UH-NOAA~ Executive Summary

This report highlights the accomplishments of the Pelagic Research Program (PFRP) over the period 1993–2003. Operating from the University of -Manoa, the program supports the scientific research needs of the Western Pacific Regional Management Council, in conjunction with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. More than 70 projects have been funded to address questions in fisheries biology, oceanography, statistics and modeling, genetics, protected species, - eries economics and socio-cultural issues. The PFRP has played a leading role in promoting research in support of the ecosystem approach to fisheries. Through its links with the University of Hawaii, the PFRP is able to assist in training new fisheries scientists. In its scientific collaborations and partic- ipation in multinational forums for , the PFRP also has played an important role in fostering international cooperation for the sustainable management of pelagic fisheries throughout the central and Western Pacific. Responding to emerg- ing scientific needs for responsible fisheries stewardship, the program continues to sponsor cutting-edge, multidisciplinary research.

i ii THE PACIFIC OCEAN—HEART OF THE BLUE PLANET, HOME TO THE WORLD’S RICHEST FISHERIES

If you hitched a ride on a space shuttle circling the globe, during much of the voyage the Pacific Ocean would dominate your view of Earth. Our “blue planet” owes much of its liquid character to the Pacific, which covers nearly one third of the globe—an area larger than all the landmasses combined. More than twice the size of the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific encompasses over 64 mil- lion square miles, spanning from pole to pole and stretching more than 9,000 miles along the equator from Asia to the Americas. Simply put, the Pacific Ocean is Earth’s largest geographic feature. The central and western reaches of the Pacific—from 150° west longi- tude (just east of Hawai‘i) to the shores of Japan, Southeast Asia, Australia and New Zealand—com- prise about 40 percent of the entire If you hitched a ride on a space shuttle circling the globe, during much of the voyage the Pacific Ocean ocean area. This vast realm contains would dominate your view of Earth. (Courtesy of NASA.) the planet’s highest diversity of marine life, including fisheries that are masters of the high seas, ranging roughly three-quarters of the ocean- supply direct economic benefits to freely throughout the upper waters of wide catch each year. Over the last two some two dozen countries and food to the open ocean. While each species has decades, catches have expanded millions of people around the world. unique traits and behaviors, in general steadily, chiefly due to the growth of the The character of these fisheries relates and grow rapidly and purse seine fishery. Throughout the closely to that of the 200-plus high possess champion-like stamina. 1990s CWP tuna catches averaged islands and about 2,500 low islands and Clocking speeds of up to 30 miles an about 1.6 million metric tons (mt)* atolls sprinkled sparsely across this hour, they migrate over distances of annually, with an all-time record set in ocean sector. Most of these specks of many hundreds of miles, guided prin- 1998 at 2.04 million mt. The prelimi- land rise steeply from the seafloor, have cipally by seasonal changes in ocean nary estimate for 2002 was nearly 1.9 no continental shelf, and generally lack temperatures and concentrations of million mt—almost half of the esti- the lakes and streams that provide prey. During warm seasons some of mated world tuna catch. nutrients to support ocean life in the these streamlined nomads travel as far coastal waters of larger landmasses. as northerly latitudes on par with Japan Geopolitics and Fisheries Thus while nearshore fisheries are and southerly latitudes of New Management immediate and significant resources for Zealand. Another key feature of these The total landmass of the Pacific Pacific island peoples, they represent is their prolific reproduction. island nations and US Pacific holdings only a tiny fraction of the region’s Spawned mainly in the open seas, their represents only a tiny fraction of the marine wealth. larvae ride on ocean currents far and CWP.However, each political entity has Tunas and billfish (such as sword- wide. Thus, the fisheries targeting these jurisdiction over an exclusive econom- fish and marlins) are sometimes called species span the Pacific, and under- ic zone (EEZ) extending 200 miles off- the “petroleum of the Pacific” for their standing their ecology and sustainably shore, and this combined area amounts economic importance. Their delectable managing those fisheries poses a huge to 28 percent of all EEZs worldwide. meat and prowess make them some of and complex challenge. The substantial US stake across the the most popular fish sought for food The tuna fisheries are by far the region includes the State of Hawai‘i— and sport. In contrast to fish that dwell most valuable component of the com- near the seafloor or spend much of mercial pelagic fisheries of the central their lives near land, these “pelagic” fish and western Pacific (CWP), producing *one metric ton = 1.102 US "short" tons (2204 pounds)

1 countries whose primary aim is to maximize commercial catches destined for international export; to the indus- trialized United States, whose stated policy goals include sustainable fish- eries and the conservation of marine resources. Notwithstanding these dis- Northern Hawaiian parities, the management of shared Mariana Wake I Islands stocks of highly migratory species can Islands succeed only with multinational coop- Johnston eration and participation. Achieving Atoll Guam effective, sustainable fisheries manage- Palmyra I ment demands timely and accurate sci- Howard & Baker Is entific information. With its highly Jarvis I developed capacity for research, the United States has played and must con- American tinue to play a leading role in providing Samoa a scientific foundation for fisheries pol- icy and facilitating international coop- eration. The declining state of world fish- eries further underscores the critical need for sustainable management of Pacific fish populations. Globally, fish provide approximately one fifth of ani- mal protein in the human diet, and about one billion people rely on fish as their primary protein source. Humans directly consume about 80 million mt extending about 1500 miles, from of fish annually, and the United Exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of Pacific Hawai‘i Island to Kure Atoll—Guam; Nations Food and Agriculture Islands. Western Pacific Regional Fisheries the Northern Mariana Islands; Organization expects demand to Management Council jurisdiction shown in American Samoa; Johnston Atoll; red. (Courtesy WPRFMC) increase by as much as 50 percent over Palmyra; and Wake, Jarvis, Howland the coming decade as the world popu- and Baker islands. Together, the eco- lation grows. At the same time, several nomic zones of these far-flung territo- decades of increasing pressure ries is about 1.5 million square nautical have left the majority of important fish miles—nearly half of the EEZ waters stocks depleted or in decline. Recent under US control. projections suggest the contribution of Adding to the political complexity fish to the global food supply will like- of the region are the fishing interests of ly decrease over coming years as other countries (Japan, China, Taiwan, demand for fish rises and production Korea, Philippines, Indonesia, Spain levels out and then falls. In addition, and others) that operate “distant-water” growing concerns over the effects of fleets in the CWP under license agree- industrial fishing on marine ecosys- ments with local governing authorities. tems—in particular the discarded And, interspersed within and around bycatch and incidental catches of pro- this mosaic of marine jurisdictions are tected species—have sharpened the areas of international waters—the urgency of improving our understand- unregulated “high seas” where a lack of ing and stewardship of ocean official control seriously hampers effec- resources. tive fishery management. The essential function of the CWP The interests of the stakeholder pelagic fisheries in world food supplies nations of the CWP and their abilities and their unique and highly migratory to exploit fish resources vary consider- character makes US leadership in the ably, from the developing island scientific management of these fish- nations whose fisheries represent the eries vital and inescapable. bulk of natural resource wealth; to the

2 The Pelagic Fisheries Research 2,000,000

Program—A Unique Program to 1,800,000 Other Meet Unique Needs 1,600,000 Purse seine Responsibility for US fisheries man- 1,400,000 Pole-and-line Longline agement in CWP waters lies with 1,200,000 NOAA Fisheries and the Western Pacific 1,000,000

Regional Fisheries Management Catch (mt) 800,000 Council (WPRFMC), headquartered in 600,000 . When the council was estab- 400,000 lished under the Magnuson-Stevens 200,000 Fishery Conservation and Management 0 Act in 1976, fisheries for highly migrato- 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 ry species in the Pacific were relatively undeveloped, and the council received no explicit authority for regulating 2,000,000 them. Elsewhere in the world, interna- 1,800,000 SKIPJACK tional fisheries organization played a 1,600,000 YELLOWFIN 1,400,000 BIGEYE role in managing fisheries, but in the ALBACORE 1,200,000 CWP no such groups existed. During 1,000,000 the 1980s as Pacific pelagic fisheries rap-

Catch (mt) 80,000 idly expanded, the fisheries council rec- 60,000 ognized this uncontrolled growth could 40,000 have potentially disastrous effects and 20,000 the council urged Congress to amend 0 the MSFCMA to include tunas and bill- 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 fish. In 1992 Congress made this historic move, at the same time earmarking Tuna catches in the WCPO have increased steadily since the 1970s and have been near 2,000,000 metric tons since the late 1990s. The combined United States tuna catch in 2002 accounts for about funds for a dedicated research program 7% of the total. Most of the growth in yield is due to the rapid expansion of purse seine fisheries to assist the council with the scientific for skipjack and yellowfin in the 1980s. The smaller and more valuable longline fishery for bigeye information needed for carrying out its has also been growing slowly since the 1990s. The results of assessment models developed with vastly enlarged duties. With a start-up PFRP funding show that populations of skipjack and albacore are sustainable at these levels, but budget of $1.7 million, the Pelagic that by-catch of juvenile bigeye and yellowfin in the purse seine fishery should be reduced. (Anonymous [2004]. Report of the Sixteenth Meeting of the Standing Committee on Tuna and Fisheries Research Program (PFRP) Billfish (SCTB16), 9-16 July 2003, Mooloolaba, Qld., Australia. Commonwealth Scientific and was launched, with a mission “to foster Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC). and sponsor multidisciplinary, collabo- (available at http://www.spc.int/OceanFish/Html/SCTB/SCTB16/sctb16_final.pdf ). rative research that addresses critical issues in pelagic fisheries and marine Technology; and the directors of priorities established by the steering conservation in support of scientifical- JIMAR, the National Marine Fisheries committee. The most competitive pro- ly based fishery management policy.” Service (NMFS), Pacific Islands posals undergo rigorous review by the The Joint Institute for Marine and Center, and the Pacific committee and independent scientists. Atmospheric Research (JIMAR) admin- Islands Regional Office. The composi- Selected proposals are funded for peri- isters the program under the University tion of this steering committee assures ods of one to three years. Continuation of Hawai‘i’s School of Ocean and Earth that research sponsored by the PFRP of projects after their first year depends Science and Technology. JIMAR is one of meets the highest scientific standards, is on evidence of satisfactory progress eleven joint and cooperative institutes pertinent to fishery council priorities, and availability of funds. Project scien- established by NOAA to foster collabo- and complements NMFS research pro- tists meet at least once a year to discuss ration between academic researchers grams. Dr. John Sibert has served as their research and share results. These and the agency’s scientists. fulltime program manager since PFRP’s meetings serve to foster collegiality and The PFRP operates under the gen- inception. help identify new areas of research. eral direction of a six-member steering The PFRP funded its first research committee, composed of the executive project in 1994. Since then, more than director of fisheries council and the 70 projects initiated by individuals and chair of its scientific and statistical teams of researchers have received committee; the dean of the UH School funding. The program periodically of Ocean and Earth Science and solicits research proposals to address

3 US FISHERIES IN THE CENTRAL AND WESTERN PACIFIC

Highly migratory pelagic fish are for all countries operating in the CWP targeted and incidentally caught in sev- (roughly two million mt). The 2002 eral US fisheries. The major ones in the catch consisted predominantly of skip- CWP are as follows. jack tuna (63 percent) and (22 percent). • The purse seine fishery for skipjack Purse Seine Fishery—The purse (Katsuwonus pelamis), yellowfin seine fishery uses huge nets to encircle (Thunnus albacares) and bigeye and capture entire schools of fish. It is (T. obesus) tunas. the largest US fishery in the CWP. • The longline fishery for large tunas However, because of domestic regula- A tuna seiner circling a school of tuna as seen (bigeye and albacore) and sword- tions and international treaty arrange- from spotter aircraft. Courtesy of NOAA. fish (Xiphias gladius). ments, it is largely outside the jurisdic- • The distant-water troll fishery for tion of the WPRFMC. albacore (Thunnus alalunga). In 2002, 29 purse seine vessels land- • The troll-and-handline fishery for ed 119,000 mt of tuna, accounting for other tunas, blue and striped mar- 86 percent of the total catch for all US lins (Makaira mazara, Tetrapturus fishers in the region. The estimated audax), mahimahi (also known as CWP catch for all purse seine vessels in dolphinfish or dorado: Coryphaena 2002 was 1.16 mt—the second highest hippurus) and other pelagic species. on record for the region. Skipjack tuna comprised about three-quarters of the In 2002, about 170 US-licensed catch, yellowfin tuna nearly a quarter, commercial vessels operated on the and around three percent. high seas in the first three of these fish- More than 90 percent of the 2002 catch eries, and roughly 2,000 small vessels was delivered to the American Samoa (under 45 feet long) participated in the canneries. troll-and-handline fishery in nearshore Longline Fishery—The second waters. most prominent US fishery in the The combined total catch for US CWP is the longline fishery, with ves- fisheries in the CWP during 2002 was sels based primarily in Honolulu and at nearly 139,000 mt (approximately 306 California ports. Longliners set lines up million pounds). This represents about to 60 miles long, with thousands of 7 percent of the total estimated catch branch lines attached that bear baited

Comparisons of U.S. catch of highly migrato- Total pelagic landings in lbs in the Western Pacific Region in 2002* ry species by gear type and by composition for the years 1998-2002 in the central-west- Species Am Samoa Guam Hawaii CNMI ern Pacific (from a working document by Ito, 37,101 461,000 Hamm, Coan, and Childers for the 16th Blue marlin 74,257 53,553 1,001,000 1,261 Standing Committee on Tuna and Billfish, Striped marlin 3,850 558,000 Mooloolaba, Australia, July 9–16, 2003). Other billfish 12,347 2,285 371,000 18 Mahimahi 86,513 172,674 1,164,000 17,937 Wahoo 358,238 71,810 620,000 8,160 Opah (moonfish) 6,762 915,000 Sharks (whole wgt) 6,540 0 388,000 Sharks fins Albacore 13,104,279 1,522,000 Bigeye tuna 431,711 10,266,000 Bluefin tuna 2,000 Skipjack tuna 520,265 175,836 986,000 177,487 Yellowfin tuna 1,079,598 44,932 2,462,000 29,394 Other pelagics 11,299 12,765 676,000 19,017 Total 15,732,759 533,855 21,392,000 253,274

*Does not include purse seine landings.

4 hooks. Typically the lines are set at depths of 100-300 meters (about 300–1000 feet) and are left in place for periods ranging from several hours to a couple of days. The configuration of the lines, including the addition of floats and weights, is tailored to differ- ent species and habitats. From the late 1970s to the late ‘80s, the size of the Honolulu-based longline fleet tripled—primarily due to an A section of the fishing fleet at Honolulu increased focus on swordfish—and by Harbor. Courtesy of NOAA. 1992 the fishery was a major supplier of fresh tuna and swordfish to North America and Europe. (Almost all of this catch is sold at auction in Honolulu and shipped from there.) The dramatic growth of the longline fishery brought with it a substantial increase in the incidental catch of pro- tected sea turtles and seabirds, resulting in critical fishery management issues. In November 1999 a federal court issued an injunction to close 16.5 mil- lion square miles in the EEZ to the Yellowfin tuna coming aboard during pole and Hawai‘i longline fishery to reduce line fishing operation. Courtesy of NOAA. impacts on federally protected sea tur- tles, which prompted many longliners Islands, generally targeting bigeye and to relocate to California. yellowfin tuna. The 100 longline vessels currently Distant-water Troll Fishery—The based in Honolulu and 23 in California distant-water troll fishery for albacore accounted for approximately 56 per- primarily involves vessels based in cent of the 2002 US longline catch Oregon, Washington and California (about 9,100 mt). While the longline that operate in the North and South portion of the US regional catch is only Pacific. The number of US vessels in about 7–12 percent, high-value prod- the CWP has decreased by almost 60 ucts such as sashimi-grade bigeye tuna percent since 2001 (to 14 vessels) significantly boost the fishery’s eco- because of depressed albacore prices, nomic impact. In 2002 swordfish and catches have fallen by roughly half. catches declined by two-thirds com- Albacore landings in 2002 were pared to the previous year, but landings approximately 1,000 mt, with catches of bigeye and albacore rose by 83 per- split between deliveries to American cent and 42 percent respectively. Samoan canneries and transshipment Hawai‘i longliners now fish almost elsewhere. exclusively for large tunas in the EEZ Troll and Handline Fishery— and international waters, while Nearly 2,000 small vessels troll and use California longliners primarily target handlines to catch fish in Hawai‘i, swordfish in international waters. American Samoa, Guam and the American Samoa’s longline fleet, which Northern Mariana Islands. Hawai‘i- focuses primarily on albacore and based boats make up almost 80 percent operates exclusively in the South of the fishery. Troll and handline catch- Pacific, has expanded greatly during es decreased 29 percent to about 2,100 recent years. Its 60 vessels accounted mt in 2002. The catch was predomi- for 44 percent of the entire US longline nantly yellowfin tuna, skipjack tuna, catch in the CWP in 2002. Also, a few and mahimahi (also known as dol- US longliners fish in the waters of the phinfish or dorado, Coryphaena hippu- Federated States of Micronesia, rus). These fish are sold mainly at local Marshall Islands, Fiji, and Cook markets.

5 INTEGRATED RESEARCH AND FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

Well into the 21st century, the Food agers should be completely informed to and Agriculture Organization of the make important decisions is not novel, United Nations has warned the world in practice it is extremely demanding to that more than 75 percent of the major generate the required information and fish stocks in our oceans are depleted, to present it to decision-makers in a over-exploited or fully exploited. The timely and useful form. tropical tuna stocks of the central and Fishery management for the 21st western Pacific Ocean are considered to century demands carefully designing be hopeful exceptions to this otherwise integrated and multidisciplinary bleak situation. However, fishing pres- research for improving and applying Longliner docking in Pago Pago, Samoa. sure on these stocks has intensified over tools for the analysis of fisheries and Courtesy of NOAA. recent decades, the responsible agen- development of effective management cies face the challenge of managing policies. This imperative has been the them on the knife-edge between sus- operating principle for the Pelagic tainability and disaster. Fisheries Research Program in provid- Essentially, fishery management is ing scientific information for the devel- the practice of manipulating the fish- opment of pelagic fishery management ing community to achieve some social policies by the Western Pacific Regional or political goal. This generally entails Fishery Management Council restrictions on the activities of fishers, (WPRFMC). toward the goals of sustainable use, and conservation of the resource. Management Challenge: The Other goals of fishery management Hawai‘i Longline Fishery may be equally important and legiti- The history of the Honolulu-based mate, however. For instance, a coastal longline fishery from the 1980s to the state may adopt a policy of restricting late ‘90s offers an example of the com- foreign access to increase the value of plexity of management problems faced fishing licenses and, in turn, revenues by the WPRFMC (and other manage- from foreign fishing. Or a coastal ment bodies throughout the world). It state may adopt policies that favor illustrates the types of information access to local fishers—perhaps even required to manage fisheries and intro- at the expense of the resource—to duces a framework for guiding inte- foster development of local fishing grated multidisciplinary research on fleets. Or one resource user may pelagic fisheries. adopt a goal that restricts activities of The Hawai‘i longline fishery dates other resource users in order to back to the 1940s. In the 1970s, catches reduce competition both in the mar- by the Honolulu-based longline fleet ket place and on the fishing grounds. began to expand, and in 1983 longline Or, as with the United States, the goal landings surpassed the previous histor- of fishery management may be “opti- ical record, set in 1948. During the late mal use.” 1980s the size of the longline fleet The aims of various user groups tripled as nearly 100 vessels and their frequently are incompatible, and fish- crews migrated to Hawai‘i, mainly ery management requires balancing from US ports in the Atlantic Ocean conflicting values on the basis of and Gulf of Mexico, where swordfish incomplete and often faulty informa- stocks were declining. Broadbill sword- tion. The information required to sup- fish (Xiphias gladius) became a primary port management depends on the target of the Hawai‘i longline fleet, goals. Integrated fishery research is a which quickly developed into the means for inserting additional infor- largest supplier of swordfish to domes- mation into the analysis of fisheries tic markets. and supplying the results to managers This rapid influx of fishing power in a useful format. While the notion and crews naturally caused problems for that policy makers and fishery man- fishery managers. There were the usual

6 resource questions: Was the swordfish resource capable of sustaining high lev- els of exploitation? (This was a particu- larly urgent question given the decline of the Atlantic swordfish fishery.) Considering that the longline fleet also catches significant numbers of yel- lowfin and bigeye tuna, were tuna resources capable of sustaining higher levels of exploitation? Would tuna har- vesting by longliners impact the ability of commercial trollers and handliners to catch tuna? If the swordfish stock declined would the longliners begin to target tunas, further intensifying pres- sures on local tuna stocks? (This ques- tion concerned the users of the resource as well as the resource itself.) And finally, were there “local” tuna stocks in the vicinity of Hawai‘i? There were also sociocultural con- cerns. Local longliners had established relationships with other pelagic fish- ers, such as trollers and recreationists. There were informal divisions of fish- ing grounds and few conflicts. The newly arrived longliners did not share these common cultural values, and Spatial and temporal scales of ocean processes in relation to the scales of tuna populations and fisheries. there were confrontations. In 1991 the fishery council set a population changes (e.g., changes moratorium on new entries to the in the survival of young or increas- fishery, and some areas were closed to es in mortality), or a combination longlining to minimize the increasing of these two factors. number of interactions with the fed- 2. Availability of the swordfish had erally endangered Hawaiian monk become limited due to changes in seal. These actions calmed the social their distribution (e.g., changes in situation and allowed time for devel- migration patterns). opment of more thoughtful manage- 3. Fishing power had decreased, due ment strategies. Unfortunately, there to fewer fishers participating in the were few data on the north Pacific fishery, or fishers switching to other swordfish population, none on long- target species. line economic performance, and only fragmented data available on tuna The researchers examined the lim- populations to inform management ited economic and other data on the considerations. fishery that had accumulated since A decline of swordfish catches in 1991 and discovered many confound- 1994 reinforced the worst fears of many ing facts. The catch-per-unit-effort people associated with the fishery. The (CPUE) of the swordfish-directed seg- causes of the decline were not clear, ment of the longline fleet fell between however. An ad hoc interdisciplinary 1992 and 1994, but then recovered group of biologists, economists, and sharply in 1995. The size distribution oceanographers from the PFRP and the of the fish caught did not change in any NMFS Honolulu Laboratory assem- way that suggested high levels of bled to investigate the problem, focus- exploitation. The group suspected that ing on three hypotheses: overall swordfish abundance may have been reduced, but that made it difficult 1. Absolute abundance had declined, to explain the rapid recovery in 1995. due to fishing pressure, swordfish Participation in the fishery also had

7 changed, which partially accounted for nomic and cultural forces. The act of parallel inquiries directed at the the decline in total catch and effort and exploitation couples natural produc- resource and its users. possibly for changes in CPUE after the tion systems to human social systems departure of some of the fleet’s “high- and induces additional layers of A Catch Prediction Model liner” fishing vessels. The spatial distri- uncertainty. The fact that these sys- Models are valuable—some would bution of the catch also had varied year tems and the nature of the coupling say essential—components of scientific by year, further increasing the difficulty are incompletely understood further research. In the most general sense, of reaching general conclusions about heightens the complexity, and added models outline the conceptual under- the fishery. A potentially important fac- complications emerge as the scope of standing of the phenomenon under tor in explaining the observed decline these systems expands from local to study. Using a model to shape a and subsequent recovery of swordfish global. research agenda for resource manage- catches was the variability in the Policy development requires a ment focuses attention on processes strength of the convergent oceano- means of discriminating among alter- rather than problems. Understanding graphic front near the fishing grounds. native policies in the context of man- processes enables researchers and man- In the end, the group very cautiously agement goals. Decisions made imply agers to anticipate problems before concluded the most likely explanation that some management scenarios are they occur instead of reacting to them for the decline was a change in the “better” or “worse” than others. The in an ad hoc way. ocean environment that affected the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conser- The flow diagram below outlines a availability and/or catchability of vation and Management Act specifies conceptual model for policy optimiza- swordfish. “optimal use” as a goal of fishery man- tion and catch prediction. This model agement. Since optimality is an inher- explicitly includes the idea that Fisheries as Globally ently quantitative concept, a critical exploitation of the fishery couples two Coupled Systems requirement for developing optimal complex and disparate systems— The swordfish anecdote demon- policy is a consistent measure, or yard- resource and users—and attempts to strates how rapidly distant events may stick, that can be applied to objectively break down the problem of catch pre- impact local conditions. US longline compare policies. diction into component problems. vessels had moved from one ocean to The information required to devel- Though obviously an oversimplifica- another. The move was not predicted op optimal fishery management poli- tion, it serves to illustrate how analysis and indeed happened so swiftly it was cies is essentially the same as that of a general model leads to specific essentially complete before fishery required for predicting catch. information requirements. Each of the managers could react. Migration of Prediction of catch obviously requires boxes and arrows in the diagram can be pelagic fishing fleets is not uncommon. the ability to make predictions about further broken down to yield specific In the early 1980s large purse-seiners the resource, but catch ultimately research problems. The PFRP has sup- moved from the eastern to the western depends on the resource users (fishers). ported more than 70 research projects Pacific and from the Atlantic to the Therefore, the prediction of catch also that have addressed topics in the Indian Ocean. Large-scale fleet move- requires the ability to make predictions majority of boxes. ments confront local fishery managers about the fishers. The diagram reveals two essential with social and resource problems, pieces of informa- with the challenges arriving as sudden- Resource (THE FISH) Users (FISHERS) tion required to ly as the vessels. Thus fishery manage- Identify and Characterize Identify and Characterize predict catch: ment—at least with respect to pelagic Movement Between Fishing Movement Between Fishing population size fisheries—has acquired global dimen- Grounds Grounds and fishing effort. sions. Response to Exploitation Response to Change in Resource Over the past 20 The swordfish example also illus- Response to Environment Response to Economic Conditions years, researchers trates that analysis of fishery manage- Response to Changes in Policy have spent consid- ment problems must be a multidisci- Forecast Population Forecast Effort erable effort plinary enterprise. Social and eco- toward creating nomic changes in the fleet interact The information needed to make models that explicitly include the struc- with environmental changes to cause these two types of predictions should ture and movement of fish populations changes in catches and catch rates that guide research for fishery management. through space and time. Such models are difficult to understand. Fisheries Taking this a step further, predicting are extremely promising starting points inextricably couple human and natu- the effects of management actions on for the development of catch prediction ral systems. The productivity of fish- the resource and its users is essential in models. However, some substantial dif- eries resources depends on the evaluating policy. These two branches ficulties remain to be solved. It is at this dynamics of the species and on envi- of inquiry concern the resource on one point that models are of great value in ronmental constraints imposed by the side and the users of the resource on shaping research priorities. ocean ecosystem. The exploitation of the other. The PFRP is based on this Measuring the amount of fisheries resources depends on eco- vision of fisheries research as a set of fishing—The ability of models based

8 Fishing Efficiently

Conceptual model of catch prediction and policy optimization. Courtesy of John Sibert. on population movements to predict Toward a Comprehensive Theory catches depends on knowing the distri- of Fishery Dynamics bution and intensity of fishing. The Computational and mathematical population dynamics components of tools that were almost unimaginable 50 the models predict the general distri- years ago are now available for use in bution of the population, but specific research that supports fisheries man- catch predictions depend on the agement on huge geographic scales. It amount of fishing at a particular time is possible to conceive of population and place. These models “hindcast” models that integrate all the important catches, provided adequate fishing features of population dynamics, with effort data are available. The ability to the realistic expectation of estimating “forecast” catches depends on the abili- these parameters directly from fisheries ty to “forecast” fishing effort. This data. Thus researchers can test how emphasizes the critical need not only notions of growth, mortality, move- for collecting detailed information ment and exploitation interact, extend- from the fishery on the time and place ing ideas about the dynamics of of fishing, but also for research into exploited fish populations to embrace fishing practices. Understanding how the dynamics of whole fishery systems. fisheries policy, economic and social In short, it’s now possible to build a factors, and resource abundance inter- comprehensive theory of the dynamics act in determining the time and place of fisheries systems. The overriding of fishing is a critical but sadly neglect- challenge of the 21st century likely will ed research need. be to manage the world’s fisheries at Ecology and habitat—Fisheries full exploitation. To meet this challenge population models traditionally have we need tools that explicitly include the included only the classic processes of broad-scale complexities inherent in population growth, mortality, and the coupling of global systems. The exploitation. Newer models include types of models nurtured by the PFRP large-scale population movements— are clearly important steps in that both well-defined seasonal migrations direction. and movements in response to changes in critical environmental characteristics such as temperature, oxygen and prey.

9 GETTING TO KNOW THEM—THE BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF PELAGIC FISHES

When Congress expanded the tured around the Hawaiian Islands and mandate of NOAA Fisheries and the released them. Enticed by a publicized fishery councils to manage pelagic fish reward, fishers returned more than 16 stocks in 1992, basic scientific knowl- percent of the tags from recaptured edge about highly migratory species fish, along with geographic and other was in many respects rudimentary. details of their recovery. This allowed Since then, more than a third of the researchers to approximate overall fish- PFRP’s 70-plus projects have focused ing mortality for these species and rates on unraveling the mysteries of the of mortality for fish of different ages fundamental biology and ecology of and sizes. The project results also pro- these fish. Researchers have tackled vided fresh insights on the numbers of complicated but essential questions fish moving between various fishing such as these: grounds. Other PFRP researchers have • What are the general “lifestyles” of experimented with attaching sophisti- the various species and the behav- cated “pop-up” archival tags to the iors that affect their population backs of swordfish, yellowfin tuna and numbers, movements, and distri- blue sharks. With the fish’s release, butions? these miniature electronic devices • How big are the populations of the begin recording and storing data on its Pop-off archival tags, or PATs, store informa- major species? Are they growing or route, swimming depths and the water tion on an animal's environment, detach from shrinking? temperature of its surroundings—all of the fish (pop off), and transmit the informa- • Where are the fish stocks (subunits which provide clues on its preferred tion back to the research via satellite. PFRP researchers have been monitoring shark of populations) concentrated? habitat. After a preprogrammed interval movements with PATs near Hawaii to deter- • Can individual stocks sustain cur- (a few to several months) these “smart” mine the fate of animals released from hooks. rent levels of fishing, or are they tags detach from the animal, pop up to The numbers on the figure indicate the histo- being overfished? the surface and transmit their data to ry of the track. "0" indicates the position of an orbiting satellite. the fish when tagged (day zero), and the sec- ond number indicates the number of days at Getting our Arms Around the These data have enhanced fisheries liberty. Upper panel shows two oceanic Fish Population Problem models used in making stock assess- white-tip sharks, Carcharhinus longimanus Since the end of World War II, ever- ments. For example, since the 1970s the and the lower panel shows four blue sharks, longline catch of bigeye tuna has fluc- Prionace glauca. expanding numbers of fishers—from small-scale subsistence and recreation- tuated, while the catch per unit of al fishers to industrial domestic long- effort (CPUE) has declined steadily, liners to factory ships from Asia—have particularly in the area east of 160°W, competed over stocks of bigeye and yel- where the largest numbers of bigeye are lowfin tuna around the Hawaiian caught. Some models have suggested Islands. Gauging the impacts of these that longline catches are exceeding the often conflicting fisheries from area to bigeye’s ability to sustain its numbers, area requires the most accurate infor- leading to speculation that the stock of mation possible on movement patterns mature bigeye tuna has been fully for these wide-ranging fish. A series of exploited, if not over-exploited. The PFRP projects utilizing fish “tags,” rapid increase in purse seine catches of ranging from simple to high-tech, has juvenile bigeye since the mid-‘90s has enabled researchers and fisheries man- created further uncertainty about the agers to begin to map out the complex- sustainability of the current fishing lev- ities of fish migrations. els. Since the early days of the program In the first such effort, the Hawai‘i PFRP-supported researchers have been Tuna Tagging Project, researchers working on a new approach in model- attached conventional plastic tags with ing Pacific-wide populations of bigeye identification numbers to more than and yellowfin tunas. The MULTIFAN- 17,000 yellowfin and bigeye tuna cap- CL stock assessment tool uses data on

10 the sizes and ages of fish in catches, the feet). In contrast, bigeye tunas seem to numbers taken in various areas, and relish colder waters, swimming to the continuing stream of information depths of 100–500 meters (about from tagged and recaptured tunas. This 500–1600) feet, often visiting waters model will be the tool of choice for with low oxygen levels. This gives the assessing and managing tuna fisheries bigeye access to food resources unavail- in the CWP for the foreseeable future. able to its kin. But how does the bigeye withstand these arduous conditions? Tuna Movements and Biology The oversized eyes that give the big- Fisheries scientists agree that the eye its name are a major advantage for geographic ranges of the four main foraging in dimly lit depths. PFRP lab- tuna species in the CWP span much of oratory experiments revealed another: the Pacific, and their large-scale distri- Bigeye tunas and other fish are butions often overlap. However, effec- equipped with a special circulatory sys- tive fisheries management requires tem that conserves heat and allows more precise knowledge about where their muscles to individual species occur in space (geo- work in waters graphic locations and water depths) considerably and time (of day and by season). The colder than vertical and horizontal boundaries of a their body tem- fish’s world are principally linked to perature. The aspects of its biology, so research in this trade-off for area is basic to improving the under- most fish is that standing of the abundances and distri- this adaptation butions of pelagic fishes. affects the Traditionally, fisheries managers offloading of have assumed that the “catchability” of oxygen from a species is essentially constant, and blood to mus- they have used information on the cles, so typically amount of catch per unit of human fish that spend effort (CPUE) to infer the movements a lot of time in of fish and assess their populations. But low-oxygen waters are sluggish. But Data from depth recorders on tagged bigeye this approach leaves out other factors bigeye blood apparently has a unique tuna show that the bigeye follows a very property that allows the binding and repetitive daily pattern. This graph shows that might affect catchability—such as swimming depth (blue line) and internal variations in fishing tactics and gear releasing of oxygen in quantities suffi- (yellow triangles) and external (red dots) and fluctuations in the marine envi- cient to power their regular swimming body temperatures, recorded every 8.5 min- ronment. This has made it difficult to and feeding at oxygen-sparse depths. utes since the fish’s tag and release by NMFS differentiate between , From historical catch statistics (which scientists. changes in fishing tactics, and altered indicate the depths where fish are environmental conditions. caught) researchers had surmised the It is generally accepted that factors bigeye was tolerant of low oxygen, but such as the abundance of prey and the these PFRP findings were the first to temperature and oxygen content of explain the underlying physiological ocean water influence tuna move- reasons. ments, but pinning down how these factors interact is very tricky. To Fish Swim Down, Fish Swim Up: improve models that describe tunas’ The Heart Connection movements and reflect changes in their In another eye-opening study, populations, it is necessary to under- PFRP scientists discovered that heart stand the influence of variable oceano- temperature plays a key role in limiting graphic conditions on tunas. yellowfin and skipjack movements up By attaching ultrasonic transmit- and down the water column. ters with depth recorders to tunas, Researchers had observed that both PFRP researchers observed that skip- adults and juveniles of these species jack and yellowfin prefer warm surface spend most of their time in warm, oxy- waters of the ocean (at least 60° gen-rich surface waters. This contra- Fahrenheit) and typically don’t dicted the logic that the cooling of descend below 100 meters (about 350 muscles in older, more massive fish

11 should be slower than in smaller young It turns out that fish, and adults should therefore be female yellowfin able to spend more time in deeper, spawn energetically, colder water. But closer scrutiny of the releasing millions tuna circulatory system revealed that— of eggs on a daily unlike its other muscles—the heart is basis for prolonged on the “cool” side of its vascular heat periods and then conservation system, so heart tempera- stopping for a well- ture directly reflects the surrounding deserved rest. Peak water temperature regardless of the spawning occurs at In fishes other than tunas (and a few shark species), heat is picked up by tuna’s size. As colder water slows down different seasons the blood as it passes through the warm muscles and lost to the water the heart rate in skipjacks and yel- across the CWP, when the blood passes through the gills. In tunas, vascular countercurrent heat exchangers are interposed between the muscles and the gills. The lowfins, their ability to swim and move apparently related resultant venous to arterial heat exchange acts as a thermal barrier allow- downward is curtailed. Amplifying the to water tempera- ing tunas to maintain their muscles significantly warmer than the sur- effect, at less than 60° Fahrenheit these tures, weather pat- rounding water. tunas lose their capacity to boost their terns and other heart rate and increase blood flow and environmental conditions. Around the spend in open-water schools, com- oxygen to their muscles. Although the Hawaiian Islands spawning climaxes pared to schools associated with researchers haven’t yet learned the big- during summer months, when sea sur- or FADs, is critical to accu- eye’s secret for getting around the heart face temperatures are warmest, whereas rately assessing stocks and discerning temperature limitation, they have the height of spawning in equatorial the impacts of FADs on tuna distribu- recently discovered that swordfish and regions seems to coincide with plentiful tion, their vulnerability to fishing gear bigeye thresher sharks also tolerate very food for larvae, as well as weather pat- and their general well-being. A sizable low-oxygen waters. terns and other conditions. The study proportion of tuna caught by purse- These findings on the physiological results also enabled the researchers to seining around FADs are immature reasons underlying the bigeye tuna’s define the varying sizes at maturity for sub-adults and juveniles, which raises habitat preferences have helped scien- yellowfin in different areas. During concerns over the effects on the adult tists improve estimates of their relative spawning both females and the males population. Also, the presence of large abundances as well as the effectiveness attracted to them are far more vulnera- numbers of FADs may alter tuna move- of the longline fishing tactics. Using a ble to fishing, so these findings could ments and deter the fish from traveling model that incorporates information assist fisheries managers in designing to areas of high food abundance. on the bigeye’s favored depths and the regulations to protect spawning stocks, if Recognizing concerns over the growing distribution of longline gear with necessary. The results also give modelers exploitation of yellowfin and bigeye oceanographic and other data, model- needed data for estimating yellowfin stocks in the CWP, in 2001 the ers found that the effectiveness of long- populations and their productivity in Standing Committee on Tuna and line fishing efforts in the CWP equatorial waters where the majority yel- Billfish recommended that mortality of increased by 43 percent between the lowfin are caught. juveniles not be allowed to increase. late 1960s and the late ‘80s. They attrib- However, no institution exists yet to uted the improvement primarily to Tuna Feeding: They Do it in implement that recommendation. more efficient techniques, such as set- Schools For a clearer understanding of these ting gear deeper, rather than an Another aspect of fish behavior rel- issues, PFRP researchers are investigat- increase in the amount of fishing effort. evant to fishing and fisheries manage- ing the feeding habits of yellowfin and ment is their feeding, or foraging, bigeye tuna in Hawaiian waters and, Yellowfin Tuna: Champion habits. More than 75 percent of the specifically, how they fare when associ- Spawners Pacific tuna catch are fish that form ated with seamounts and FADs. Understanding the basics of tuna schools—presumably to find prey— Preliminary results from analyzing the reproduction—when they become sexu- around floating logs, seamounts stomach contents of some 1400 tuna ally mature, the frequency and timing of (underwater mountains) and man- show that feeding habits seem to vary egg-spawning and other details—is made fish aggregation devices (FADs) with species, size and circumstances. essential for evaluating the health of tuna such as drifting rafts and anchored For example, bigeye and yellowfin of stocks and differentiating between natu- deepwater buoys. Deployment of these the same size have markedly different ral environmental effects on tuna popu- fish attractors has increased steadily diets even when caught in the same lations and human-caused effects. To over the last 25 years, and has become place. Bigeye tuna hunt more effective- gain insights into yellowfin reproduc- rampant over the last decade. Until ly around seamounts than do yel- tion, PFRP-funded researchers examined recently little attention was paid to the lowfin. And while big yellowfin some- several thousand samples of ovary tissue ecological impacts of this fishing prac- times feed well at offshore FADs, small- collected from female yellowfin in a tice. Understanding tuna feeding er ones do better at nearshore FADs range of sizes caught around the CWP. behavior and the amount of time they that offer alternate prey. The

12 researchers are using small electronic tags attached to tuna for monitoring their movements between FADs around the island of Oahu. Integrating such information on feeding and movement patterns is greatly improv- ing the understanding of the influence of FADs on tuna ecology and behavior. This, in turn, should result in improved resource assessment and management.

The Secret Identities of Pelagic Fishes Genetic techniques are powerful FADs play a critical role in recreational and by attracting tar- tools for investigating the hereditary get species to known locations. This simple function may soon be augmented with a new class of FADs equipped with sonar, for tracking the nearby movement of makeup of populations and migratory schools and individual fish, and other electronic devices for monitoring the activ- movements of animals. By comparing ity of tagged fish. PFRP has funded a project to use "smart" FADs to explore the genetic material (DNA) from diverse dynamics of fish aggregations. (Courtesy of David Itano.) groups of animals and determining how similar it is, scientists can gauge how closely related the groups are. For fisheries, knowing whether a popula- tion consists of one homogenous (genetically identical) stock or many stocks associated with different geo- graphic areas assists fisheries managers in designing suitable stock manage- ment plans. For example, if sword- fish—which can migrate thousands of miles—all belong to a single stock, then a management strategy that treats the entire geographic range is appropriate. However, if several different stocks exist (e.g., North Pacific, South Pacific, etc.), then policies aimed at too broad a geographic area could lead to losses of genetically diverse regional stocks, with Tagging techniques can elucidate the biology and exploitation patterns of potentially serious consequences for aggregated pelagic fishes. (Holland, K.N., S. M. Kajiura, D.G. Itano and J. R. the population as a whole. On the other Sibert, 2001. In Island in the stream: oceanography and fisheries of the Charleston Bump. G. R. Sedberry, editor. American Fisheries Society, hand, management efforts divided on Symposium 25, pp. 211-218. too fine a scale (such as within a stock) could potentially be overly restrictive and fail to address the needs. • For dolphinfish (mahimahi), which Several PFRP projects have used inhabit tropical waters around the genetic analysis of DNA to shed light world, researchers have identified on the population structures of pelagic 13 genetic types. One occurs com- fish species. Some preliminary findings monly worldwide, and the other 12 are these: are quite rare. • DNA samples from more than 800 • Blue marlin in the Pacific Ocean bigeye tuna caught at widely sepa- appear to belong to a single genetic rated locations indicated that the stock that also extends into the Pacific Ocean has a single, “wall-to- Atlantic Ocean. A second, less wide- wall” stock of bigeye. ly distributed genetic stock is found only in the Atlantic. • Researchers have identified several genetic stocks of swordfish in the Pacific Ocean alone.

13 FISH GOTTA’ SWIM—THE EFFECTS OF THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT

The complex and continuously land may attract or repel marine life.

50 24 changing ocean environment influ- Understanding these influences is nec- ences marine life in countless ways. essary for defining fish habitat and 100 22 Large pelagic fish like tunas and billfish forecasting fish abundances and distri- have specific requirements for fulfilling bution. To study in detail the physical 150 20 basic needs related to survival, feeding, characteristics of Hawai‘i waters, and reproduction. Sound fisheries researchers deployed 100 drifting 200 18 management demands not only under- buoys equipped with instruments that standing the variable needs and habits recorded water temperature, wind 250 16 of the fish themselves, but also how strength, changes in the ocean surface Depth (m) they tie into the features and condi- and geographic position. The 300 14 tions of the ocean environment. PFRP researchers collected the data for two

350 research has penetrated to the depths of years, via an orbiting satellite, and com- 12 interactions between the fish and their piled it into a database. The results led

400 environment by focusing on questions to the discovery of the eastward 10 such as these: Hawai‘i Lee Counter Current, an ocean 450 circulation feature found at 19° north 8 • How does the changing ocean envi- latitude that spans more than a thou- 500 20 20.5 21 ronment influence the distribution sand miles from west to east. The drift- Latitude (deg N) ing buoys also revealed that eddies (whirlpools that mix water and may Topex altimetry and geostrophic currents [Cycle 244] 30 cm/sec 250 bring nutrients to the surface) are roughly ten times stronger in leeward

190 waters of the islands than in windward waters. The database has also made 22˚N possible estimates, or “nowcasts,” of 180

Sea level cm physical water conditions in areas of Hawaiian EEZ, used by fishers, recre- 170 ational boaters and others. 20˚N In a related project, PFRP 160 researchers used satellite instruments to detect and map ocean features that 150 18˚N signal locations of fish and other marine life. Subtropical fronts—con- 90 vergence zones often spanning hun- 162˚W 159˚W 156˚W 153˚W dreds of miles, where cold masses of subarctic water slide beneath warm Examples of oceanographic information and behavior of the pelagic fish tropical waters—are particularly rich recorded by drifting buoys, moored instru- species? areas for swordfish. The cold water car- ments, research ships and satellites. Top • What ocean features are associated frame: Water temperatures to depths of ries microscopic algae that are fed upon 1650 feet (500 meters) recorded on a with the fish and the ecosystems by tiny zooplankton that in turn transect of a NOAA research ship from that support them? become meals for small fish, which 20‹21¡ north latitude. Bottom frame: Map • How do changes in the environ- squids prey on. The squids attract of sea level height around the main ment affect fishing success? swordfish and other predatory fish. To Hawaiian Islands, as measured from instru- ments aboard the TOPEX-Poseidon satel- learn more about the relationship lite. The arrows represent the velocity of Tracking Fish by Mapping Ocean between swordfish and the Subtropical currents driven by differences in salinity Features Frontal Zone west of the Hawaiian and temperature. (Length of arrow indi- The physical ocean influences the archipelago, the researchers compiled cates current strength.) distribution of fish and other marine data collected by a satellite sensor that life in two basic ways. First, water “reads” ocean color (algae-rich cold motion (currents, eddies, etc.) trans- water appears greenish, clear warm ports marine life from place to place. water blue) and an altimeter that meas- Second, factors such as water tempera- ures ocean heights to within an inch. ture, oxygen content and proximity to They then used the information to pro-

14 duce maps of the regional ocean currents. The maps revealed that prime swordfishing grounds lie along a front associated with a large-scale meandering current. Coupling the maps with catch statistics showed that variations in sword- fish catches correlated strongly with changes in sea surface height (which reflect fluctuations in the amount of heat in the water column). A drop in surface height indicates the warm water layer beneath the surface is rela- tively shallow, while rises in sea surface height indicate warm water extends to greater depths. Swordfish feeding activity is apparently linked to water tem- perature: Catch rates increase when the warm layer is shallow and decrease when it deepens and, presumably, the fish are feeding at greater depths. The study also helped the scientists identify another front north of the swordfishing grounds where protected loggerhead turtles feed and sometimes get hooked on the gear of longline vessels operating in the area.

Variations in the Ocean Environment and Bigeye Tuna Bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) is the principal deepwa- ter target species of the Pacific- wide longline fishery, typically yield- Maps of estimated currents around the Hawaiian Islands, based on TOPEX-Poseidon satellite data from ing total annual catches of more than November 1993 (top) and 1994 (bottom). White ellipses indicate tuna fishing grounds associated with 150,000 mt. Recent apparent reduc- currents, which shifted over that time period. tions in bigeye stocks are causing fish- ery managers to consider imposing with swordfish, another influence on restrictions on the fishery. It is there- catchability is the depth of the upper- fore critical to verity the accuracy of most layer of ocean water, which stock estimates. Catch per unit of affects where the temperature-sensi- effort (CPUE) is often used as a rough tive bigeye is likely to occur. Bigeye index of the abundance. However, the tunas often forage around the base of relationship between abundances and this layer, but return to the surface for CPUE also depends on the “catchabil- short periods between dives. When ity” of a species using a specific type of the warm layer deepens the bigeye’s fishing gear and gear configuration daily vertical migrations are more under various oceanographic condi- extensive and the fish are more dis- tions. For example, the depth to which persed, so they are more difficult to hooks can be set generally depends on catch. Conversely, when this water the configuration of fishing gear, but layer is shallower bigeye are more con- currents also can affect gear setting. As centrated with respect to the hooks

15 and easier to catch. Environmental data such as temperature and oxygen often are used to standardize catch rates, to produce an unbiased index of relative abundance for use in stock assessments. PFRP has funded a multi-year project to explore the relationships between key oceanographic features, catches and longline fishing effort south and west of the main Hawaiian Islands. The researchers are using instruments on specially designed moorings, research ships and satellites to measure properties of the upper ocean, including oxygen levels, con- centrations of marine algae, salinity, temperature, currents, and the diversi- ty and abundances of plants and ani- mals. Project results to date have con- firmed that bigeye catch rates vary as much as fivefold, depending on the season. These variations apparently are linked to north-south migrations of bigeye that coincide with tempera- ture fluctuations in the upper ocean water. Pacific-wide data indicate that catch rates for swordfish, albacore and marlins exhibit similar annual pat- terns throughout the region. The find- ings will aid fisheries managers in making more accurate estimates of bigeye stocks and will be applied to other fisheries as well.

You Are What You Eat—Using Chemical Clues to Study Tunas’ Diets and Migrations All life in the oceans is connected via food webs composed of highly abundant primary producers (marine algae), several orders of progressively larger and less numerous consumers (e.g., fishes and squids), and a compar- atively small number of predators such as sharks, tunas and billfish. Previous studies have suggested that tuna pro- ductivity is linked to the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water (which sup- ports the growth of algae) along the Schematic diagram for the BIGEYE oceanographic sensor array. Abbreviations are as equator in the central and eastern follows: C (conductivity), T (temperature), P (pressure), u (east velocity of cur- Pacific. This area of upwelling forms a rent), v (north velocity of current) and DO (dissolved oxygen). [figure courtesy of cold “tongue” of water extending west- JIMAR and NOAA] ward from South America until it meets a large pool of warm water in the western Pacific, where upwelling is absent and algal growth low. Modeling predicts that equatorial tunas feed at

16 Pelagic Food Web, as determined by nitrogen stable isotopic composition

Tuna Billfish (~9‰) 10

Shark Top 4 Predator 8 δ 15 N (‰ vs. Air) 6 Second Order 3 Consumers Various Fish Squid 4 Anchovies (~6‰) First Order 2 Consumers 2 rophic Level Zooplankton

T (~3‰)

Primary 1 Phytoplankton Production 0 (~1‰)

By measuring the stable isotopic composition of key elements (e.g., nitrogen) in the tissues of marine organisms, PFRP researchers are determining the relationships of those organisms within marine food webs. Adapted from the Secretariat of the Pacific Community. lower levels of the food web. In con- muscle and liver tissue in fish are This work is enriching the overall trast Western Pacific tunas are thought replenished at different rates. Thus by understanding of the rich equatorial to range extensively, seeking bigger, comparing the isotope values of these Pacific ecosystem, the connections less abundant prey (i.e., feeding at tissues they can gauge how long indi- between tunas and other members of higher levels of the food web). vidual fish have stayed in different their food webs. The scientists also Paradoxically, the largest proportion of regions. For example, if isotope levels expect to learn about the effects of cli- the Pacific tuna catch comes from this in the two tissues are dissimilar, the mate variability on the systems; for warm pool, despite its low primary tuna probably has switched its diet example, whether the eastward expan- productivity. recently or traveled from another area sion of the warm pool during El Niño To learn more about tunas’ diets with a different isotopic fingerprint. events triggers a diet shift in tunas. and the links between primary produc- The initial results of the research sup- Such information is important for both tivity and tuna movements and popu- port the notion that prey and predators fisheries production and ecosystem lations, a PFRP-sponsored team of sci- in different regions have distinct fin- modeling of the equatorial Pacific. entists is measuring the chemical iso- gerprints. Another interesting discov- topes (alternate forms) of the elements ery is that when yellowfin tuna attain a carbon and nitrogen in tissue samples length of about 18 inches they shift and stomach contents of tunas and their diet rapidly, from shallow- other fish in the cold-tongue, warm- dwelling shrimp larvae to an adult fare pool region. Different oceanic regions of fully developed deep-water shrimp. have distinct isotopic “fingerprints” The next step in the research is to that become incorporated into animal develop an “isotope map” to help deter- tissues via their diets, and the mine where tuna have resided and how researchers have discovered that white far they migrate.

17 MEASURING FISHING’S FOOTPRINT

Around the world, fishing is under 2001 federal ban on shark finning long- increasing scrutiny for its impacts on line fishers took about 100,000 blue marine ecosystems. These impacts sharks per year, commonly discarding sometimes have gone unnoticed until all but the fins. The reported blue shark they become problems for individual bycatch has declined to about 40,000 species, ecosystems, or the fishery itself. annually; however, experience has doc- Under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery umented that fishery-based document- Conservation and Management Act the ing of bycatch is less accurate than for Endangered Species Act, and the target species. Marine Mammal Protection Act, Incidental catch is reported resource managers are obliged to con- through the NMFS Hawai‘i Longline sider a broad range of fishing impacts Observer Program (currently about 20 when making policy decisions, to min- percent of fishing trips have at-sea imize ecological impacts as well as observers) and in vessel logbook effects on the target fish species. The records submitted to NMFS. To get the PFRP has expanded knowledge about most accurate historical information the effect of fishing and broadened the possible, PFRP-sponsored researchers scientific basis for management used observer data to develop models options by funding studies that address for estimating the amount of inciden- questions such as these: tal catch for each species. They then applied the models to vessel logbook • How does fishing activity as a data to generate predictions of quanti- whole affect target species, protect- ties of incidental catch. By comparing ed species, non-target species and these predictions to sales records from ecosystems? Honolulu fish auctions (where the • What are the impacts of particular retained, commercially valuable fish fishing sectors (e.g., purse-seine, were sold) they have identified dis- longlining, ) and specific crepancies in the logbook and observ- techniques used within fisheries? er reporting. The methods have also • Why are certain species vulnerable proven useful in detecting the under- to incidental capture by fishing reporting of blue shark bycatch and activities? the misidentification of marlin • How can mortalities and injuries to species. protected species be avoided and The models are being used to fur- reduced? ther evaluate the quality of reporting and correct catch statistics, which will Reality Check: Incidental Catch render stock assessments more accu- in the Longline Fishery rate.Additional studies on the quality Longliners hauling in lines (top) bring in Longline fisheries capture signifi- of observer data have helped improve more than the targeted fish. Non-target cant numbers of non-target fishes as at-sea observer training. The data col- species such as the blue shark, protected bycatch (which is discarded or other- lected also benefit research on the geo- loggerhead turtles, and commercially valu- wise unused) and incidental but com- graphical distributions of incidental able opah (moonfish) can also be part of the catch species, which could help clarify catch. Photos from NMFS's Hawaii Longline mercially valuable catch. For the Observer Program. Hawai‘i-based longline fleet, such non- the effectiveness of fishing area closures target species as blue shark, dolphinfish and other management measures. (mahimahi), blue marlin, moonfish Project data might also be valuable in (opah), wahoo (ono) and pomfrets identifying environmental and techni- comprised almost half of the catch and cal (fishing) factors that affect catch a major portion of the revenue from rates, which could lead to new and 1991–98. All these species are ecologi- improved ways to reduce bycatch. cally important, and each species poses Finally, the corrected catch histories are unique challenges with respect to essential for other investigations of understanding fishing effects on its biology, population dynamics, and population. For example, until the fisheries economics.

18 Release of Large Non- Target Fish: A Life-Saving Measure? Sharks and other top preda- tor fish serve are important components of the pelagic ecosystem, and ecologists con- sider them to be indicators of the health of our oceans. PFRP- sponsored stock assessment studies have shown that popu- lations of some large predators have declined by as much as 50 percent since the beginning of industrial fishing. Fishery man- agers are actively searching for effective conservation measures to preserve top predators. Traditionally, fishers and fish- ery managers have made a vari- ety of unsupported assump- tions about the survival of large fish captured in sports fishing or as roundings. When the tags automatical- PFRP and NMFS researchers work to collect unwanted bycatch by commercial fish- ly detach from the fish after a predeter- blood from a blue shark and attach a PSAT to mined time, they transmit recorded its dorsal fin. Data collected by PSATs help to ers. The presumption that released fish answer questions about the fate of sharks die regardless of treatment has resulted data to an orbiting satellite. Combining and other pelagic species. These “tags” trans- in fishery models incorporating this the biochemical and PSAT data, the mit information by satellite that enable unproven premise, and “salvage” prac- researchers have identified biochemical researchers to differentiate between live and measures that enable them to predict dead animals and shed tags. tices such as shark-finning (now feder- which sharks will live after release and ally banned). which will likely die. The study was While large fish frequently are expanded to tag sharks of five other released after capture, whether they species. Though data spanning several survive or die is unknown. Sidestep- months were recovered from only ping the considerable costs and logistic about half the PSATs, it confirmed that difficulties of a broad-scale tagging the majority of released sharks sur- program to determine the fate of vived after being released from longline sharks and other released fish, a team of gear. PFRP-supported researchers focused The researchers are applying simi- on pinning down physiological factors lar techniques to address survival ques- associated with mortality in caught- tions for Pacific blue marlin. and-released fish. On a series of Commercial fishers catch significant research cruises, they collected blood numbers of blue marlins, and the feisty samples from dead and live blue sharks fish also are popular in Hawai‘i’s hooked by longline gear and attached world-renowned pop-up satellite archival tags (PSATs) industry. The current population level to some of the live sharks before releas- of this species argues against allowing ing them. increases in catch, and in some juris- The blood samples provided base- dictions the retention and sale of mar- line information on the traumatized lins is prohibited, thus requiring com- condition of captured sharks, including mercial and sport fishers to release oxygen levels in their blood, stress hor- them. For these practices to be justifi- mones and a slew of proteins that indi- able management options, there must cate damage to muscle and organs. The be a reasonable likelihood that released PSATs recorded the daily locations and fish will survive—particularly follow- swimming depths of the released fish, ing protracted contests with anglers. and the water temperature of their sur-

19 However, there is tion on their movements, swimming scant evidence to depths, long-term survival and fitness back this assump- following capture and release. They tion, so the trained more than 100 at-sea longline researchers are observers in the methods, and since developing meas- 2001 these observers have taken PSATs ures to assess the to sea on approximately 400 longline physiological fishing trips to maximize the chances changes in cap- for tagging turtles. tured billfish and The swordfish area closure has identify factors reduced the number of turtle interac- that predict tions and, consequently, opportunities whether they will for tagging them around the Hawaiian survive. For the Islands. As an alternative, researchers blue marlin the and observers have deployed tags on Longline hook removed from lower jaw of an issue is especially pressing, because the 25–30 loggerhead and olive ridley tur- olive ridley Sea Turtle in Costa Rica (photo by sport fishery in the main Hawaiian tles in the central North Pacific (west Yonat Swimmer). Islands takes place in an important of California) and in the waters off marlin spawning area. These studies Costa Rica and Brazil, where the inci- will help fisheries biologists to assess dental catch of turtles is extremely how fishing practices affect popula- high. Data collected from these turtles, tions of large fish, which in turn will combined with remote sensing data on improve stock assessments. ocean color and sea surface height, have shown that loggerheads move The Fate of Sea Turtles Freed seasonally north and south in concert from Longline Fishing Gear with changes in sea surface tempera- All five sea turtle species inhabiting tures. They are found in association Pacific waters (leatherback, hawksbill, with fronts, eddies, and large-scale loggerhead, green, and olive ridley) are currents, and spend about 40 percent listed as endangered or threatened of their time at the surface and 90 per- under the US Endangered Species Act. cent of their time at depths of less than While several factors (including poach- 130 feet. In contrast, olive ridleys occu- ing of eggs on nesting beaches, turtle py warmer waters and have deeper harvests and coastal gill net fisheries) dive patterns than loggerheads. These are implicated in turtle population findings suggest that a “turtle layer” declines, incidental capture by longline exists in Pacific waters and if fishers set fishing gear has come under growing their lines deeper they can avoid hook- scrutiny as a contributing cause. The ing turtles. number of turtles currently hooked by To date, none of the tagged turtles Hawai‘i longliners is considerably appear to have died during the first lower than in some other fisheries. few months after release. These pre- However, prior to the 1999 closure of a liminary findings suggest most sea tur- large area of the ocean to the Hawai‘i tles may survive longline hooking. swordfish fishery, turtle captures had However, the PSAT data also indicate been steadily rising, and the situation that turtles released after capture have had turned so critical it jeopardized the markedly different dive patterns (e.g., future of the fishery. remaining in deep cold water during Few of these animals are dead when the day) that could affect their feeding caught; most are de-hooked and and/or reproduction. Furthermore, if released. Nonetheless, injuries sus- a turtle suffers more than one gear- tained due to hooking (particularly in hooking, its chances for survival might the throat) can be severe, and deter- decrease. With the ongoing efforts to mining how long released turtles sur- tag more turtles, it is anticipated that vive has been difficult. In a multi-year more skillful means of preventing fish- project PFRP-funded researchers ery interactions with protected turtles developed techniques for attaching will evolve and be shared with other pop-up satellite archival transmitters countries. (PSATs) to turtles, to collect informa-

20 THE IMPACTS OF FISHERIES MANAGEMENT ON RESOURCES, FISHERS AND MARKETS

Fisheries management, by defini- sectors in the CWP was sparse at best, tion, constrains human activities. and in some cases completely lacking. Therefore, understanding the human This prompted the program to fund a dimensions of fishing is essential to number of projects (some ongoing) to sound management. Likewise, gauging compile sociocultural profiles and the effects of fisheries policy on both basic economic studies to aid decision the resources and humans provides makers in policy considerations. The indispensable feedback for developing results of many of these projects were and modifying appropriate manage- published in PFRP reports and techni- ment objectives and effective fishery cal papers (see appendix 1). Summaries regulations. The Fisheries Conser- of some of these projects follow. vation and Management Act mandates that decision-makers set optimum • HIFIVE—The Hawai‘i Fleet, yields for our national fisheries on the Industry and Vessel Economics basis of maximum sustainable yields, (HIFIVE) project, begun in 1994, “as modified by any relevant economic, involved economic research on com- social or ecological factor.” mercial fisheries for tuna, swordfish, In recent years, economics, public blue and striped marlin, and policy studies and the social sciences mahimahi and ono. Researchers col- have contributed much to fisheries lected an array of information on management. More than a third of the longline, commercial troll and han- PFRP research projects have originated dline, and charter boats, as well as from these disciplines. PFRP-spon- the markets associated with these sored researchers have collected and fleets. This multi-year project pro- interpreted fundamental information vided a detailed economic analysis related to questions such as these: of the Hawai‘i-based longline fishery Tuna longlining in the tropical Pacific. and perhaps the most comprehen- Courtesy of NOAA. • What are the key economic issues in sive cost-earnings information every the various pelagic fisheries? collected on any fishery. • How does regulatory policy affect • Fishery Economics, Part 2—During participation in the fisheries and the the late 1990s the Hawai‘i longline conservation of protected species? industry went through substantial • What are the market factors influ- changes that affected fleet composi- encing the supplies and prices of tion, vessel ownership and fishing Pacific pelagic ? operations and practices. In a fol- • How do fishing communities vary in low-up to the HIFIVE project, Hawai‘i and the US Pacific islands, researchers resurveyed more than and how do the social and cultural half of the longline fleet to collect characteristics of the fishers influ- cost-earnings information and iden- ence the appropriateness and effec- tify critical economic differences tiveness of fisheries policies? between 1993 and 2000. Fisheries managers used this updated data in Social and Economic Profiles of formulating new regulations and Hawai‘i’s Fisheries assessing their impacts on fishers. The Fisheries Conservation and • Social and Aspects of Pelagic Management Act and the National Fisheries—This multi-year project Environmental Policy Act require eval- described the social organization, uations of the impacts on fishers and historical-cultural background, communities when federal projects and fishing traditions and ecological fishery or environmental regulations knowledge of participants in are proposed. When the PFRP began Hawai‘i’s nearshore troll and hand- operations in the mid-1990s, baseline line fishery. In the mid-1990s this information on the various US fishing sector included up to 10,000 small

21 In any given locale, experienced resident fishermen usually have the most detailed knowledge of near-shore fisheries, which can be a vital complement to the geographically broader knowledge of pelagic research scien- tists and fisheries managers. Shown here are ikashibi fishermen unloading tuna at the Suisan in Hilo (left) and at Kewalo Basin in Honolulu (right) (Ikashibi is derived from the Japanese words "ika," for squid, and "shibi," for yellowfin). During the summer yellowfin run, Hawai‘i handliners fish around the islands at night, drifting with the current; they can catch large yellowfin and boats (under 45 feet long). Of these, ance of the fish, sample a small section albacore, as well as the occasional swordfish. Their experience in this fishery makes them only 2,000–3,000 boat owners had of the meat, and assign a quality grade. expert in nocturnal near-shore aggregations commercial licenses required for Each grade defines a range of accept- and behavior of tuna and other fishes around the sale of fish. Researchers investi- able quality. Prices in the Hawai‘i mar- the Big Island and O‘ahu. (Ed.: Big Island gated ethnic differences between ket may range from less than 50 refers to the island of Hawai‘i, Hawai‘i to the fishers, their social organization, cents/lb. to more than $15/lb. depend- entire state.) and networks for distribution of ing on the quality of the fish and other their catches. They also identified market forces of supply and demand. fishery issues perceived as impor- A PFRP study confirmed that the tant by fishers. types of products derived from fresh • Sociocultural Profile of the Longline tuna are highly differentiated, with price Industry—A project currently varying according to the quality underway is compiling in-depth requirements of each end use. The study information on the dynamic and also showed that fishing methods and ethnically diverse longline industry the effects of handling and storage affect in Hawai‘i. In interviews with vessel individual fish quality (grade) which in personnel and industry-associated turn influences tuna market competi- businesses, the researchers are solic- tion. This suggests that better quality iting a broad variety of information, control by tuna fishers could increase including interviewees’ knowledge the proportion of premium-grade fish regarding fishing regulations and in landings and improve their econom- management, and their adequacy. ic returns. It also indicates that increas- The results to date reveal that vessel ing fishers’ awareness of market quality owners and operators are primarily requirements and further diversifying Vietnamese, Korean and Caucasian fresh tuna and marlin products could US citizens (roughly one-third of add value to Pacific island fisheries and each). About 80 percent of enhance their economic viability. crewmembers are Filipino, working under transit visas at average salaries Evaluating the Effects of of $475 a month. Distinct differences Regulation on Commercial exist in social behavior, community Fisheries ties and attitudes about the industry In managing pelagic fisheries both between and within these eth- NOAA Fisheries and the WPRFMC nic groups participating in the fish- must balance the sometimes-conflict- ery. ing goals of maintaining optimal levels of fish stocks while maximizing oppor- Markets for Pacific Tuna and tunities for commercial and recreation- Marlin al fishing. Traditionally fisheries man- Understanding fresh tuna quality agers have used an assortment of meas- and market requirements is essential ures to achieve these ends, including for successful fishing and marketing area closures to rebuild depleted fish operations. Fresh tuna is processed into stocks, limitations on the number and an array of products. In the first step of types of vessels (e.g., size, gear type), directing the fish to the most suitable catch quotas and license fees. Each of market “niche” (e.g., sushi bar, white these measures affects the allocation of tablecloth restaurant, fast food outlet), fishing effort by individual vessels. In tuna graders assess the overall appear- turn, changes in overall fishing effort

22 affect fish stocks, fishers’ profits, and catches—which influence market prices for each type of fish. Predicting the impacts of various measures is complex, given the inter- acting dynamics of fisheries resources, the ocean environment and the fishers. Modeling allows managers to assess different management strategies and approximate their outcomes, which can assist greatly in making optimal policy choices. However, most tradi- tional fisheries economics models have neglected important factors such as temporal and spatial variation in the fish stocks and fishing effort. PFRP economists are engaged in ongoing efforts to improve upon mod- els for evaluating the effects of fishery regulations. One of the first problems the modelers examined was the resource conflict between longliners Tuna being auctioned in Honolulu. With sashimi-quality tuna in high demand, the Pacific- and other fishing sectors, such as troll- wide catch of bigeye tuna has reached 152,000 t. PFRP research has shown that bigeye and-handline fishers, who competed in belong to a single Pacific-wide stock which is being exploited very close to its maximum sustainable yield. (Courtesy of David Itano) some nearshore areas around the main Hawaiian Islands (MHI). The model estimated the consequences for possi- tion, the swordfish area closure would ble allocations of fishing access prompt longliners to relocate to fishing between the two groups. The results for grounds around the MHI. The model one option, restricting longlining with- forecasted that longline fishing for tunas in 75 miles from Hawai‘i shores, and striped marlin could increase, pos- showed that such an action would have sibly reducing catches by handliners and incurred an economic profit loss of trollers. As information from longline nearly a half-million dollars, primarily logbooks subsequently showed, many because longliners would have to travel longliners did shift their efforts to the further to fish. Another application of predicted areas. this model was to evaluate the econom- PFRP economists are continuing to ic tradeoffs between promoting recre- refine the models and make them more ational fishing and maintaining the flexible in defining fishing areas, which profits generated from the commercial can fluctuate dramatically in terms of fisheries. The results suggested an fish densities and catchability over small increase of one recreational trip would distances. Understanding how regulato- reduce commercial profit approxi- ry policies would change fishing activity mately by $12 (at the 1993 effort level). and the associated benefits and costs is The effects of area closures took critical to sound fisheries management. front and center stage in fishery policy concerns when a 1999 federal court rul- Comparing the Environmental ing restricted longlining for swordfish Baggage of Longline Fisheries within an area of approximately 6.5 mil- Worldwide, pelagic longlining has lion square miles north of the MHI to earned a reputation as environmentally protect endangered and threatened harmful for its considerable incidental species of sea turtles. PFRP researchers catch of seabirds and sea turtles. developed a spatial economic model However, longlining is not a single that simulates a range of geographically fixed method of fishing. It varies with defined area closures and the outcomes. location (e.g., coastal versus open- The modeling showed that while water) and operational practices such nearshore area closures would lead fish- as how and when gear is set and ers to make fewer trips of longer dura- whether measures are taken to avoid

23 adverse impact on turtle popula- Day Night Day tions, as some of the substituted swordfish came from fisheries with 0 m Tur tle layer? substantially higher rates of sea turtle 40 m interactions. For example, swordfish fisheries of Mexico, Costa Rica and 100 m Panama average 3–100 times higher rates of turtle capture. 250 m The study results suggest that fishery managers should consider the mamoto Ya relative ecological trade-offs that 400 m Y. result when fishing effort is trans- 6:00 am 12:00 noon 6:00 pm12:00 midnight 6:00 am 12:00 noon 6:00 pm ferred or the market shifts the supply Deepset (Tuna) Gear *Not drawn to scale. of fisheries products. The findings Set Day soak Night haul also imply that informed consumers Shallowset (Swordfish, mixed target) Gear can exert market pressure to encour- Dusk set Night soak Day haul age and support turtle-safe fishing and fishery products. A summary of key differences in longline fishing methods that impact incidental catch and bycatch rates. Courtesy PacMar, Inc. Area Closures: Do the Predictions Match the Results? interactions with protected species. average shallow line-setting hooks ten The closure of fishing grounds— Thus longlining effects on these species times as many turtles as deep sets. either permanently or for discrete peri- also vary. In a PFRP-sponsored project, Next the researchers calculated ods of time—is a widely used tool of researchers assessed and compared the bycatch-to-catch ratios based on 100 fishery management, employed to pro- incidental catch rates of sea turtles and metric tons (mt) of the targeted tect spawning grounds, depleted stocks non-target fish species in Hawai‘i’s species. This ratio provides a common and threatened species. However, longline fishery and other domestic denominator for comparing marketed analysis to determine if these regulato- and selected foreign longline fisheries fish caught by different methods. The ry measures have met the pre-imple- that supply US markets with the same results showed that Japan and Hawai‘i mentation goals has been meager. products. longliners using deep line-setting for PFRP-funded researchers examined The researchers collected informa- bigeye tuna average about two turtle four such area closures for their effec- tion on the longline gear type, configu- captures per 100 mt of tuna. Hawai‘i tiveness in achieving the expected bio- ration and fishing methods in fleets longliners setting shallow for swordfish logical protection, and compared the operating in the Pacific (Australia, had approximately 15 turtle takes per predicted consequences on the fishery California, China, Japan, Taiwan, 100 mt of swordfish. Longline vessels with the actual results. Mexico and Costa Rica), as well as using shallow sets for a mixture of Florida Swordfish Closure— Brazil and South Africa. They used data species (tuna, billfish, sharks and During the 1970s and ‘80s swordfish from NMFS, the Secretariat of the mahimahi) ranged from 7 turtle cap- longlining in the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Community and scientists in tures (Australia) to as high as 1,450 Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically. countries where comparisons were (Costa Rica) and 2,320 (Brazil) turtles The average size of swordfish caught made, as well as personal communica- per 100 mt of target species. steadily decreased as the number of tion with scientists, fleet managers, Restricting fishing may transfer the juvenile swordfish discarded in the commercial fishermen and longline impacts for which regulations are fishery increased. After considering gear suppliers. imposed to other regions. This appears several alternatives and modeling their Comparisons of longline fishing to have occurred with the 1999 broad- effects, NMFS closed selected fishing methods revealed that the critical factor scale restriction of shallow-set sword- grounds off the east coast of Florida in in turtle catch is the depth to which fish longlining in Hawai‘i. After the 2000. The modeling predicted that hooks are set. Longliners fishing for big- fishery closure, many Hawai‘i longlin- catches of juvenile and adult swordfish eye tuna typically set hooks to depths of ers simply relocated to California and would fall by 27–38 percent and 11–24 50–400 meters (about 160–1300 feet), continued to fish for swordfish in inter- percent respectively. The longline fleet while those targeting swordfish set in national waters. While NMFS data was predicted to either disappear depths ranging 35–80 meters (about show that turtle takes declined by near- entirely from the region or shift their 115–265 feet). Shallower still are long- ly one-half (about 340 turtles) after the efforts to the remaining open areas, line gear sets for swordfish, shark and fishery was closed, at the same time US with a consequent decline in fishing mahimahi in the eastern Pacific, which seafood wholesalers substituted sword- revenues of 9–24 percent. are commonly 5–30 meters (16–100 fish from other locales to replace the PFRP researchers found the actual feet) deep. According to the data, on lost supply. This likely resulted in a net results largely exceeded the modeling

24 Hawaii : Economic Breakdown for 1997 Sector Output Value-Added Wage Income Wage Jobs Vessel Owner's Vessel Owner's ($ million) ($ million) ($ million) Income ($ million) Jobs Swordfish longline 22.67 11.24 4.15 116 1.45 102 Tuna longline 27.37 16.46 7.30 215 2.49 191 Small commercial boats 11.70 6.55 0.29 10 5.40 507 Expense boats 3.94 -0.32 0.00 0 -0.78 1008 Recreation boats 10.30 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 Charter boats 14.17 8.39 4.67 175 1.42 67 Total Fishing Industry 90.15 42.33 16.42 516 9.99 1875 Total Hawaii 58660.04 38536.98 21626.23 615545 2087.96 126686 Data courtesy of NOAA Fisheries. predictions. The 2001 data showed marily in the NWHI. Responding to ished by nearly 70 percent. Reflecting fishing effort fell by nearly 87 percent, reports of monk seals bearing hooks the change in targeting by the fleet, the and more than 40 of the vessels previ- used by longliners, in 1991 NMFS pro- decline in swordfish catches (84 per- ously participating in the fishery left hibited longlining within a zone span- cent) was approximately matched by the region. This cutback resulted in a ning a 75-mile radius around the the increase in bigeye tuna catches (83 surprising 94 percent decline in juve- NWHI. The action was expected to percent). Most longline vessels still had nile bycatch and a 53 percent decrease reduce interactions between fishers and positive net returns for 2001. in adult swordfish landings, which led seals and result in an increase in the Conclusions—The researchers con- 2001 fishing revenues to drop 54 per- seal population. As of 2003 no interac- cluded that the studied area closures cent. Thus the closure achieved the tions had been documented between succeeded in their stated pre-closure intended outcome for swordfish the seals and US longliners. However, aims, though outcomes also were influ- bycatch, but the accuracy of predic- the overall seal population continues to enced by external factors. (For exam- tions for the longline fleet fell short. decline. ple, oceanographic conditions may Mid-Atlantic Bluefin Tuna Central Pacific Turtle Closure— change even within the limited tempo- Seasonal Closure—Responding to a Bycatch of federally protected sea tur- ral and spatial scales of the closures and situation of consistently high levels of tles in Hawai`i waters rose steadily dur- affect bycatch rates.) They noted that bluefin tuna bycatch in a portion of the ing the 1980s and ‘90s. NMFS estimated improving the collection of economic Mid-Atlantic Bight, in 1999 NMFS longline-associated turtle captures data on fishing fleets would allow bet- closed a small part of this area during averaged more than 700 per year from ter economic modeling of proposed the month of June. Based on different 1996 through 1999. Following a lawsuit management actions, particularly with assumptions of effort redistribution, over the lack of an environmental respect to estimating fluctuations in NMFS modeling predicted a wide impact statement (EIS) of the fishery’s vessel revenues. range of decreases in bluefin discards effects on the turtles (as required under (54–100 percent) and landings (18–98 the Endangered Species Act), NMFS percent). The 2001 data showed that prepared an EIS examining the issue. discards and landings decreased by Measures proposed to address the about 81 percent and 60 percent, problem included restrictions on the respectively. The decline in fleet rev- swordfish fishery. NMFS modeled the enue was expected to be a negligible, selected option for a 6.5-million- despite bluefin tuna having a high ex- square-mile area closure north of the vessel price. While results for individual Hawaiian archipelago. The results esti- vessels varied, the fleetwide prediction mated that interactions would decline proved to be accurate. by 85 percent, about 22 percent of long- Northwestern Hawaiian Islands line vessels would exit the fishery, and (NWHI) Monk Seal Closure—The revenues would drop by 10–45 percent. population of the Hawaiian monk The actual results matched the esti- seal—a federally endangered species mates relatively well. PFRP researchers that once ranged throughout most of found that two years after the closure the Hawaiian archipelago—plummet- there were 12 percent fewer vessels, but ed by more than 50 percent from the also a 12 percent increase in fishing 1950s to the late-70s. The remaining effort. At-sea observer reports showed population, of about 1,300 resides pri- fishery-turtle interactions had dimin-

25 COMMUNICATING RESULTS AND FOSTERING INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

The results of scientific research are Breakdown of PFRP Projects and Funding (by institutional of little value if they are not accessible affiliation of the principal investigator), 1992–2003. to potential users. The PFRP has encouraged its affiliated scientists to Joint Institute for Marine & Atmospheric Research, Univ. of Hawai‘i publish their results widely, and they PFRP Administration 2,828,573 Visiting Scientist 1,123,290 have published more than 80 articles in Modeling Support 1,113,451 the scientific fisheries literature since Other University of Hawai‘i researchers 4,927,790 the program’s inception. In addition, NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center 8,077,054 more detailed presentations of projects Virginia Institute of Marine Science 239,198 have appeared in JIMAR technical University of California-Davis 202,395 PACMAR, Inc., Honolulu 535,118 reports and informal workshop Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Oceans, reports. (Please see appendices.) University of Washington 236,291 Since 1996 the program has pro- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, California 240,559 duced a quarterly newsletter that circu- Detection Limit Technology, Inc., Honolulu 128,686 lates around the world and features Secretariat for the Pacific Community, New Caledonia 662,374 University of Maryland 333,715 results of PFRP-sponsored research as University of Guam 254,800 well as relevant science from outside Queens University, Canada 110,250 the program. The newsletter goes out Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, La Jolla, CA (I-ATTC) 105,845 to more than 350 fisheries managers, University of Montana and Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive academic and governments scientists, and Centre National De La Recherche Scientifique, France 184,522 University of Florida 100,626 government fisheries agencies, libraries Dalhousie University, Canada 103,488 and interested individuals in 38 coun- tries and US territories. TOTAL: $21,508,025 The PFRP’s comprehensive Internet site (http://www.soest.hawaii. edu/PFRP/) links to project descrip- researchers also have offered a platform (See sidebar on following page.) This tions, reports and publications, for training students in fisheries science open-door policy serves to attract a announcements of fisheries research and opening up employment opportu- bigger pool of relevant proposals and activities, information on project fund- nities to them following graduation. also fosters the sharing of results more ing, the program newsletter and more. The PFRP has actively promoted directly via institutions affiliated with The PFRP office, located on the cam- graduate education in fisheries to help the researchers. pus of the University of Hawai‘i- meet the growing demand for fisheries Manoa, serves as the physical hub for scientists. Following a recommenda- Working Toward a Sea Change in program coordination, information tion from an academic review of the the Management of CWP and communications. PFRP economics and social sciences Fisheries projects in October 2000, the program The 1990s will likely be remem- established two graduate assistantships Recruiting New Fisheries bered as pivotal in the history of the in fisheries research, one in economics Scientists management of highly migratory fish and one in fisheries oceanography. Under the administration of the species. In 1992 the UN Conference on Also, PFRP Program Manager John University of Hawai‘i’s JIMAR, the Environment and Development (Rio Sibert assisted in crafting a proposal for PFRP has served as a bridge between de Janeiro) endorsed the ‘precaution- a graduate degree program in Coastal the academic and government research ary principle’ with respect to the and Marine Resources at the University worlds, with obvious benefits: oceans, specifically pointing to the of Hawai‘i-Manoa. The program funds Academic scientists are able to under- necessity of “…apply(ing) preventive, the salary for the coordinator of this stand the practical problems that con- precautionary and anticipatory program, which will serve its first stu- front government scientists and can approaches so as to avoid degradation dents during the Fall semester of 2005. offer complementary points of view. of the marine environment, as well as While the majority of PFRP funds Conversely, the intensely practical to reduce the risk of long-term or irre- has gone to projects originating from nature of government science ensures versible adverse effects upon it ...” In JIMAR, other University of Hawai‘i that academic researchers are well August 1994 the UN adopted an agree- researchers and the NOAA-PIFSC, the aware of the challenges in applying ment for implementing provisions, program steering committee welcomes their findings. Collaborations between included in the 1982 UN Convention all relevant research proposals and has the NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), funded projects from many countries. Science Center (PIFSC) and university relating to the conservation and man-

26 agement of highly migratory fish The treaty will enter into force Year-to-date YTD stocks. This historic agreement, and the Commission will begin Category (FY '92 - FY '04) % dubbed UNIA, emphasizes the man- to function in June 2004. agement of such stocks throughout the Administration 2,828,573 13.2 range of their distribution. While the PFRP’s Commitment to JIMAR Visiting Scientist 1,123,290 5.2 United States has not signed or ratified Genetics 502,257 2.3 Multinational Fisheries Biology 6,463,088 30.0 the UNCLOS, it was the third country Management Statistics & Modeling 2,875,421 13.4 to sign and ratify the UNIA, and it has The PFRP and its affiliated Oceanography 2,671,197 12.4 been an international leader in researchers have been actively Economics 3,668,263 17.1 promoting the conservation and man- engaged in discussions on issues Socio-cultural 984,943 4.6 agement of highly migratory species of CWP regional research and Protected Species 390,993 1.8 These two UN actions cast a sense Total $21,508,025 100% management since the program’s of urgency on establishing effective inception. Early on, the program arrangements for managing these sponsored a symposium on Pacific- The PFRP priorities for research species and provided an impetus for a wide fisheries research and a workshop have evolved as the program has higher level of multinational coopera- on ocean-scale management of pelagic matured. Having successfully tackled tion across the Pacific. In the CWP, fisheries featuring presentations by many of the baseline studies needed by governments had organized the South economists, social scientists and legal the fishery council, program sights Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA) experts. The program also has encour- have shifted considerably to research in to aid in harmonizing management aged the sharing of research results support of ecosystem-based manage- measures taken by individual coun- between scientists from numerous ment. This “big picture” approach aims tries. Also, the South Pacific countries via the many other to weave together the best available Commission (now the Secretariat of meetings and workshops it has hosted. information on the biology and ecolo- the Pacific Community) served as a (See sidebar on Fisheries meetings/ gy of marine species (i.e., their func- center for data collection and scientific workshops.) tions, processes and interactions), the fisheries information. Nonetheless, In 2001, PFRP Program Manager ocean environment, and the effects of management of pelagic stocks there John Sibert became chair of the human activity on both. It recognizes remained unconsolidated and inade- Methods Working Group of the that fishery management and exploita- quate for addressing region-wide needs Standing Committee on Tuna and tion are real and integral parts of until the mid-1990s. Billfish (SCTB), the central clearing- marine ecosystems. Guided by the UNCLOS and house for regional fisheries data and While this nascent strategy holds UNIA, seven sessions of the research in the Pacific. Dr. Sibert also much promise for achieving more Multilateral High-Level Conference on served as a member of the US delega- holistic conservation and management the Conservation and Management of tion to the MHLC and continues par- of fisheries, it demands a much broad- Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the ticipate in the preparatory conferences er base of scientific support than is cur- Western and Central Pacific (MHLC) for the new commission. His frequent rently available in the Pacific. In its were held from 1994 to 2000. Attended reports and articles on the workings of sponsorship of research on fisheries by representatives of Pacific Island and these multinational groups in the pro- oceanography, the ecology of non-tar- distant-water fishing nations (includ- gram newsletter have helped to keep get commercial species, and the ing the U.S.), the fishing industry and the PFRP community and newsletter dynamics of critical protected species, other interested parties, the meetings readers abreast of developments in the PFRP has laid the groundwork to addressed a range of legal, conserva- these arenas. provide such scientific support. The tion, scientific and technical issues. In program’s activities in international Honolulu in September 2000, the 29 fisheries research and management contracting parties adopted the Directions for a New Millennium also have augmented these efforts. Convention for the Conservation and In the coming years fishery man- General ecosystem-related topics Management of Highly Migratory Fish agement will differ radically from cur- that will be addressed in future PFRP Stocks in the Western and Central rent practice. Management goals will research include the following: Pacific. The convention area encom- give greater emphasis to sustaining passes most of the Pacific Ocean west entire ecosystems than to maintaining • Understanding the relationships of 150° east longitude. The commission stable harvests of single species. In the between predator populations near established to implement the conven- Pacific Ocean—where the planet’s the top of the food chain; tion is scheduled to begin operations in biggest and most complex ecosystem • Assessing the impacts of short- and mid–2004. During the interim, partici- touches diverse political jurisdic- long-term environmental variability pants in a series of preparatory confer- tions—specific management actions on populations of both target and ences are deliberating on a raft of issues will take place in a more international non-target species; that must be resolved to ensure the context than does unilateral manage- • Determining how populations mix convention achieves effective support. ment within a single EEZ. in the Pacific Ocean;

27 PFRP Involvement in Fisheries Meetings

1992 people from a dozen countries. Pacific Fisheries Convention Preparatory • PFRP hosted the Pacific Pelagic Fisheries • PFRP-affiliated scientists made 7 presen- Conference—“PrepCon” Planning Workshop (March 24-27), tations at the 51st Lake Arrowhead • PFRP-affiliated scientists made 15 pre- University of Hawai‘i-Manoa. (California) Tuna Conference (May sentations at the 53rd Lake Arrowhead 22–25). (California) Tuna Conference (May 1993 • PFRP-affiliated scientists made several 20–23). • PFRP funded the Blue Marlin Workshop presentations on program-related • PFRP co-hosted 15th Standing (April 20–23), Honolulu. research at the annual meeting of the Committee on Tuna and Billfish (SCTB • PFRP hosted the Yellowfin Assessment Standing Committee on Tunas and 15) Meeting, July 22-27, Honolulu. Model Development Workshop (Nov. Billfish (July 5-12), Noumea, New • PFRP Program Manager participated in 8–12), Honolulu. Caledonia. the first meeting of the Scientific 1997 • PFRP organized the Marine Turtle Coordinating Group of PrepCon, (July • PFRP organized the two-day sympo- Bycatch Reduction Working Group 29–31) Honolulu. sium on Ocean-Scale Management of Meeting (September 12-13), Los • PFRP sponsored the International Pelagic Fisheries: Economic and Angeles. Workshop on the Current Status and Regulatory Issues (November 12–13), • Workshop on Exploitation, Predation, New Directions for Studying Schooling University of Hawai‘i-Manoa. and Scales of Spatial Variability in and Aggregation Behavior of Pelagic Pelagic Fisheries (PFRP Principal Fish (October 7–9), University of 1998 Investigators’ Meeting, December 5-7), Hawai‘i-Manoa. • PFRP coordinated the international University of Hawai‘i-Manoa. • “Tying One On” Workshop held as part Pacific Bigeye Tuna Research of PFRP Principal Investigators’ 2001 Coordination Workshop (November 9- nd Meeting, (December 4-6), University of 10), University of Hawai‘i-Manoa. • PFRP organized the 2 Marine Turtle Hawai‘i-Manoa. Bycatch Reduction Working Group 1999 Meeting (January 9-11), San Diego. 2003 • PFRP-affiliated scientists made 8 presen- • PFRP-affiliated scientists made 12 pre- • PFRP Program Manager participated in tations at the 13th meeting of the sentations at the 52nd Lake Arrowhead fourth and fifth Western and Central Standing Committee on Tunas and (California) Tuna Conference (May 21- Pacific Fisheries Convention Preparatory Billfish (Feb. 1-3), including a PFRP- 25). Conference coordinated workshop on modeling and • PFRP hosted the Protected Species • PFRP-affiliated scientists made 12 pre- bigeye tuna stock assessments. Population Modeling Workshop sentations at the 54th Lake Arrowhead • PFRP-affiliated scientists made 6 presen- (November 13–14), University of (California) Tuna Conference (May tations at the 50th Lake Arrowhead Hawai‘i-Manoa. 20–23). (California) Tuna Conference (May • Workshop on Ecosystem-Based • PFRP-affiliated scientists made 3 presen- 24–27). Management of Pelagic Fisheries held as tations on program-related research at part of PFRP Principal Investigators’ the 15th Standing Committee on Tuna 2000 Meeting (December 4-6), University of and Billfish Meeting (July 9-16), • PFRP hosted international workshop on Hawai‘i-Manoa. Mooloolaba, Australia. the MUTIFAN-CL stock assessment • Publication of proceedings from the • PFRP Program Manager participated in model (February 1-3), University of 2000 Symposium on Tagging and the second meeting of the Scientific Hawai‘i-Manoa. Tracking Marine Fish with Electronic Coordinating Group of PrepCon, (July • PFRP hosted the Second Workshop on Devices, as first volume of Reviews: 27–19) Mooloolaba, Australia. Daylight Measurements for Geo-loca- Methods and Technologies in Fish Biology • Workshop on Data Rescue: Discovery, tion in Animal Telemetry (February and Fisheries, Kluwer Academic Verification, Documentation and 3–4), University of Hawai‘i-Manoa. Publishers. Analysis of Long-Term Data, held as part • PFRP co-sponsored the International of the PFRP Principal Investigators’ Symposium on Tagging and Tracking 2002 Meeting (December 9-11), University of Marine Fish with Electronic Devices • PFRP Program Manager participated in Hawai‘i-Manoa. (Feb 7–11), attended by more than 100 second and third Western and Central

• Devising and evaluating policies and protected species have reached the ulations of protected species of seabirds suitable for conservation of fish point where fisheries sustainability and sea turtles. Work has already begun populations on the scale of the depends on scientifically quantifying on some of these topics. largest geographic feature on earth. the effects of specific fishing practices With a ten-year record of consider- and the population dynamics of pro- able scientific accomplishments, the A second, related priority involves tected species. The PFRP is seeking to PFRP stands ready to meet the chal- advancing the knowledge of protected expand the methods used to obtain this lenges of providing continuing scientif- species in the Pacific. The impacts of critical information and to improve the ic support for 21st century pelagic fish- interactions between fishing operations means for modeling and assessing pop- eries management.

28 Appendix 1: Pelagic Fisheries Research Program Technical Reports

Publication Year 2003 the Atlantic-based U.S. pelagic longline Holland, Kim N. and Melinda J. fleet. SOEST Publication 01-02, Braun, 2003. Proceedings of “Tying JIMAR Contribution 01-337, 102 pp. One On”—a workshop on tag attach- ment techniques for large marine Publication Year 2000 mammals. SOEST Publication 03-02, Chakravorty, Ujjayant and Keiichi JIMAR Contribution 03-349. Nemoto, 2000. Modeling the effects of area closure and tax policies: A spatial O’Malley,Joseph M. and Samuel G. model of the Hawaii longline fishery. Pooley, 2003. Economics and SOEST Publication 00-02, JIMAR Operational Characteristics of the Contribution 00-329, 28 pp. Hawaii-Based Longline Fleet in 2000. SOEST Publication 03-01, JIMAR Hamnett, Michael P. and Cheryl L. Contribution 03-348. Anderson, 2000. Impact of ENSO events on tuna fisheries in the U.S.- Wachsman, Yoav, 2003. affiliated Pacific Islands. SOEST Externalities and management regimes Publication 00-03, JIMAR in fisheries exploitation. SOEST Contribution 00-330, 27 pp. Publication 02-03, JIMAR Contribution 02-346, 19 pp. Itano, David G., 2000. The repro- ductive biology of yellowfin tuna Publication Year 2002 (Thunnus albacares) in Hawaiian Gillett, Robert, Mike A. McCoy, and waters and the western tropical Pacific David G. Itano, 2002. Status of the Ocean: Project summary. SOEST United States Western Pacific tuna Publication 00-01, JIMAR purse seine fleet and factors affecting Contribution 00-328, 69 pp. its future. SOEST Publication 02-01, JIMAR Contribution 02-334, 64 pp. Kaneko, John, Paul Bartram, Marc Miller and Joe Marks, 2000. Local fish- O’Malley,Joseph M. and Samuel G. ery knowledge: The application of cul- Pooley, 2002. A Description and tural consensus analysis to the manage- Economic Analysis of Large American ment and development of small-scale Samoa Longline Vessels. SOEST pelagic fisheries. Project final report. Publication 02-2, JIMAR Contribution SOEST Publication 00-06, JIMAR 02-345, 24 pp. Contribution 00-334, 34 pp.

Publication Year 2001 Weng, Kevin C.M. and John R. McConnell, Kenneth E. and Sibert, 2000. Analysis of the fisheries Timothy C. Haab, 2001. Small boat for two pelagic carangids in Hawaii. fishing in Hawaii: Choice and eco- SOEST Publication 00-04, JIMAR nomic values. SOEST Publication 01- Contribution 00-332, 78 pp. 01, JIMAR Contribution 01-336, 62 pp. Publication Year 1999 O’Malley, J.M. and E.W. Glazier, Chakravorty, Ujjayant and John 2001. Motivations, satisfaction and Sibert (editors), 1999. Ocean-scale expenditures of recreational pelagic management of pelagic fisheries: charter fishing patrons in Hawaii. Economic and regulatory issues, SOEST Publication 01-03, JIMAR (Proceedings of an international work- Contribution 01-339, 46 pp. shop organized by the Pelagic Fisheries Research Program, JIMAR, UH, Porter, Richard M., Maribeth November 12-13, 1997). SOEST 99-01, Wendt, Michael D. Travis, and Ivar JIMAR Contribution 99-321, 102 pp. Strand, 2001. Cost-earnings study of

29 Glazier, Edward W., 1999. Non- Hamilton, Marcia S., Stephen W. commercial fisheries in the central and Huffman, 1997. Cost-earnings study of western Pacific: A summary review of Hawaii’s small boat fishery, 1995-1996. the literature. SOEST 99-07, JIMAR SOEST 97-06, JIMAR Contribution Contribution 99-326, 48 pp. 97-314, 102 pp.

Pan, Minling, PingSun Leung, Fang Walker, Julie, 1997. Sociology of Ji,Stuart T. Nakamoto, and Samuel G. Hawaii charter boat fishing. SOEST Pooley, 1999. A multilevel and multi- 97-02, JIMAR Contribution 97-309, 50 objective programming model for the pp. Hawaii fishery: Model documentation and application results. SOEST 99-04, Publication Year 1996 JIMAR Contribution 99-234, 84 pp. Bartram, Paul, Peter Garrod, and With: Fisheries management decision John Kaneko, 1996. Quality and prod- support system (FMDSS): Users manu- uct determination as price determi- al, 1999. Omar F. El-Gayar and Fang Ji. nants in the marketing of fresh Pacific tuna and marlin. SOEST 96-06, JIMAR Sharma, K.R., A. Peterson, S.G. Contribution 96-304, 50 pp. Pooley, S.T. Nakamoto, and P.S. Leung, 1999. Economic contributions of Hamilton, Marcia S., Rita E. Curtis, Hawaii’s fisheries. SOEST 99-08, and Michael D. Travis, 1996. Cost- JIMAR Contribution 99-327, 40 pp. earnings study of the Hawaii-based domestic longline fleet. SOEST 96-03, Publication Year 1998 JIMAR Contribution 96-300, 59 pp. Grewe, Peter M. and John Hampton, 1998. An assessment of big- Hamnett, Michael P. and William eye (Thunnus obesus) population Sam Pintz, 1996. The contribution of structure in the Pacific Ocean, based on tuna fishing and transshipment to the mitochondrial DNA and DNA economies of American Samoa, the microsatellite analysis. SOEST 98-05, Commonwealth of the Northern JIMAR Contribution 98-320, 23 pp. Mariana Islands, and Guam. SOEST 96-05, JIMAR Contribution 96-303, 38 Hamilton, Marcia S., 1998. Cost- pp. earnings study of Hawaii’s charter fish- ing industry, 1996-1997. SOEST 98-08, Miller, Marc L., 1996. Social aspects JIMAR Contribution 98-322, 105 pp. of Pacific pelagic fisheries, Phase I: The Hawai‘i troll and handline fishery. McConnell, K.E., I.E. Strand, and SOEST 96-04, JIMAR Contribution R.E. Curtis, 1998. An analysis of auc- 96-302, 120 pp. tion prices of tuna in Hawaii: Hedonic prices, grading, and aggregation. Schoen, Christian and John Sibert, SOEST 98-03, JIMAR Contribution 1996. Feasibility of dual mode lidar for 98-317, 27 pp. pelagic fish surveys. SOEST 96-02, JIMAR Contribution 96-301, 18 pp. Stöcker, Sabine, 1998. Cellular automaton models for fish schools: Sibert, John and Mary Nunn, 1996. Merging social behavior and hydrody- Pacific pelagic fisheries: Current proj- namics. SOEST 98-02, JIMAR ects and related research. Abstracts of Contribution 98-316, 19 pp. papers presented November 28-30, 1995. SOEST 96-01, JIMAR Publication Year 1997 Contribution 96-299, 49 pp. Bills, Peter J. and John R. Sibert, 1997. Design of tag-recapture experi- ments for estimating yellowfin tuna stock dynamics, mortality, and fishery interactions. SOEST 97-05, JIMAR Contribution 97-313, 80 pp.

30 Appendix 2: Peer-Reviewed Journals Papers Related to PFRP-Sponsored Research

1. Adam, M. Shiham, John Sibert, 7. Braun, Marvin H., Richard W. David Itano, and Kim Holland, Brill, John M. Gosline and David 2003. Dynamics of bigeye R. Jones, 2003. Form and function (Thunnus obesus) and yellowfin of the bulbus arteriosus in yel- (T. albacares) tuna in Hawaii’s lowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), pelagic fisheries: Analysis of tag- bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) and ging data with a bulk transfer blue marlin (Makaira nigricans): model incorporating size-specific Static properties. Journal of attrition. Fishery Bulletin, 101 (2): Experimental Biology, 206: 3311- 215-228. 3326. 2. Adam, M. S. and J. Sibert, 2002. 8. Braun, Marvin H., Richard W. Population dynamics and move- Brill, John M. Gosline and David ments of skipjack tuna R. Jones, 2003. Form and func- (Katsuwonus pelamis) in the tion of the bulbus arteriosus in Maldivian fishery: analysis of tag- yellowfin tuna (Thunnus ging data from an advection-dif- albacares): Dynamic properties. fusion-reaction model. Aquatic Journal of Experimental Biology, Living Resources, 15: 13-23. 206: 3327-3335. 3. Bidigare, Robert R., Claudia 9. Brill, Richard, 1996. Selective Benitez-Nelson, Carrie L. advantages conferred by the high Leonard, Paul D. Quay, Michael L. performance physiology of tunas, Parsons, David G. Foley, and , and dolphin fish. Journal Michael P. Seki, 2003. Influence of Comparative Biochemistry and of a cyclonic eddy on micro- Physiology, Vol. 113A, No. 1, pp. 3- heterotroph biomass and carbon 15. export in the lee of Hawaii. 10. Brill, R., et al., 2002. Horizontal Geophysical Research Letters, 30 and vertical movements of juve- (6) 10.1029/2002GLO16393. nile bluefin tuna (Thunnus thyn- 4. Bigelow, Keith A., Christofer H. nus), in relation to oceanographic Boggs, and Xi He, 1999. conditions of the western North Environmental effects on sword- Atlantic, determined with ultra- fish and blue shark catch rates in sonic telemetry. Fishery Bulletin, the US North Pacific longline 100: 155-167. fishery. Fisheries Oceanography, 11. Brill, Richard W., and Molly E. 8:3, 178-198. Lutcavage, 2001. Understanding 5. Block, Barbara A., Heidi Dewar, environmental influences on Charles Farwell, and Eric D. movements and depth distribu- Prince, 1998. A new satellite tech- tions of tunas and billfishes can nology for tracking the move- significantly improve population ments of Atlantic bluefin tuna. assessments. American Fisheries Proceedings of the National Society Symposium, 25: 179-198. Academy of Sciences, 95:9384- 12. Brill, Richard, Yonat Swimmer, 9389, August 1998. Carina Taxboel, Katherine 6. Block, B. A., J. E. Keen, B. Castillo, Cousins, and Timothy Lowe, H. Dewar, E. V. Freund, D. J. 2001. Gill and intestinal NA+-K+ Marcinek, R. W. Brill, and C. ATPase activity, and estimated Farwell, 1997. Environmental maximal osmoregulatory costs, in preferences of yellowfin tuna three high-energy-demand (Thunnus albacares) at the north- teleosts: yellowfin tuna (Thunnus ern extent of its range. Marine albacares), skipjack tuna Biology, 130: 119-132. (Katsuwonus pelamis), and dolphin

31 fish (Coryphaena hippurus). 19. Curtis, Rita and Robert L. Hicks, Marine Biology, 138: 935-944. 2000. The cost of sea turtle 13. Brill, R.W., B.A. Block, C.H. preservation: The Case of Boggs, K.A. Bigelow, E.V. Freund, Hawaii’s Pelagic Longliners. and D.J. Marcinek, 1999. American Journal of Agricultural Horizontal and depth distribu- Economics, 82(5):1191 -1197. tion of large adult yellowfin tuna 20. Firing, E., B. Qiu and W. Miao, (Thunnus albacares) near the 1999. Time-dependent island rule Hawaiian Islands, recorded using and its application to the time- ultrasonic telemetry: implications varying North Hawaiian Ridge for the physiological ecology of Current. Journal of Physical pelagic fishes. Marine Biology, Oceanography, 29, 2671-2688. 133: 395-408. 21. Fonteneau, A, P. Pallares, J. Sibert 14. Brill, R.W., K.L. Cousins, D.R. and Z. Suzuki, 2002. Effect of Jones, P.G. Bushnell, and J. F. tuna fisheries on tuna resources Steffensen, 1998. Blood volume, and on offshore pelagic ecosys- plasma volume and circulation tems. In Ocean Yearbook, Vol. 16. time in a high-energy demand- E. M. Borgese, A. Chircop, and M. high teleost, the yellowfin tuna McConnell (eds). (Thunnus albacares). Journal of 22. Fonteneau, A., R. Allen, T. Experimental Biology, 201, 647- Pollachek, P.Pallares, J. Sibert and 654. Z. Suzuki. 1999. Effect of tuna 15. Brill, Richard W., Timothy E. fisheries on the tuna resources Lowe, and Katherine L. Cousins, and on the offshore pelagic 1998b. How water temperature ecosystems. ICES/SCOR Sym- really limits the vertical move- posium on Ecosystem Effects of ments of tunas and billfishes—It’s Fishing, Montpellier, France, 16- the heart stupid. Abstract from the 19 March 1999. American Fisheries Society, 23. Fournier, D., J. Hampton, and J. International Congress on Biology Sibert. 1999. MULTIFAN-CL: a of Fish, July 26-20, 1998, Towson length-based, age-structured model University, Baltimore, MD for fisheries stock assessment, 16. Buonaccorsi,Vincent P., Kimberly with application to south Pacific S. Reece, Lee W. Morgan, and albacore, Thunnus alalunga. John E. Graves, 1999. Geographic Canadian Journal of Fisheries and distribution of molecular vari- Aquatic Sciences, 55:2105-2116. ance within the blue marlin 24. Hamilton, Marcia S., Rita E. (Makaira nigricans): A hierarchi- Curtis and Michael D. Travis, cal analysis of allozyme, single- 1996: Hawaii longline vessel eco- copy nuclear DNA, and mito- nomics. Marine Resource Eco- chondrial DNA markers. nomics, 11(2): 137-140. Evolution, 53(2), 568-579. 25. Hamilton, Marcia, 1999. A system 17. Chakravorty, Ujjayant, and for classifying small boat fisher- Keiichi Nemoto, 2001. Modeling men in Hawaii. Marine Resource the effects of area closure and tax Economics, 13: 289-291. policies: a spatial-temporal model of the Hawaii longline fishery. 26. Hampton, John and David A. Marine Resources Economics, 15: Fournier, 2001. A spatially disag- 179-204. gregated, length-based, age-struc- tured population model of yel- 18. Curran, D.S., C.H. Boggs, and X. lowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) He., 1996. Catch and effort from in the western and central Pacific Hawaii’s longline fishery summa- Ocean. Marine Freshwater rized by quarters and five degrees Resources, 52: 937-963. squares. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NMFS-SWFSC- 27. He,Xi, Keith A. Bigelow and 225, 68 pp. Christofer H. Boggs, 1997.

32 Cluster analysis of longline sets oxidase activity via holoenzyme and fishing strategies within the dissociation. Journal of Biological Hawaii-based fishery. Journal of Chemistry. 277: 11321-11328. Fisheries Research, 31: 147-158. 35. Leary, S.C., D. Michaud, C. Lyons, 28. Holland, K. et al, 2001. Five tags T. Hale, T.L. Bushfield, M.A. applied to a single species in a sin- and C.D. Moyes, 2002. gle location: The tiger shark expe- Bioenergetic remodeling during rience. In J.R. Sibert and J. Nielsen treatment of spontaneously (Eds.), Electronic Tagging and hypertensive rats with enalapril. Tracking in Marine Fisheries (pp. American Journal of Physiology. 237-248). Kluwer Academic Heart and Circulatory Physiology, Publishers, The Netherlands. 283: H540-H548. 29. Holland, K.N., S. M. Kajiura, D.G. 36. Leung, P.S. and S. Pooley, 2002. Itano and J. R. Sibert, 2001. Regional economic impacts of Tagging techniques can elucidate reductions in fisheries produc- the biology and exploitation pat- tion: A supply-driven approach. terns of aggregated pelagic fishes. Marine Resource Economics, 16 In Island in the stream: oceanogra- (4): 251-262. phy and fisheries of the Charleston 37. Leung, PingSun, Jill Muraoka, Bump. G. R. Sedberry, editor. Stuart T. Nakamura, and Sam American Fisheries Society, Pooley, 1998. Evaluating fisheries Symposium 25, pp. 211-218. management options in Hawaii 30. Holland, K.N., P. Kleiber and using analytic hierarchy process S.M. Kajiura, 1999. Different resi- (AHP). Fisheries Research, 36 dence times of yellowfin tuna, (1998): 171-183. Thunnus albacares, and bigeye 38. Lowe, T.E., R.W. Brill, and K.L. tuna, Thunnus obesus, found in Cousins, 2000. Blood oxygen- mixed aggregations over a binding characteristics of bigeye . Fishery Bulletin, tuna (Thunnus obesus), a high- 97:392-395. energy-demand teleost that is tol- 31. Itano, David G., 1996. The repro- erant of low ambient oxygen. ductive biology and spawning Marine Biology, 136: 1087-1098. behavior of yellowfin tuna: 39. Lowe, T.E., R.W. Brill, and K.L. Implications to gear vulnerability Cousins, 1998. Responses of the and fishery interaction. NMFS red blood cells from two high- Tuna Newsletter, Issue 120, energy-demand teleosts, yel- February 1996. lowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) 32. Itano, David G., and Kim N. and skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus Holland, 2000. Movement and pelamis) to catecholamines. vulnerability of bigeye (Thunnus Journal of Comparative Physiology obesus) and yellowfin tuna and Biology, 168: 405-418. (Thunnus albacares) in relation to 40. Lumpkin, C.F., P. Flament, R. FADs and natural aggregation Kloosterziel and L. Armi, 2000. points. Aquatic Living Resources, Vortex merging in a 1.5-layer 13: 213-223. fluid on an f-plane. Journal of 33. Klimley, A.P., and C.F. Holloway, Physical Oceanography, 30:233- 1999. School fidelity and homing 242. synchronicity of yellowfin tuna, 41. Lund S.C., P. Dyment, M.R. Thunnus albacares. Marine Gervais, C.D. Moyes and B.L. Biology, 133: 307-317. Tufts, 2002. Characterization of 34. Leary, S.C., B.C. Hill, C.N. Lyons, erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase C.G. Carlson, D. Michaud, C.S. in an ancient fish, the longnose Kraft, K. Ko, D.M. Glerum, and gar (Lepisosteus osseus). Carbonic C.D. Moyes, 2002. Chronic treat- anhydrase in an ancient fish. ment with azide in situ leads to an Journal of Comparative Physiology irreversible loss of cytochrome c and Biology, 172: 1467-1476.

33 42. Lund S.G., M.C. Phillips, C.D. of geographical position based on Moyes, and B.L. Tufts, 2000. The light intensity. In J.R. Sibert and J. effects of cell ageing on protein Nielsen (Eds.), Electronic Tagging synthesis in rainbow trout and Tracking in Marine Fisheries (Oncorhynchus mykiss) red blood (pp. 343-368). Kluwer Academic cells. Journal of Experimental Publishers, The Netherlands. Biology, 203:2219-2228. 50. Pan, M., P.S. Leung, and S.G. 43. Lutcavage, M.E., R.W. Brill, G.B. Pooley, 2001. A decision support Skomal, B.C. Chase, J.L. model for fisheries management in Goldstein, and J. Tutein, 2000. Hawaii - A multilevel and multiob- Tracking adult North Atlantic jective programming approach. bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) North American Journal of in the northwest Atlantic using Fisheries Management, 21(2): ultrasonic telemetry. Marine 293-309. Biology, 137: 347-358. 51. Phillips M.C.L., C.D. Moyes, and 44. Lutcavage, Molly E., Richard W. B.L. Tufts, 2000. The effects of cell Brill, Gregory B. Skomal, Bradford ageing on metabolism of nucleat- C. Chase, and Paul W. Howey, ed red blood cells. Journal of 1999. Results of pop-up satellite Experimental Biology, 03: 1039- tagging of spawning size class fish 1045. in the Gulf of Maine: do North 52. Polovina, Jeffrey J., Evan Howell, Atlantic bluefin tuna spawn in the Donald R. Kobayashi, and Michael Mid-Atlantic? Canadian Journal of P. Seki, 2001. The transition zone Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 56: chlorophyll front, a dynamic global 173-177 (1999). feature defining migration and for- 45. Mathieu-Costello, O., R.W. Brill, age habitat for marine resources. and P.W. Hochachka, 1996. Progress in Oceanography, 49 : 469- Structural basis for oxygen deliv- 483. ery: Muscle capillaries and mani- 53. Polovina, J.J., D.R. Kobayashi, folds in tuna red muscle. Journal D.M. Ellis, M.P. Seki and G.H. of Comparative Biochemistry and Balazs, 2000. Turtles on the edge: Physiology, 114A, 25-31. Movement of loggerhead turtles 46. Mistian, Johan A., and Ivar E. (Caretta caretta) along oceanic Strand, 2000. Location choice of fronts in the central North commercial fishermen with het- Pacific, 1997-1998. Fisheries erogenous risk preferences. Oceanography, 9(1):71-82. American Journal of Agricultural 54. Polovina, J.J., P. Kleiber and D.R. Economics, Nov. 15, 2000, vol. 82, Kobayashi, 1999. Application of no. 5, pg. 1184. TOPEX/Poseidon satellite altime- 47. Moyes C.D., M.L. Sharma, C. try to simulate transport dynam- Lyons, S.C. Leary, M. Leon, 2002. ics of spiny lobster, Panulirus A. Petri, S. Lund and B. Tufts. marginatus, in the Northwestern Origins and consequences of Hawaiian Islands, 1936-1996. mitochondrial decline in nucleat- Fishery Bulletin, 97:132-143. ed erythrocytes. Biochimica et 55. Pradhan, N.C., K.R. Sharma and Biophysica Acta, 1591 11-20. P. Leung, 2003. Analyzing techni- 48. Musyl, Michael, et al, 2003. cal and economic interrelation- Vertical movements of bigeye ships in Hawaii’s longline fishery. tuna (Thunnus obesus) associated Marine Resources Economics, v. with islands, buoys, and 18, pp. 167-193. seamounts near the main 56. Qiu, B., D. Koh, C. Lumpkin, and P. Hawaiian Islands from archival Flament, 1997. Existence and for- tagging data. Fisheries mation mechanism of the North Oceanography, 12 (3): 152-169. Hawaiian Ridge Current. Journal of 49. Musyl, M., et al, 2001. Ability of Physical Oceanography, v. 27, no. 3: archival tags to provide estimates 431-434.

34 57. Qiu, B., W. Miao, and P. Muller, 28(8):1583-1586. 1997: Propagation and decay of 65. Sharma, K.R., N.C. Pradhan and forced and free baroclinic Rossby P. Leung, 2003. Technological and waves in off-equatorial oceans. economic interrelationships in Journal of Physical Oceanography, Hawaii’s troll and handline fish- v. 27: 2405-2417. eries. North American Journal of 58. Reeb, C.A., L. Arcangeli and B.A. Fisheries Management, 23: 869- Block, 2000. Structure and migra- 882. tion corridors in Pacific popula- 66. Sharma, Khem R., and PingSun tions of the swordfish, Xiphias Leung, 2001. Economic impacts gladius, as inferred through of catch reallocation from the analysis of mitochondrial DNA. commercial fishery to the recre- Marine Biology, 136: 1123-1131. ational fishery in Hawaii. North 59. Reeb. C., and B.A. Block, 1997: American Journal of Fisheries The usefulness of mitochondrial Management, 21: 125-134. DNA studies to define manage- 67. Sharma, Khem R., and PingSun ment units of the swordfish, Leung, 1999. Technical efficiency Xiphias gladius: A review of the of the longline fishery in Hawaii: current literature. International An application of a stochastic Commission for the Conservation production frontier. Marine of Atlantic Tunas, Collective Resource Economics, 13: 259-274. Volume of Scientific Papers, Vol. XLVI (3): 390-392. 68. Sibert, John, 2001. Electronic tag- ging and tracking in marine fish- 60. Rizzuto, J. (with R.W. Brill), 1996. eries: Introduction to the pro- New data on yellowfin tuna ceedings. In J.R. Sibert and J. behavior. Saltwater Sportsman, Nielsen (Eds.), Electronic Tagging May 1996, 50-55. and Tracking in Marine Fisheries 61. Rosel, Patty E., and Barbara A. (pp. 1-6). Kluwer Academic Block, 1996. Mitochondrial con- Publishers, The Netherlands. trol region variability and global 69. Sibert, J., 2000. Symposium on population structure in the tagging and tracking marine fish. swordfish (Xiphias gladius). Strategies and Technologies for Marine Biology, 125, 11-22. ICZM. Integrated Coastal Zone 62. Seki, M.P., J.J. Polovina, D.R. Management, 1: 213-215. Kobayashi and G.T. Mitchum, 70. Sibert, John and John Hampton, 2002. An oceanographic character- 2003. Mobility of tropical tunas ization of swordfish (Xiphias glad- and the implications for fisheries ius) longline fishing grounds in the management. Marine Policy, 27: springtime subtropical North 87-95. Pacific. Fisheries Oceanography, 11:5, 251-266. 71. Sibert, John R., Michael K. Musyl, and Richard W. Brill, 2003. 63. Seki, M.P., R. Lumpkin, and P. Horizontal movements of bigeye Flament, 2002. Hawaii cyclonic tuna (Thunnus obesus) near eddies and blue marlin catches: Hawaii determined by Kalman The case study of the 1995 filter analysis of archival tagging Hawaiian International Billfish data. Fisheries Oceanography, Tournament. Journal of Oceano- 12:3, 141-151. graphy, vol. 58: 739-745. 72. Sibert, J. and J. Hampton, 2003. 64. Seki, Michael P., Jeffrey J. Polovina, Mobility of tropical tunas and the Russell E. Brainard, Robert R. implications for fisheries man- Bidigare, Carrie L. Leonard, and agement. Marine Policy, 27, 87-05. David G. Foley, 2001. Biological enhancement at cyclonic eddies 73. Sibert, J. and D. Fournier, 2001. tracked with GOES thermal Possible models for combining imagery in Hawaiian waters. tracking data with conventional Geophysical Research Letters, tagging data. In J.R. Sibert and J.

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