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INVENTING the INTERNET Inventing the Internet Inside Technology Edited by Wiebe E JANET ABBATE INVENTING THE INTERNET Inventing the Internet Inside Technology edited by Wiebe E. Bijker, W. Bernard Carlson, and Trevor Pinch Janet Abbate, Inventing the Internet Marc Berg, Rationalizing Medical Work: Decision-Support Techniques and Medical Practices Wiebe E. Bijker, Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs: Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change Wiebe E. Bijker and John Law, editors, Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change Stuart S. Blume, Insight and Industry: On the Dynamics of Technological Change in Medicine Geoffrey C. Bowker, Science on the Run: Information Management and Industrial Geophysics at Schlumberger, 1920–1940 Louis L. Bucciarelli, Designing Engineers H. M. Collins, Artiªcial Experts: Social Knowledge and Intelligent Machines Paul N. Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America Herbert Gottweis, Governing Molecules: The Discursive Politics of Genetic Engineering in Europe and the United States Gabrielle Hecht, The Radiance of France: Nuclear Power and National Identity after World War II Kathryn Henderson, On Line and On Paper: Visual Representations, Visual Culture, and Computer Graphics in Design Engineering Eda Kranakis, Constructing a Bridge: An Exploration of Engineering Culture, Design, and Research in Nineteenth-Century France and America Pamela E. Mack, Viewing the Earth: The Social Construction of the Landsat Satellite System Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance Donald MacKenzie, Knowing Machines: Essays on Technical Change Susanne K. Schmidt and Raymund Werle, Coordinating Technology: Studies in the International Standardization of Telecommunications Inventing the Internet Janet Abbate The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England © 1999 Massachusetts Institute of Technology All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher. Set in New Baskerville by Wellington Graphics. Printed and bound in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Abbate, Janet. Inventing the Internet / Janet Abbate. p. cm. — (Inside technology) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0–262-01172–7 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Internet (Computer network)—History. I. Title. II. Series. TK5105.875.I57A23 1999 004.67′8′09—dc21 19-847647 CIP Contents Introduction 1 1 White Heat and Cold War: The Origins and Meanings of Packet Switching 7 2 Building the ARPANET: Challenges and Strategies 43 3 “The Most Neglected Element”: Users Transform the ARPANET 83 4 From ARPANET to Internet 113 5 The Internet in the International Standards Arena 147 6 Popularizing the Internet 181 Notes 221 Bibliography 241 Index 259 Acknowledgments Many people and institutions gave me support while I was working on this project. The Charles Babbage Institute helped fund my gradu- ate studies through its Tomash Graduate Fellowship and gave me access to its collection of oral histories and archival materials on the Advanced Research Projects Agency. I am indebted to Arthur Norberg, Judy O’Neill, and the CBI’s staff for paving the way for me and for and others interested in this important chapter of the history of com- puting. Brian Kahin and Jim Keller at Harvard shared their knowl- edge of Internet policy issues while I was a member of the Kennedy School of Government’s Information Infrastructure Project. The IEEE History Center at Rutgers University provided a postdoctoral fellow- ship while I was writing the manuscript, and I beneªted from stimu- lating conversations with Bill Aspray, Andy Goldstein, David Morton, Rik Nebeker, Mike Geselowitz, and other colleagues at Rutgers. I spent countless working hours at the Someday Café in Somerville and La Colombe in Philadelphia, each of which provided a congenial environ- ment along with superb coffee. I made use of a number of archival collections. In addition to the Charles Babbage Institute, I wish to thank Sheldon Hochheiser at the AT&T archives and the staffs of the ARPA and MIT archives. I am indebted to Martin Campbell-Kelly for collecting unpublished materi- als on networking activities at the National Physical Laboratory, and to Jon Agar at the National Archive for the History of Computing at the University of Manchester for assistance in using them. Jennie Connolly at the library of Bolt, Beranek and Newman (now a part of GTE Internetworking) was also extremely helpful. Members of the Internet community made my work immeasurably easier by docu- menting their own activities in online archives and by creating the information infrastructure that supports so much scholarly work today. viii Acknowledgments I would like to thank these participants in the story of the Internet who took the time to talk with me by telephone or in person: Donald Davies, Derek Barber, David Farber, Alex McKenzie, John Day, Stephen Lukasik, and Colonel Heidi Heiden. Many others, including the late Jon Postel, responded helpfully to email queries. I am grateful to Paul Baran, Donald Davies, Derek Barber, Leonard Kleinrock, Howard Frank, Alex McKenzie, Vint Cerf, and Barry Leiner for read- ing drafts of various chapters and offering insights and corrections. Murray Murphey, Karin Calvert, and Carolyn Marvin helped me work out early versions of these ideas while I was a graduate student at the University of Pennsylvania. I also learned much from the re- sponses of audiences at talks I gave at Syracuse University, the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology, Drexel University, and the University of Pennsylvania and at Large Technical Systems conferences in Sweden and France. Thomas P. Hughes, advisor and friend, encouraged my ªrst attempts to write a history of the ARPANET long before the Internet became a household word. His advice and support over the years have been invaluable. A number of friends and colleagues generously read and discussed portions of the manuscript, including Arthur Norberg, Bill Aspray, Martin Campbell-Kelly, Atsushi Akera, Elijah Millgram, and Judith Silverman. Paul Ceruzzi offered useful advice and the opportunity to discuss my ideas with other historians of computing. Robert Morris was always willing to share his expertise and enthusiasm on network matters and helped me appreciate many technical issues. Susan Garªnkel challenged me to think more creatively about the Internet as a cultural phenomenon. Special thanks are due my friends and writers’ workshop partners Amy Slayton and David Morton, who com- mented on many drafts and whose patience, insight, and humor helped pull me through when the project seemed overwhelming. Finally, my love and deepest thanks to my sisters and brothers—Edith, Kennan, Lauren, Alain, Alison, Matthew, and Geoff—and their fami- lies, who provided moral support and laughs over the years, and to my parents, Anne and Mario Abbate, who stood behind me unfailingly. I couldn’t have done it without you. Inventing the Internet Introduction Between the 1960s and the 1980s, computing technology underwent a dramatic transformation: the computer, originally conceived as an isolated calculating device, was reborn as a means of communication. Today we take it for granted that information can travel long distances instantaneously. For many Americans, and for an increasing portion of the world’s population, it has become easy and commonplace to send electronic mail or to access online multimedia information. The transcendence of geographic distance has come to seem an inherent part of computer technology. But in the early 1960s, when computers were scarce, expensive, and cumbersome, using a computer for com- munication was almost unthinkable. Even the sharing of software or data among users of different computers could be a formidable chal- lenge. Before the advent of computer networks, a person who wanted to transfer information between computers usually had to carry some physical storage medium, such as a reel of magnetic tape or a stack of punch cards, from one machine to the other. Modems had been introduced in the late 1950s, but setting up a telephone connection between two machines could be an expensive and error-prone under- taking, and incompatibilities between computers compounded the difªculty of establishing such communications. A scientist who needed to use a distant computer might ªnd it easier to get on a plane and ºy to the machine’s location to use it in person. The worldwide system called the Internet played a major role in developing and popularizing network technology, which placed com- puters at the center of a new communications medium. Between the late 1960s and the 1990s, the Internet grew from a single experimental network serving a dozen sites in the United States to a globe-spanning system linking millions of computers. It brought innovative data communications techniques into the mainstream of networking 2 Introduction practice, and it enabled a large number of Americans to experience the possibilities of cyberspace for the ªrst time. By making long- distance interaction among different types of computers a common- place reality, the Internet helped redeªne the practice and the mean- ing of computing. Like all technologies, the Internet is a product of its social environ- ment. The Internet and its predecessor, the ARPANET, were created by the US Department of Defense’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), a small agency that has been deeply involved in the development of computer science in the United States. My curiosity about the Internet grew out of my experiences as a computer pro- grammer in the mid 1980s, when few people outside the ªeld of computer science had heard of this network. I was aware that the Internet had been built and funded by the Department of Defense, yet here I was using the system to chat with my friends and to swap recipes with strangers—rather like taking a tank for a joyride! This apparent contradiction goes to the heart of the Internet’s history, for the system evolved through an unusual (and sometimes uneasy) alli- ance between military and civilian interests.
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