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From Circular Economy to Circular Ecology: a Review on the Solution of Environmental Problems Through Circular Waste Management Approaches

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From Circular Economy to Circular Ecology: a Review on the Solution of Environmental Problems Through Circular Waste Management Approaches sustainability Review From Circular Economy to Circular Ecology: A Review on the Solution of Environmental Problems through Circular Waste Management Approaches Luca Adami and Marco Schiavon * Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Via Mesiano, 77, I-38123 Trento, Italy; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-0461-282605 Abstract: (1) Background: The application of concepts linked to the circular economy (CE) has led to a sudden development of studies in numerous fields. However, the level of environmental sustainability of CE strategies could be improved and this topic deserves more attention by the scientific community. This research addresses this gap and aims at presenting a new concept, named circular ecology (CEL), and its application to the field of waste management. (2) Methods: The paper presents a literature review on the criticalities of CE and on examples of studies that implement the CEL principles. (3) Results: The review highlights that CEL principles are widely applied to several fields of waste management, showing promising opportunities to export the results to other geographical contexts. (4) Conclusions: If supported by governments, CEL approaches may allow solving multiple environmental problems at once, with clear economic, time, resources, and emission savings. Keywords: environmental sustainability; recycling; recovery; reuse; anaerobic digestion; biochar; biofuels; case studies; organic waste Citation: Adami, L.; Schiavon, M. From Circular Economy to Circular Ecology: A Review on the Solution of Environmental Problems through 1. Introduction Circular Waste Management Approaches. The concept of circular economy (CE) has attracted the interest of researchers in Sustainability 2021, 13, 925. several fields in the last decade (from economists to engineers, environmental scientists https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020925 and sociologists), as proved by the increased number of papers available in the Scopus database containing the word “circular economy” in the title, abstract, or keywords. The Received: 30 November 2020 number of publications has grown from 121 in 2010 to 2460 in 2020 [1]. The increasing Accepted: 9 January 2021 number of works has produced a large variety of definitions and shades of the concept of Published: 18 January 2021 CE over the years [2,3]. The concept of CE dates back to 1966 [4] and circularity approaches in economy Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral were later analyzed in 1991 by Leontief [5]. However, the most recent version of CE was with regard to jurisdictional claims in formalized in 2013 [6] in four key aspects: CE (1) replaces the “end-of-life” concept with the published maps and institutional affil- iations. “restoration” concept; (2) it pursues the use of renewable sources of energy; (3) it refuses the use of toxic compounds; and (4) it aims at reducing waste through rearranging production and supply processes. The concept of CE was further deepened by the resolution adopted by the United Nations on 25 September 2015, known as “Agenda 2030” [7], and by the definition of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals [8,9]. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. As reported in Birat [10], CE must be seen as an integrated approach that goes be- Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. yond the logic of profit, requiring political motivations towards sustainable consumption This article is an open access article paradigms. The development of a CE is thus linked to local environmental legislation, the distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons availability of incentives and capital, and the awareness of the population, which may Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// determine significant differences among different countries [11]. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ As reported by Cheng et al. [12], one of the advantages of CE is its capability of 4.0/). breaking the bond between environmental vulnerability and economic poverty. The bene- Sustainability 2021, 13, 925. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020925 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2021, 13, 925 2 of 20 fits related to the implementation of CE strategies are usually more evident in countries subjected to rapid industrialization and poor environmental regulations, causing environ- mental damages and pollution [13]. In 2008, with the introduction of the Waste Framework Directive [14], the European legislation made an explicit connection between CE and waste management (WM). The evident and direct relationship between CE and WM was further highlighted by Merli et al. [15] in 2018. Aguilar-Hernandez et al. [16] highlight the potentially beneficial role of CE as an approach to reduce circularity gaps in waste recovery and recycling. As the authors state, Europe and North America produce annually 1.6–2.2 t of waste per capita that could be further recycled/recovered. In addition to CE, the concept of bio-economy deserves to be mentioned. In this case, the concept of replacement prevails with respect to that of circularity, i.e., bio-economies are based on the replacement of fossil resources with biogenic ones [17]. If bio-based CE is not mentioned as such, most European countries address it in their strategies. Bio-waste management appears to be the main driver in the transition towards CE [18]. CE has many potential drivers favoring the application of its base principles: (1) several technologies are available for an efficient use of resources, both in the production and remanufacturing stages; (2) governments have improved their environmental legislations in the last decades, including regulations on WM; and (3) public awareness is increasing, and so is the power of people to orient the market to more sustainable products. However, market issues, the lack of investments in more advanced technologies, and the legislative process of governments are slowing down the transition towards the solution of environmental issues through CE initiatives [19]. Although the indirect benefits deriving from resource efficiency strategies have a positive influence on the environment, the publications on CE have largely focused on supply-chain optimization [20–22], leaving the environment on a second level. In a recent work, Millar et al. [23] stressed the importance of considering environmental protection as a key aspect of CE principles. In a recent publication, Horvath et al. [24] highlight the need for considering ecological benefits/limitations when assessing CE approaches. The authors propose to integrate one of the major indicators used in the European Union (“circular material use”, CMU) with the comparison between the “ecological footprint” and the “bio-capacity” of a system. This would allow accounting for the ecological pressures that the mere use of the CMU indicator would not be able to consider. Additional metrics have been implemented in recent years [25] to assess the environmental sustainability of CE strategies. However, if on one side several assessment tools are available, on the other side the principles that move the thinking and implementation of CE strategies often put environmental sustainability on a secondary level with respect to economic sustainability. There are, of course, some exceptions, like WM, for instance. The issue is then a matter of environmental principles rather than the availability of environmental assessment tools. The relationship between economic growth and environmental sustainability was dis- cussed by several authors in the last decade. Kallis [26] promoted the concept of sustainable degrowth, i.e., a sustainable reduction of the throughput of the society. According to the author, the implementation of this vision would unavoidably bring environmental benefits. A debate has started in the last decade on the dualism between economic degrowth and steady-state economy. According to some authors, this dualism is only apparent, since economic degrowth should be intended as a set of measures leading to a globally fair steady-state economy [27]. According to Kiser [28], however, the economic growth clearly contradicts the concept of resource efficiency in the supply chain, because the aim of selling more materials and the use of less resources form a paradox. According to Skene [29], finally, circles can never deliver growth, unless circles are intended as spirals. The author affirms that economic growth necessarily creates environmental deterioration. As highlighted in a recent work [30], pollution prevention and control measures can lead to unavoidable negative impacts on the economy in the short term. One of the main challenges of CE is to overcome this conflict. The present paper has two aims: (1) the intro- duction a new concept, concerning CE approaches that stress the need for environmental Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20 challenges of CE is to overcome this conflict. The present paper has two aims: (1) the intro- duction a new concept, concerning CE approaches that stress the need for environmental Sustainability 2021, 13, 925 protection and restoration, where circularity is intended in terms of material reuse3 of 20(waste in particular) and the mutual solving of more environmental problems; and (2) providing an overview on case studies that already implement this concept. Regarding the first aim, a new concept, which can be named “circular ecology” (CEL), may be developed to fill this protection and restoration, where circularity is intended in terms of material reuse (waste gapin
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