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Oaks: Their Potential for Use in Southern Australia

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1 OAKS: THEIR POTENTIAL FOR USE IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA Kym Knight1 and Bob Boardman2. 1 Arborist; Consultant:‘Tree-environs’. 2 Silviculturalist & Guide, Waite Arboretum 1. Brief outline of the significance of oaks in nature, history and features of their silviculture/cultivation. 2. Evaluation of the oak spp. For uses in southern Australia from their performance in the Arboretum and elsewhere. Bob Boardman – Significance of oaks in nature, history and features of their silviculture and cultivation. Genus Quercus – the name is from Latin and which was used widely through the Roman Empire for oaks of all kinds. It was derived from the Greek word ‘drys’ that was used for the wood most heavily utilized in the pre-Hellenic world. This points to the widespread abundance of oak forest and woodland in the NW Mediterranean on land below 800m a millennium or more before the Christian era. Many place names incorporating ‘Drys’ have survived in classic literature testify to this. The Greeks, however, whilst distinguishing between four main kinds of oak trees did not have consistent local names for them; the Romans did, and so botanists gave oaks the Latin sobriquet. Classification: recognizes 2 Subgenera: Quercus with 5 Sections, Quercus, Mesobalanus, Cerris, Protobalanus and Lobatae; and Subgenus Cyclobalanopsis (mainly confined to Central and Eastern Asia). The distribution of evergreen, or ‘Live’ species is not confined to any one subgenus or section. This points to the evolution of deciduousness in response to climate changes affecting the survivors of previous wide-spread populations or refinement of traits aiding migration, especially, latterly, during the fluctuations of N. Hemisphere Ice Ages. Distribution – world-wide in Northern Hemisphere (in contrast with our native Eucalypts also a genus with evolution into hundreds of living species) - from western N. America to China and Korea in the east; from the Tropics to Latitude 60º- N, The bulk of the natural distribution lies between Latitudes 30º N to 50ºN. Paleobotanically, the genus appears to have evolved from ancestors within the tropics and sub- tropics, where related genera still exist. Quercus has the largest number of species of any trees in the Northern Hemisphere, about 400 spp. Over 200 spp. are of former- or still-current socially-economic, cultural and religious interest to humans. These have now been significant for three millennia, since birth of civilization in China and in south-western Asia [Middle-east] to the present day. The July 2010 edition of The English Garden has a 3-page article on manufactures of oak garden furniture and fittings. Economic and cultural interests: Stemwood: timber, poles, housing, ship-building and cooperage from ‘white’ oaks (‘tight’ fitting stable wood for ships and wine barrels); ‘red’ oaks’, very porous, not suitable for cooperage; shavings used for flavour of fortified wines, e.g. sherry, port. Furniture calls for well-seasoned oak, of most species.; Turkey oak is unusually brittle. Note: Urban and parkland oaks removed or salvaged, and able to provide logs of 1.5m or more from a clear bole can be used for a wide range of garden furniture, gates, fences, decks, stair treads. Charcoal manufacture: art, filtration and smelting metals. 2 Bark: cork; (also acorn cups) tannin, black ink, Cork oak bark for bottle stoppers, sandals, pin-boards. Cultural interests: Agriculture: Animal and human shelter. Human & animal food: acorns. Normally abundant supply most years. 6-month or 18-month ripening periods subject to spp. Range in flavour from sweet to very bitter depends on tannin content; over-feeding may create a potential toxicity to livestock. Wildlife food source: birds and animals: e.g. Possums like Cork oak (Quercus suber) besides humans. Religion –. pagan rites, worship in open glades in oak woodland, as with Druids; wreaths of oak-leave and mistletoe; idols; protection from calamity and sickness – statues and ships’ figureheads; New Age significance.. Commemorations– ‘winners’ wreaths especially for endurance sports events; historical significance to rulers & governments (Federation Tree, outside Houses of Parliament, Melbourne, 1904; Quercus canariensis planted by PM Parkes, 1908); Major Oak in Sherwood Forest, UK.) Avenues: trees, especially trimmed or fastigate Q.fastigata, similar varieties, lead the eye to focal points - often worth using stock from clonal replication (like oaks, Q. robur, in Osmond Terrace, Norwood, and the elm avenue in the Waite arboretum. Memorial avenues; - for fallen in wars, like that Alexandra Avenue in Rose Park. Many opportunities for other commemorative plantings in groups, avenues and as single park trees. Oaks from Palestine and Gallipoli campaigns of WWI and training areas in Palestine for the ‘Desert rats’ in WWII. : Tabor or Valonia oak (Quercus macrolepis), Kermes Oak (Q. coccifera, syn. calliprinos); Turkey oak (Q. cerris). Oaks from wider N. African and Mediterranean campaigns in WWII involving Anzac soldiers and airmen: Aegean islands, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Crete, Sicily and Italy: Holm oak, (Q. ilex), Algerian oak (Q. canariensis), Cork oak, (Q. suber), Cyprus Oak (Q. boissieri). Landscaping: Normally dense and strong green colour foliage and rounded form a visual contrast with many taller native tree species. Wide variation in leaf shape adds variety in closer view and adds to amenity values. Local Government: City environs – Osmond Parade, Rose Park & Norwood, Q. robur. Street and roadside planting - fastigate oaks on Portrush Road at Glenunga. Avenues along through paths within SA town and city Parklands; Parks and recreation areas of various sizes from fifth ha, upwards. Carbon sequestration plantings with amenity values, shade, shelter from winds, but enough space to prevent soil compaction around trees. What have we got to show? Good performers: Much of value on oaks potential has been augmented by the “Homoclime” studies of trees from regions, world-wide, having a Mediterranean-type climate. Collaboration between Prof. J.B.Prescott and Prof. Lindsay Pryor, ANU; with two test areas, planted 1948-1956 respectively, located in Adelaide (Waite Arboretum) and in Canberra,. (ACT arboreta and ACT Parks and Gardens.) European: Tolerance of dry summers, often base-rich soils, and evergreen or deciduous foliage, variety of crown shape: Tabor or Valonia oak (Quercus macrolepis (formerly known as Q. ithaburensis or Q.aegilops); Kermes Oak (Q. calliprinos); Turkey oak (Q. cerris); Holm oak, (Q. ilex), Algerian oak (Q. canariensis), Cork oak, (Q. suber), Eastern N. America: Attractive leaves with spiny pointed lobes, Pin oak, Q.palustris, and several Red oaks, with vivid autumn foliage – Southern red oak, Q.falcata, Scarlet oak, Q.coccinea, northern red oak, Q. rubra. Also smooth-edged leaves: Laurel oak, Q. laurifolia, and Willow oak, Q. phellos. 3 Western N.America & Mexico: Closely-matched climate, evergreen or deciduous foliage, variety of leaf shape: California Black oak, Q. kelloggii; Interior live oak, Q. wislizenii; Coast live oak, Q. agrifolia; Valley oak, Q. lobata; Blue oak, Q. douglasii; Oregon oak, Q. garryana. Hybridization- frequent almost totally limited to spp. within same Sections. Most are fertile. Many found in cultivation where spp. from different geographic areas become closely associated. Kym Knight – will deal with Arboricultural aspects. Fact Sheets for several oak species that perform well in the arboretum describe features and include experience. Tree character: Provide a wide mixture of textural variety in leaf shape. Height†: Tall or short stature depending on whether wide-spaced (solitary) from neighbouring trees in begin in closer-spaced groups or plantation. Oaks planted closely then thinned out to favour the best in later life grow to be up to double the height of open-grown specimens. Prefers loamy to ‘stiff’ clay texture soils rather than light sands; moist, not waterlogged; neutral to acid and well-drained soils. Some species are tolerant of base-rich soils. They tend to grow best naturally on lower slopes of valleys, getting extra moisture from down slope drainage. Oaks rRoot deeply with a prominent taproot, so benefit from good planting technique and avoidance ofsites with a high water table. Evergreen, sub-evergreen and deciduous species. They occur in all Sections and most regions. Propagation of desirable spp.: Sow acorns soon after they fall, soon lose viability; should not be allowed to dry out. Strict selection advisable within seedling offspring for straightness and vigour. Noted that some hybrids breed ‘true’ to parental form. Hybrids – there is potential for selection of locally adapted varieties. Nursery at Urrbrae TAFE, is raising plants from arboretum and significant trees. Needs: Conservation, pruning, disease detection and remedies: Disease detection and remedies: Honey fungus (Armillaria luteobubalina) a native species on Q. douglasii [Californian blue oak]; Remedial work with Trichoderma (a natural parasitic fungus) applications. Mildews: Oak Mildew (Oidium quercinum), typical gray coating on leaves and defoliation. Is most serious in nursery stock. Remedies: (1) Dry dusting sulphur or wash with colloidal spray. (2) A parasitic fungus Ciccinobolus spp. used overseas. Red spider mite Oak leaf roller moth (Tortrix viridana): defoliation but rarely fatal. Pruning: All pruning should follow accepted formative pruning practices and conform to AS 4373 - 2007 ‘Pruning of amenity trees’. A clean bole is desirable: trimming off branches to
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  • Defenses of Lepidopterous Pupae Against Ichneumonids

    Defenses of Lepidopterous Pupae Against Ichneumonids

    JOURNAL OF THE LEPIDOPTERISTS' SOCIETY Volume 13 1959 Number 1 ON THE DEFENCES OF LEPIDOPTEROUS PUPJE IN RELATION TO THE OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR OF CERTAIN ICHNEUMONID1E by L. R. COLE Anyone who has collected pup<e of Lepidoptera in the field knows only too well that from many of his finds will emerge ichneumon flies, some of which will have developed from eggs laid in the larv<e, others from eggs inserted into the pUp<e. In this account I hope to draw attention to some of the defences of pup<e against the attempts of these insects to deposit eggs within them. I shall not be concerned with the concealment of the pupa or with its physiological reaction to the introduction of an egg, but with the course of events between its being discovered by an Ichneumonid and its being either penetrated by the ovipositor or abandoned unscathed. With the diversity of pupation sites in the Lepidoptera is associated a wide variety of habitat preferences and searching behaviour in the Ichneu­ monid<e. A searching Ichneumonid of a given species will find a certain more or less restricted range of species of pup<e which evoke the series of actions leading to oviposition. These can be arranged in an order of vulnerability peculiar to that Ichneumonid's species. At one end of the scale will be those species of pupae that, though found and attacked, are impregnable, and at the other, those that always succumb. Between the extremes are those whose individuals are capable of delaying and sometimes averting their being stabbed by the ovipositor of the attacking female, even though their species may be regular hosts of that species of Ichneumonid.