Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 911 Subject Index abalones, 612, 814, 816, 846 land-use change, 38Ð39, 48, 51 black, 614Ð15 Northeast, 192, 195 California, 614Ð15 prairie loss and, 42 f = figure flat, 614 Rocky Mountains, 478 green, 614Ð15 Agricultural Quarantine Enforcement Act (1989), 127t t = table pink, 614Ð15 air pollution, 142, See also contaminants; pollution pinto, 614 climate change and, 93 red, 614Ð15 Fraser fir mortality and, 276 threaded, 614 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 529 white, 614Ð15 Lower Rio Grande, 271 Abandoned Mined Program, 527 prescribed fires and, 608Ð9 absolute desert communities, 510, 511t Rocky Mountains, 482, 488f abyssal, defined, 895 water pollution and, 73 acacia, cat-claw, 78, 508, 557 akepa, 765 acanthocephalan parasites, 613 akialoa, Hawaiian, 765 Acartia species, 416 alachlor, 74, 133t, 151 tonsa, 416 ala kumu (7Ð11), 828f accretion Alaska, 707Ð40 defined, 895 amphibians, 709 delta lobes, 392Ð93 Arctic tundra, 731Ð36 Achatinella (tree snails), 767 biogeographic regions, 708, 709f achene, defined, 895 Aleutian region, 728Ð31 Acid Deposition Control Program, 184 coastal temperate rainforest and Coast Range, 709Ð16 acid mine drainage, 75, 134Ð35 interior boreal forest, 716Ð20 acid precipitation, 132, 135Ð38 interior mountains, 720Ð23 amphibian declines and, 197 marine tundra of southwestern and western Alaska, 724Ð28 defined, 137 birds Northeast forest effects, 184 Aleutian region, 730 sensitive areas, 135 Arctic tundra, 733Ð34 sources of, 134Ð35 coastal temperate rainforest and Coast Range, 714Ð15 spruce-fir forests and, 276 interior boreal forest, 719 acid waters, 136Ð38 interior mountains, 722 Adirondacks, 190 marine, 812Ð13 Actinomycetales, 845 maritime tundra, 726Ð27 Actinoptychus undulatus, 415t climate, 707 active layer, defined, 895 conservation lands, 709f acute lethality toxicity tests, 145 endemic species, 728 adaptability, of agricultural ecosystems, 111Ð12 freshwater fishes adaptations, 13 Aleutian region, 729Ð30 adaptive management, 167, 175 Arctic tundra, 733 adaptive radiation, defined, 895 coastal temperate rainforest and Coast Range, 711Ð14 additive mortality, 170 interior boreal forest, 718Ð19 adelgids interior mountains, 722 balsam woolly, 191, 275, 276 maritime tundra, 725Ð26 hemlock woolly, 272, 273 mammals Adiantum vivesii, 331t Aleutian region, 730Ð31 Adirondack Forest Preserve, 190 Arctic tundra, 734Ð36 Adirondack Mountains coastal temperate rainforest and Coast Range, 715Ð16 fishless lakes, 137 interior boreal forest, 719Ð20 old-growth forests, 185 interior mountains, 722 Adirondack Park, 189Ð90 marine, 813Ð14 adolphia, California, 606 maritime tundra, 727Ð28 adventive plants, defined, 895 marine resources Advisory Committee on Fishery Management, International benthic resources, 807Ð9 Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 854 demersal fishes, 809Ð10 aeolian, defined, 895 environment and physical features, 806Ð7 aerenchyma, 408 Exxon Valdez oil spill and, 811Ð12 defined, 895 marine birds, 812Ð13 aerosol particles, warming caused by, 97Ð98 marine mammals, 813Ð14 afforestation, defined, 895 pelagic resources, 810Ð12 Agaricia fungus, 794 potential and average yields, 845t, 846 agave, Shaw’s, 606 primary production, 807 agricultural contaminants, 142Ð52, See also contaminants; secondary production, 807 pollution; water pollution nonindigenous species, 715, 731, 739Ð40 herbicides, 151Ð52 precipitation, 707 pesticides, 144Ð51 research needs organochlorine, 144, 146Ð49 Aleutian region, 739Ð40 soft, 149Ð51 Arctic tundra, 740 Rio Grande, 271 coastal temperate rainforest and Coast Range, 736Ð37 Southeast benthic macroinvertebrates and, 299 interior boreal forest, 737Ð38 toxic irrigation minerals, 142Ð43 interior mountains, 737Ð38 agricultural lands maritime tundra, 738Ð39 abandoned, 16 vegetation adaptability of, 111Ð12 Aleutian region, 728Ð29 conversion of, 51 Arctic tundra, 732Ð33 conversion of wetlands to, 38Ð39 coastal temperate rainforest and Coast Range, 710Ð11 croplands, 38, 192 interior boreal forest, 716Ð18 farm abandonment, Southeast, 259 interior mountains, 720Ð22 grassland effects, 442, 443 maritime tundra, 724Ð25 homogeneity and, 30 Alaska, Gulf of, 806Ð7, 853f

✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 912 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

Alaska Board of Fisheries, 736 Alva D. Adams Tunnel, 72 Alaska Board of Game, 738 alvars, 229, 230 Alaska-cedar, 600, 710 defined, 895 Alaska Current, 814 amalgamation, 133 Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, 739 amaranth, seabeach, 185t Alaska Game Commission, 715 amberjacks, 800 Alaska Gyre, 806 ambersnail, Chittenango ovate, 232t Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge, 729 American chestnut blight, 183 Alaska Natural Heritage Program, 711 American Fisheries Society, 126, 448 Alaska Peninsula, 728 American Rivers group, 66 albacore, 784, 795t, 834t American Samoa, 764, 825, 826f, 829Ð30 Albany Pine Bush, 190, 192 physical characteristics, 826t albatrosses, 628t, 786, 802, 813, 820 reef animals, 836 black-browed, 802 American Woodcock Management Plan, 194 black-footed, 839, 840f ammonia, Upper Mississippi River, 365 Laysan, 839, 840f, 840t amnesiac shellfish poisoning, 851 short-tailed, 813, 840t Ampelisca species, 416 yellow-nosed, 802 amphibians albedo, defined, 93, 895 acidified habitats and, 137 alcids, 812 Alaska, 709 defined, 895 California, 601, 621Ð24 alders, 476, 716, 720, 724 Caribbean Islands, 329, 332Ð33, 340 green, 717 climate change and, 101 mountain, 716 coastal Louisiana, 425Ð26 Sitka, 710 ecosystem disruption and, 25Ð26 aldicarb, 271 grasslands, 449Ð51 aldrin, 133t, 144, 146, 148 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 520 alelí, 317 Great Lakes, 243 Aleutian Low, 814 habitat modification and, 243 Aleutian region, Alaska, 728Ð31 Hawaii, 766 birds, 730 monitoring, 498 climate, 707 Northeast, 197 environmental features, 806Ð7 Pacific Northwest, 666Ð70, 691 freshwater fishes, 729Ð30 Rocky Mountains, 489, 490Ð91, 498, 499 mammals, 730Ð31 Southeast, 300Ð302 research needs, 739Ð40 Southwest, 570Ð75 vegetation, 728Ð29 temperature restrictions, 110 Aleut people, 728 threatened, 69 alevin, defined, 895 amphidromous, defined, 895 alewife, 196 amphidromous species, 828 Great Lakes, 238, 239, 240, 242 amphipods, 364, 416 Alexander Archipelago, 715 defined, 895 algae, 653, 852 amphiuma, three-toed, 425 beds, Pacific Islands, 828 Anabaena species, 415t biomass, water pollution and, 73 Anabaenopsis elenkinii, 415t blue-green, 13, 49, 50, 362, 415, 558Ð59 Anacapa, 610 Bostrichia species, 406 anadromous, defined, 896 brown tide, 269 anadromous species bubble, 837 California, 620 calcareous, 828f nearshore resources, 801 coastal Louisiana, 413Ð15 Northeast region, 783 coralline, 794 anaerobic, defined, 896 coral reefs, 322, 324 Anaho Island (Pyramid Lake), 524 defined, 895 anchovies, 814 eutrophication and, 900 bay, 417, 418t, 420t Great Lakes, 234 northern, 817, 818, 820, 822 green, 406, 415t, 558 striped, 417, 420t planktonic, 362 ancient forests, Pacific Northwest, 43 western Pacific oceanic region, 830Ð31 angelfish, gray, 326 alien species. See nonindigenous species angelica, 729 aliphatic hydrocarbons, 139 angelwing, 332t alkaligrass anhinga, 374t Anderson, 732 annelids, defined, 896 creeping, 725 anoles Wright’s, 724 Culebra Island giant, 331t alkaline shrub-grassland communities (alvars), 229, 230, 895 green, 425 alkali poisoning, 143 anoxic, defined, 896 alliance, defined, 895 antelope, 463 alligators, American, 80, 148, 300Ð301, 425, 427t, 429 anthropogenic, defined, 896 alligatorweed, 402t, 404, 415t, 426 antibiotics, Actinomycetales and, 845 allogenic, defined, 895 anticyclonic, defined, 896 alluvial, defined, 895 Anti-Drawdown Law, 360 alluvial soil, defined, 895 antigrazing structures, in plants, 440 almendra, 339 Antioch Dunes National Wildlife Refuge, 613, 619 alpine tundra, 514 ants, 767 Alaska, 711, 720Ð21, 724 Argentine, 758 defined, 895 heterogeneity, 14 Rocky Mountains, 475, 477 imported red fire, 118, 125f, 146 Southwest, 549 Apache, 478 alpine zone, 511t Appalachian Highlands, 256 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 514 Appalachian Mountains, 136, 256 Aluet culture, 708 acidified streams, 137 aluminum, 134 storms, 258 toxicity, 136, 137 Appalachian Regional Commission, 135 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 913

Appendicularia, defined, 896 aspen-birch forests, Great Lakes region, 231 appendicularians, 779 aspens, 183, 508, 550 aquaculture, 450 quaking, 16f, 185, 233, 474, 476, 513, 549, 716, 717 nonindigenous species and, 849 Southwest, 550 aquarium fishes, 118, 125, 800, 849 asses, wild, 580 Aquatic Conservation Strategy, Northwest Forest Plan, 690, 691 association, defined, 896 aquatic ecosystems asters, 17 acidified, 136Ð38 decurrent false, 232t Caribbean Islands, 321Ð29 Ruth’s golden, 278 coastal Louisiana, 413Ð20 Atchafalaya delta, 388, 391 Colorado River, 76Ð79 accretion and subsidence, 392 ecosystem disruption, 26 fluvial processes, 395 Everglades, 79Ð82 nutria grazing, 426 grazing and, 75 vegetation, 403, 404 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 508Ð10 Atchafalaya River, 356 landscape context, 54, 56 bottomland forests, 409 land-use change and, 49Ð51 Chenier Plain development and, 392 management of, 55Ð56 fluvial processes, 395 Pacific Northwest, 650Ð52, 690Ð91 habitat diversity, 401 Rocky Mountains, 482, 487 marsh species richness, 402 small lakes, 81Ð82 Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, 849 Southeast, 294Ð96 Atlantic white-cedar swamps, 15, 286 aquatic herpetofauna, 572Ð75 atolls, Pacific Islands, 827Ð28 aquatic insects, 364 atrazine, 74, 133t, 151, 152f, 271 Great Lakes region, 235 Attwater’s Prairie Chicken National Wildlife Refuge, 439 Southeast, 294Ð95 Auerodendron pauciflorum, 331t aquatic invertebrates auklets Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 518 Cassin’s, 813 insecticides and, 151 crested, 813 aquatic toxicology, 145Ð46 least, 813 aquatic vegetation parakeet, 813 herbicide contamination of, 151 rhinoceros, 824 nonindigenous, 119 whiskered, 813 Southeast, 295 auk, great, 207Ð8 submerged, Chesapeake Bay, 204 Australian-pine, 125 Upper Mississippi River, 360Ð63 Australorbis glabratus, 339 aquifers, grasslands, 442 ausubo, 318 arachnids avalanches, 27 nonindigenous species, 118t avens Arapaho, 478 caltha-leaved, 729 arboreal, defined, 896 mountain, 278f, 721 Archaea, 852 Avens species, defined, 896 Archaebacteria, defined, 896 Avesbase, 637 arctic ecosystems avian, defined, 896 climate, 707 avian cholera, 459Ð60 petroleum discharges into, 139Ð40 avian malaria, 754 Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 723 avifauna, defined, 896 Arctic Slope, 732 avocets, 628t arctic tundra, Alaska, 731Ð36 American, 421, 454t, 455t, 524 birds, 733Ð34 azinphos-methyl, 133t, 150 freshwater fishes, 733 mammals, 734Ð36 Babbitt, Bruce, 3, 5 research needs, 740 baccharis, eastern, 412 vegetation, 732Ð33 Bacon, Francis, 169 Arcto-Tertiary Geoflora, 596 bacteria, 558, 653, 831, 845 Arid Land Ecology Reserve, 686 marine, 852 arid wetlands, 142Ð43 badgers, 248, 720 Aristida chaseae, 331t American, 461 Arizona, nonindigenous species, 121, 122 Bailey, Vernon, 264 armadillo, nine-banded, 265, 425 Baker Island, 825, 826t arnica, Alaska, 729 baldcypress, 21, 81f, 183, 260, 385, 386f, 409, 411 aromatic hydrocarbons, 139 logging, 409Ð10 defined, 896 nutria grazing and, 426 arrowheads, 371 baldcypress swamps, 422f broad-leaved, 403, 404 baldcypress-tupelo swamps, 385, 401, 408Ð10 bulltongue, 404, 415t balds arroyos, 559, 560 grassy, 277Ð78 defined, 896 heath, 277Ð78 environmental heterogeneity, 13Ð14 Balize delta arsenic, 138, 144, 151, 152 accretion and subsidence, 392 Artemisia fluvial processes, 395 arctica ssp. comata (sagebrush), 732 geomorphic cycle, 388, 389 senjavinensis (sagebrush), 724 modern, 389 arthropods, 416 vegetation, 403 defined, 896 ballast water, transport of nonindigenous species in, 849 habitat fragmentation and, 52 balsa, 318 Hawaii, 767Ð68 Bandelier National Monument, 555 Pacific Northwest, 655, 691 bank stabilization, 67 temperature restrictions, 110 sedimentation and, 74Ð75 ash, 183 Bannock (tribe), 478 green, 359, 360, 409 bariaco, 331t pumpkin, 409 barnacles, 814 velvet, 508 larvae, 779 Ash Meadows (Nevada), 531, 569 barn-owl, Puerto Rican, 329 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 914 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

barnyard management, 169 beaver ponds, 495 barracuda, great, 325 beavers, 48, 174, 265, 425, 478, 480, 487, 495, 560, 597, 715, 727 barrens Humboldt, 508f defined, 896 mountain, 683t, 686 oak, Great Lakes, 231 Southeast, 296, 304 pine wetlands created by, 200 Great Lakes, 231 beech, American, 11, 29, 48, 182, 183, 184, 185, 191, 260 New Jersey, 190, 192 beech scale insect, 184 Southeast, 279Ð80 bees, 604 barrier islands Africanized honey, 126, 565 coastal Louisiana, 411, 421Ð22 bumble, 19 formation, 391 European honey, 126, 339 habitat diversity, 400 honey, 151 hurricane damage, 21 beetles, 516, 518, 655 Southeast, 286Ð89 alligatorweed flea, 426 Basin and Range Physiographic Province, 505 American burying, 189, 232t bass, 69, 196 bark, 146, 611, 648, 655 Atlantic striped, 849 California elderberry longhorn, 636 chalk, 325 carabid, 758 largemouth, 121, 124, 328, 367, 368, 369, 418, 419 darkling ground, 516 peacock, 328, 332 Death Valley agabus diving, 518t sea, 326 delta green ground, 619t smallmouth, 367, 369 Devil’s Hole warm spring riffle, 518t striped, 67, 137, 204, 620, 783, 783t, 801, 821 dune, 516 white, 367, 368, 369 elm bark, 184 yellow, 419 globose dune, 616 bathymetry, defined, 896 Hungerford’s crawling water, 226, 232t bathypelagic, defined, 896 Moapa warm spring riffle, 518t bathypelagic zone, 816 mountain pine, 648, 655 bats, 189, 526, 527, 547, 579, 634 sixbanded longhorn, 447 Allen’s big-eared, 525t southern pine, 259, 273, 276 big free-tailed, 525t spruce, 191, 481, 549 Brazilian free-tailed, 635, 689 larval, 481Ð82 in California, 634, 635 Travertine bandthigh diving, 518t California leaf-nosed, 525t valley elderberry longhorn, 619t Caribbean Islands, 330, 338 beggartick, smooth, 404, 405 fruit, 764, 766 behavioral toxicity tests, 145 gray, 146, 304 benthic, defined, 896 hoary, 766 Benthic Macroinvertebrate Ambient Network, 299 Indiana, 151, 189, 231, 232t, 249, 304 benthic resources lesser long-nosed, 581 Alaska, 807Ð9 little brown, 689 coastal Louisiana, 416Ð17 Pacific Northwest, 689Ð90 invertebrates, Mississippi River, 363Ð66 pale Townsend’s big-eared, 525t macroinvertebrates, water quality and, 299Ð300 pallid, 689t northeast region, 780Ð81 red, 689t Pacific coast region, 816Ð17 Sierran, 635 Southeast region, 793Ð94 silver-haired, 689t, 715 western Pacific oceanic region, 831Ð32 Southeast, 304 benthos, defined, 896 southwestern, 581 benzene, 142 spotted, 525t, 635, 689t benzene hexachloride (BHC), 133t Townsend’s big-eared, 526, 581, 689 Bering, Vitus, 728 western mastiff, 635 Beringia, 707Ð8, 720, 724 western red, 581 Bering Land Bridge, 724 bay, California, 601 Bering Sea bayahonda, 339 demersal fish resources, 809 Bay of Fundy, North Atlantic right whale, 791 environmental features, 806Ð7 beaches primary and secondary production, 807 California, 612Ð16 Bering Sea region, 724, 727, 728 stabilization, 616 Biddulphia aurita, 415t beach face Big Basin Redwood State Park, 597 coastal Louisiana, 412 bight, See also Middle Atlantic Bight; Southern California Bight defined, 896 defined, 896 beachgrass Big Muddy River, 17f American, 17 Bignonia family, 331t European, 613, 616 Big Thompson River, 482 beachheather, woolly, 228 billfishes, 781, 795t, 799Ð800, 833 beachrock, Caribbean Islands, 328 bioaccumulation, defined, 896 beachstrawberry, 710 biocides, Southwest, 548 beaked-rush, Knieskern’s, 185t, 190, 192 biodiversity. See biological diversity beardgrass, 755 biogeochemical, defined, 896 bears, 715Ð16, 735 biogeographical regions, defined, 896 Alaska polar, 846 biogeography, defined, 100, 896Ð97 black, 248, 265, 306, 477, 489, 496f, 683, 712, 715, 737 biological diversity, See also diversity brown, 712, 715, 730, 737 Caribbean Islands, 330Ð38 California grizzly, 632 defined, 168, 897 grizzly, 48, 52, 265, 440, 461, 477, 483, 488, 489, 492, 493, harvest effects, 167Ð75 494f, hotspots, Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 514 577, 597, 633, 682t, 720, 723, 734 management goals, 175 Louisiana black, 304, 427 marine resource issues, 852Ð54 polar, 728, 788t in marshes, factors affecting, 402 short-faced, 720 role of, 175 Beartooth Mountains, 477 Southeast, 258 Beauverd spiraea, 725 Southwest, 553, 563, 576 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 915

western Pacific oceanic region, 830 bison, 48, 222, 248, 265, 280, 303, 437, 440, 453f, 488, 489, 495, biological integrity, 175 632 biological interactions, diversity and, 18 ancient, 478 biological invasions, 117, 752 plains, 460 biological monitoring. See monitoring programs steppe, 720 biological resources, value of, 3, 4 bitterbrush, 476, 512 Biological Resources Division (BRD) bitterns, 369 establishment of, 3 American, 189t, 454t, 455t, 524 report approach, v least, 330 role of, 6 western least, 524 Biological Survey for the Nation,6 bivalves, 780, 807 Biological Survey of Texas, 265 defined, 897 biomagnification, 896 black band disease, 323Ð24 biomarker techniques, 145 Blackbird Mine, Idaho, 134t biomass blackbirds, 420t algae, water pollution and, 73 Brewer’s, 246t, 523, 631, 678t, 679 defined, 242, 897 red-winged, 25, 43f, 246t, 374t, 454t, 455t, 523, 678t, 679, 681 of prey fishes in Great Lakes, 242 tricolored, 605, 626 biome, defined, 897 yellow-headed, 454t, 455t, 523, 678t, 681 biota, defined, 897 yellow-shouldered, 327, 331t, 337, 338f, 340, 341 biotic inventories, Rocky Mountains, 497Ð98 blackbrush, 510 birches, 48, 183, 721 blackcod, 809, 818, See also sablefish Alaska paper, 716 black-dust storms, 443 aspen-birch forests, 231 Alaska, 711t, 718, 725 black, 185 Sacramento, 620t dwarf, 721, 724, 733 Blackfoot, 478 paper, 191, 716, 717, 721 Black Hills, 477 river, 359, 360 black-mangrove, 327, 406, 412 yellow, 182, 185, 191 black oak, California, 602, 609 birch-willow zone, 721 Black Sea, 854 birds, See also ducks; marine birds; migratory birds; bladderwort, horned, 415t Neotropical migrant birds; shorebirds; songbirds; waterbirds; Blanchard, Frank, 450Ð51 waterfowl blanco, guayacán, 317 abundance changes, 186 blazing star, 190 Alaska, 714Ð15, 722, 726Ð27, 730, 733Ð34 blind fishes, 295 biogeographic patterns, 108Ð9 bloaters, 242 breeding, 244, 276 blood fluke planorbs, 126 California, 626Ð32, 637 blowdowns Caribbean Islands, 329Ð30, 337Ð38, 340 Alaska, 710 climate change and, 101, 108Ð9 defined, 897 coastal Louisiana, 421Ð25, 427Ð28 Mount St. Helens, 23Ð25 colonial, 421, 454 Southeast, 549 contaminant effects, 186 Tionesta Scenic Natural Area, 11, 12f distribution along gradients, 15 bluebells, Drummond’s, 732 eggshell thinning, 138, 144, 146, 149 blueberries, 724 endangered/threatened, 247, 427Ð28, 628 Alaska, 710 Everglades, 80 alpine, 717, 737 extinctions early, 710 Caribbean Islands, 329Ð30 bluebirds Polynesia, 751 eastern, 246t forest, 48Ð49, 53, 186Ð88, 575Ð76 mountain, 24, 523, 677, 678t, 679, 681 game, nonindigenous, 119 western, 674, 674t, 677 grasslands, 192, 244Ð45, 303, 441, 446Ð47, 451Ð60 blue blossom, 607 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 508, 522Ð25 bluefish, 420t, 783, 783t Great Lakes region, 243Ð48 bluegill, 367, 368, 418, 419 Hawaii, 750, 765Ð66 bluegrass insecticides and, 150Ð51 Alaska, 732 logging practices and, 54 Kentucky, 30, 549 migratory, pesticides and, 149 bluejoint, 725 Mississippi River, 369Ð74, 376 Blue Mesa Reservoir, 479 monitoring ranges and abundances, 101 Blue Mountains, Oregon and Washington, 46f, 648f Mount St. Helens impacts, 24Ð25 bluestems, 109, 280, 438 nesting, 740 big, 445 nonindigenous species, 121t little, 17, 18f, 30f, 228, 445, 476 Caribbean Islands, 340 boar, See also pigs Northeast, 186, 786 wild, 263, 304 endangered, 189t boas oil spills and, 139, 140 mona, 331t Pacific Northwest, 671Ð82 Puerto Rican, 331t prairie, relative abundance, 43t rosy, 571Ð72 riparian, 78, 522, 575 southern rubber, 625t Rocky Mountains, 492Ð93, 498 Virgin Islands tree, 331t shrubland, 244Ð45 bobcats, 48, 188, 248, 425, 461 shrub-steppe, 522 Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex, 484 Southeast, 302Ð3 bobolinks, 102f, 246t, 374t Southwest, 547, 561, 575Ð76, 582 bobwhites, northern, 192, 246t, 340, 374t staging, 726 bog-orchids, white, 514 temperature restrictions, 110 bogs, 717 wading, 291Ð92, 407, 420f, 421 gradients in, 14f wetland, 454Ð55 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 527 woodland, 245, 575Ð76 mountain, Southeast, 277 bird’s-beak, salt marsh, 612 boll weevil, 41 birth rates, population size and, 170 bonefish, 801 Biscayne Aquifer, 79 bonitos, Atlantic, 799 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 916 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

bonytail chub, 125, 143, 566, 567 smallmouth, 367, 368 boobies, 628t, 802 buffaloberry, silver, 508 brown, 341, 803 bufflehead, 371 masked, 330, 803 bugs, 655, 758 red-footed, 330, 341, 843f bullfrogs, 243, 340, 425, 449, 451, 520, 575, 622, 623t boreal forest larvae, 450 defined, 897 nonindigenous, 668 fossil tree pollen, 90Ð91 bullheads borers, sugarcane, 146 brown, 138f boron, 143 yellow, 419 tolerance, 509 Bull Lake Glaciation, 473 Bostrichia, 406 bulrushes bottlenecks, 228 American, 20, 21, 402t, 403, 407 bottom fishes giant, 401, 415t toxic contamination and, 850Ð51 leafy American, 406 western Pacific, 835Ð36 Northeastern, 185t bottomland hardwood forests, coastal Louisiana, 408Ð9 bumper, Atlantic, 417 bottom-up forecasting techniques bunchberry, 716 for climate change, 103Ð4 bunchgrasses, 228, 511, 556 combined with top-down approaches, 104Ð5, 108 defined, 897 criticisms of, 108 perennial, 549 bowfin, 368, 419 buntings box-briar, 318 indigo, 246t, 374t boxelders, 359, 409 lark, 451t boxfishes, 326 lazuli, 523, 674t, 679, 681 boxwood, Vahl’s, 331t McKay’s, 727 brachyuran, defined, 897 painted, 374t brackish, defined, 897 snow, 722, 734 Bradbury Commission, 691 burbot, 242, 711t, 718, 722 braided channel, defined, 897 Bureau of Land Management, 691 Brake family, 331t burrobrush, 530 brants, 726, 727, 733 burros, 118 braya, purplish, 732 wild, 580 breeding birds burro-weed, 529, 530 relative abundance, Great Lakes, 244 burrow-nesting seabirds, 740 Southeast, 276 bursage, white, 556 species diversity index, Great Lakes, 244 bush-clover, prairie, 232t Breeding Bird Survey, 101, 102f, 108, 187 bush-mallow, San Clemente Island, 610 California, 631, 637 bushtits, 674t, 675 defined, 897 buttercups grasslands, 446 Eschscholtz’s, 514 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 523, 524 western, 729 Great Lakes, 243Ð46 butterfish, 779, 783, 783t, 795t Mississippi River, 373Ð74 Gulf, 797 Pacific Northwest, 671, 674, 675 butterflies, 195, 489, 508Ð9, 518, 565, 655, 656 Southeast, 302Ð3 Apache nokomis fritillary, 509 Southwest, 575, 576, 582 bay checkerspot, 619t, 636 wetland birds, 455 California, 617 brittlebush, 530 common wood nymph, 515 brome, red, 528 El Segundo blue, 619t bromeliads, 292f, 318 grasslands, 445Ð47 brood parasitism, defined, 897 Great Lakes region, 234Ð35 Brooks Range, 721Ð22, 731, 734, 735 Karner blue, 192, 230, 232t, 235 broom, San Clemente Island, 610 Lange’s metalmark, 619t broomsedge, 755 lotis blue, 619t brown tide, 269 mission blue, 619t browsing, homogenization and, 29 Myrtle’s silverspot, 619t brucellosis, 489, 495, 497 Oregon silverspot, 619t, 655 brush Palos Verdes blue, 619t deer, 607f riparian, 515 musk, 607 San Bruno elfin, 619t bryophytes, 653 Sand Mountain pallid blue, 516, 527Ð28 bucida, oxhorn, 317 silver-bordered fritillary, 509 buckbrushes, 476 Smith’s blue, 619t buckeye, California, 606 tawny cresent, 445 Buck Island Reef Weidemeyer’s admiral, 509 coral reefs, 322Ð24 butterflyfishes, 325, 326 sea turtles, 336 foureye, 325 Buck Island Reef National Monument, 322Ð24 buttonbush, 409, 411 buckthorn, 234, 331t buttonwood-mangrove, 327 buckwheat, 516 butylate, 133t, 150 California, 606, 607 bycatch Kearney, 528 defined, 897 Lobb, 516 Laysan albatrosses, 839 steamboat, 516, 517 leatherbacks, 838 Sulphur Springs, 516 management of, 855 Tiehm, 516 national issues, 847Ð48 wild, 563, 606f of sea turtles, 801Ð2 budworms eastern spruce, 146, 186, 191 cactus, 331t, 529, 556, 563 spruce, 493, 550 Royen’s tree, 87 western spruce, 146, 548, 648, 655 caddisflies, 657, 658 buffalo (fish), 368, 369, 419, 463 hydropsychid, 364 bigmouth, 368 net-spinning, 364 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 917 cadmium, 138 cycle models, 94 caimitillo, 319 emissions, forecasts, 93 caimitillo verde, 319 sinks, grasslands as, 465

Caja de Muerto, 315 carbon dioxide (CO2), 142 calcareous, defined, 897 atmospheric concentrations, 94 calcium climate change and, 91, 92, 93 acidification and, 138 concentration predictions, 94

DDT and, 144, 146 direct CO2/water-use efficiency, 104 California, 593Ð638 direct effects of changes in, 112 amphibians, 601, 621Ð24 doubling effect, 95, 98, 101, 104 birds, 626Ð32, 637 emissions estimates, 94 cismontane, 593 from fossil fuel emissions, 156 climate, 594 human activities and, 89 ecological provinces ice core analysis, 90 Cascade Ranges, 601 carbon disulfide, 144 Central Valley, 603Ð5 carbon monoxide (CO), 142 Central Western California, 605Ð6 carbon tetrachloride, 144 Channel Islands, 609Ð12 carcinogens, 138, See also cancer Intertidal, beach, and dune communities, 612Ð16 cardinal, northern, 246t, 374t Northwestern California, 599Ð601 cardon, 556 Sierra Nevada, 601Ð2 Carex sabulosa, 717 Southwestern California, 606Ð9 Caribbean Islands, 315Ð43, See also Puerto Rico; Virgin Islands ecosystem status, 598Ð99 amphibians endangered species, 598, 636 biodiversity, 332Ð33 mammals, 632Ð34 extinctions, 329 endemic species, 605, 606, 610Ð11, 618 nonindigenous species, 340 faunal and floral history, 596 aquatic ecosystems, 321Ð29 fishes, 597, 619Ð21, 638 coral reefs, 321Ð24, 325Ð27 human history, 596Ð98 freshwater environments, 328Ð29 insects, 617, 619 lagoons, 329 invertebrates, 616Ð19, 638 mangroves, 327 mammals, 632Ð36 marine environments, 321Ð28 nonindigenous species, 617, 619, 622, 634 rocky coastal areas, 328 outer coast, 612 saltwater ponds, 328 plants, 595, 596, 616 seagrass beds, 324, 327 reptiles, 624Ð26 spoil islands, 328 research needs, 636Ð38 biodiversity, 330 riparian forests, 604 birds, 337Ð38 rivers, 597 extinctions, 329Ð30 topographic features, 594Ð96 nonindigenous species, 340 urban development, 597 description, 315Ð16 waterfowl, 628 extinctions, 329Ð30 westside, 593 fishes wetlands, 603Ð4 biodiversity, 332 California Current, 814, 815, 816, 853f freshwater, nonindigenous species, 339Ð40 California Environment Resources Evaluation System, 637 invertebrates California Floristic Province, 598 biodiversity, 330Ð32 California Native Plant Society, Rare Plant Program, 598, 636 fisheries, 794Ð95, 797 California Natural Areas Coordinating Committee, 598 nonindigenous species, 339 California Natural Diversity Database, 637 mammals, 330, 338 California Redwood Park, 597 nonindigenous species, 340Ð41 Calyptranthes thomasiana, 331t nonindigenous species, 338Ð41 Campanulaceae, 750 physical features, 792 camphorweed, salt marsh, 21 plants Canada, transboundary stocks, 849Ð50 biodiversity, 330 Canadian Shield, 136 nonindigenous species, 339 canals reptiles density, marsh loss and, 397Ð98 biodiversity, 332Ð37 Mississippi River, 397Ð98 extinctions, 329 Tennessee-Tombigbee Canal, 297 nonindigenous species, 340 water hyacinth, 426 research needs, 341Ð43 cancer sea turtles, 334Ð37 creosote and, 138Ð39 terrestrial ecosystems, 316Ð21 endocrine disruptors and, 148 human influence, 320Ð21 in fishes, 138f life zones, 317Ð19 liver, 138Ð39 reforestation, 319Ð20 in sediment-dwelling marine species, 850Ð51 subtropical dry forest, 317 candlewood, tabonuco type, 318 subtropical moist forest, 318 canebreaks, 273 subtropical rain forest, 319 Canella family, 331t subtropical wet forest, 318 canvasbacks, 206, 371, 372, 378, 424t, 425, 456Ð57, 524 virgin forest, 316Ð17 canyon forests, Rocky Mountains, 476 Caribbean National Forest, 319 Canyonlands National Park, 14f caribou, 221, 248, 481, 494Ð95, 720, 723, 727, 730, 731, 734Ð36, capá rosa, 331t 739Ð40, See also reindeer Cape Cod Bay woodland, 232t marine mammals, 790, 792 Carnivora, 285 North Atlantic right whale, 791 carnivores, prairie pothole region, 461Ð63 capelin, 811 carnivorous plants, 285, 286f capture-release studies, bottlenose dolphins, 804 Carolina bays, 283Ð84, 296 caracara, crested, 302, 329 carps, 419, 449 carbamate pesticides, 149Ð51 common, 118, 122, 363, 368, 369, 377 carbaryl, 133t, 150 grass, 122, 125, 369, 377 carbofuran, 133t, 150, 151, 271 carpsucker, river, 368 carbon carrying capacity, 171 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 918 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

defined, 897 snails, 618 Carson, Rachel, 145 topographic features, 595 Carson National Forest, 548 Channel Islands National Park, 610, 611, 615, 636, 637 Carson Range, 513 channelization Carson River, 532 defined, 897 Cascade Ranges, 136, 593, 645, 668 Missouri River, 67 ecosystem status, 601 Southeast, 274 Cascadian Forest, Rocky Mountains, 476 channels catadromous, defined, 897 braided, 897 catadromous species, nearshore resources, 801 connecting, Great Lakes, 223Ð24 Catalina, 610 ecosystems, Great Lakes, 223Ð24 catbirds, 244 incision, Southwest, 549 gray, 374t, 679 modification, riparian forest loss and, 49 catchment, defined, 897 chaparral, 601, 605, 606 catfishes, 367, 417Ð18, 419, 420t, 449 ceanothus, 607 blue, 368, 369, 418, 418t, 419 chamise, 607 channel, 328, 367, 368, 369, 418, 418t, 419 coastal, 607f flathead, 368, 419 defined, 606Ð7, 897 gafftopsail, 417, 419 desert, 608 hardhead, 417, 418t, 420t fire processes and, 607 sea, 420t manzanita, 607 cations, defined, 897 montane, 607 cats red shank, 607 house, 341 scrub oak, 607 marine bird predation by, 839 serpentine, 607Ð8 Catskill Mountains, old-growth forests, 185 shrubs, 29 cat’s-paw woodland, 608 purple, 196t Chara vulgaris, 415t white, 196t, 232t charismatic megafauna, defined, 897 cattails, 80, 363, 401, 403, 445 chars broadleaved, 403 arctic, 711t, 718, 725, 737 cattle, 558, 740, See also grazing Sunapee, 137 brucellosis and, 495, 497 chat, yellow-breasted, 189t, 246t, 374t, 679, 681 feral, Hawaii, 754 Chatham, Massachusetts, oil spill, 140 raising, 42 Chattahoochee River, 67 caustic soda plants, 138 cheatgrass, 497, 511, 528, 530, 556, 649, 653 cave-adapted invertebrates, 761 checker-mallow, Nelson’s, 654t caves chemical contaminants. See contaminants bat habitats, 338 chemosynthetic animal life forms, 817 Caribbean Islands, 330Ð31 Chenier Plain Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 526 birds, 422 habitat destruction, 304 defined, 387 Southeast, 295Ð96, 304 destructional processes, 392Ð93 cay, defined, 897 geomorphology, 391Ð92 ceanothus chaparral, 607 habitat diversity, 400 ceanothuses, 607 vegetation, 404 hairy, 607 cheniers hoaryleaf, 607 birds, 421Ð22 cedars defined, 411, 897 Atlantic white-cedar swamps, 15, 286 destructional processes and, 392 eastern red, 17 vegetation, 411Ð12 glades, Southeast, 262 cherry red, 645 black, 48 centipedes, 655 pin, 183, 185 centrachids, 69 wild, 87 central coast (California), 605 Chesapeake Bay Central Lowlands (grasslands), fishes, 448Ð49 benthic resources, 781 Central Valley (California), 593 environmental and physical features, 777 ecosystem status, 603Ð5 fisheries resources, 785 giant garter snake, 624Ð26 herbicide contamination of, 151 human settlement, 596 living resources, 204Ð6 irrigation, 143, 603, 604 primary production, 778 rivers, 597 watershed wetlands, 201Ð3 topographic features, 595 Chesapeake Bay Program, 204 Central Valley Project, 603, 604 chess, soft, 603 Centropages hamatus, 780 chestnut Centropages typicus, 780 American, 121, 183, 272 Ceratium hircus, 415t Chinese, 121 cereus, golden-spined, 606 water, 274 cero, 795t, 798 chestnut blight, 121, 183, 263, 272 cetaceans, 846, See also dolphins; porpoises; whales Cheyenne, 478 defined, 897 Chichagof Island, 737 distributions, 790 chickadees CFCs. See chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) black-capped, 246t, 674, 674t, 719 Chaetoceros breve, 415t boreal, 246t, 719 chaetognaths, 779 Carolina, 374t defined, 897 chestnut-backed, 631 Chaetomorpha, 406 mountain, 631 chaffseed, American, 185t chickweed Chalmydomonas species, 415t Aleutian, 729 Chamaecrista glandulosa variety mirabilis, 331t low, 725 chamise, 607 Chihuahuan Desert, 556, 557, 559 Channel Islands, 593 herpetofauna, 572 ecosystem status, 609Ð12 bush, 607 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 919 chipmunks clams, 51, 195, 612, 846 Hidden Forest Uinta, 525t Asian, 125, 298, 448, 848 lodgepole, 633t cultured, 833 long-eared, 633t giant, 833 Merriam’s, 633t hard, 844 Mt. Ellen, 580 hardshell, 785, 785t Palmer’s, 515, 525t nonindigenous, 821 panamint, 515t Pacific razor, 808 Sonoma, 633t softshell, 785, 785t, 801, 844, 846 Uinta, 515t Clark Fork River system, Montana, 134t yellow-pine, 515t Clean Water Act, 299Ð300 Chippewa River, 353 Clean Water and Safe Drinking Act (1977), 72 chironomids, 416, 417, 658 clidemia, 754Ð55 defined, 897 cliffrose, Mexican, 513 chlordane, 133t, 144, 146, 148 cliffs, southeast, 278 Chlorella vulgaris, 415t climate chlorinated dibenzofurans, 133t Alaska, 707 chlorinated dioxins, 133t, 153 coastal Louisiana, 394Ð95 chlorinated hydrocarbons, 850 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 506Ð7 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 133t, 153, 154Ð55 prairie processes, 444 defined, 897 Southeast, 257 chlorophyll a, 778f Southwest, 543, 544 defined, 898 westside California, 594 western Pacific oceanic region, 831Ð32 climate change, 89Ð113, See also global warming; greenhouse chokecherry, 508 effect; sea-level rise cholera, 848 abrupt, 111 Chrisana caribou herd, 723 animal responses to, 91, 101Ð3, 109Ð10 Christmas Bird Count, 108, 243, 246, 247 causes of, 91Ð93 Alaska, 719 ecosystem responses to, 100Ð110, 112 California, 637 future, 91 Great Lakes, 243, 246, 247 Glacier National Park effects, 104Ð7 Mississippi River, 374, 375t history, 90Ð91 Northeast, 187 information gaps, 110Ð12 Southeast, 303 plant-animal-climate linkages, 109Ð10 chronic oil pollution, 141Ð42 policy issues, 113 Chroococcus species, 415t societal forces, 93 chrysophytes, 415t synergistic effects, 112Ð13 chubs, 77 vegetation responses, 91, 100Ð101, 109Ð10 Alvord, 661t water diversions and, 67 Arkansas River speckled, 449 climate models arroyo, 620t, 621 bottom-up approaches, 103Ð4 blue, 620t cloud feedback problem and, 97 bonytail, 125, 143, 519, 566, 567 combined top-down and bottom-up approaches, 104Ð5, 108 Borax Lake, 661t credibility of, 93Ð98 Catlow Valley tui, 661t defined, 89Ð90 Cowhead Lake speckled, 661t ecosystem, 112 flathead, 449 empirical-statistical approach, 94 Goose Lake tui, 661t forecast credibility, 93Ð98 Great Lakes, 238 general circulation, 94 humpback, 78, 143, 519, 566, 567 greenhouse effect and, 97 Hutton Spring tui, 661t grid size, 95 lake, 662t, 711t local, 99Ð100 leatherside, 662t mesoscale, 99 Oregon, 662t refined approaches to, 108Ð9 Oregon Lakes tui, 662t regional scales, 98Ð100 Rio Grande, 567 reproduction of past climates with, 97 roundtail, 566 RHESSys model, 106 Sheldon tui, 663t seasonal cycle test, 96 sicklefin, 449 three-dimensional, 94, 96f slender, 297, 298f top-down approaches, 103 speckled, 567 types of, 94 sturgeon, 449 verifying, 95Ð98 Summer Basin tui, 664t zero-dimensional, 94 thicktail, 620t climate-vegetation classification scheme, 100 tui, 520 climax, defined, 898 Warner Basin tui, 664t clonal dispersal, defined, 898 chuckwallas, 521, 571Ð72 clonal growth, 233 chupacallos, 331t clone, defined, 898 cienegas, 561 close-crowned, defined, 898 cinquefoils cloud feedback problem, 97 Robbins’, 185, 185t cloud forest, defined, 898 silverweed, 613, 725 clovers, 477, 680 cirque, defined, 898 running buffalo, 185t, 232t ciscoes, 236, 239 white, 549 arctic, 711t, 733, 740 clubshell, 196, 232t Bering, 711t cluster analysis, defined, 898 deepwater, 242 cluster development, 55 least, 711t, 718, 733 cnidarians, 831 cismontane California, See also California coachwhip, 449t CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species coal, 134Ð39 of Wild Fauna and Flora), 898 acid mine drainage, 134Ð35 Citrus family, 331t ash, 138 cladocerans, 416 mining, Alaska, 738, 740 defined, 898 tar, 138 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 920 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

coal-fired electric generating plants, 138 cóbana negra, 331t Coastal Barrier Resources Act, 287 cobia, 795t, 798 coastal chaparral, 607f Coccidioides immitis, 613 coastal ecosystems coccidioidomycosis, 613 biodiversity of, 852Ð53 cockles, 808 delta, 385, 386Ð87 cockroaches, German, 203 habitat degradation, 848 Cocodrie lobe system, 388 Hawaii, 762 cod, 207, 779, 782, 850 improvement approaches, 853Ð54 arctic, 711t, 811 marshes Atlantic, 781, 782, 783t California, 599 black, 809, 818, See also sablefish Louisiana, 20Ð22 overfishing, 847 salt-intrusion events, 20 Pacific, 808, 809, 811, 823 Pacific Islands, 827 saffron, 711t, 811 ponds, 296 Codillera de Fajardo, 315 prairie, California, 599, 605 Coeur d’Alene Valley, Idaho, 134t restoration, coastal Louisiana, 430 “coffee grounds,” 406 shore, Great Lakes region, 226Ð29 coffeetree, Kentucky, 360 temperate rain forest, Alaska, 709Ð16 coke, 138 birds, 714Ð15 colonial birds, 370, 421, 454 climate, 709 colonias, 271 freshwater fishes, 711Ð14 colonization mammals, 715Ð16 following Mount St. Helens eruption, 24Ð25 research needs, 736Ð37 herptiles, 101Ð2 vegetation, 710Ð11 Colorado Air Quality Commission, 482 urbanization, 855 ColoradoÐBig Thompson diversion, 72 coral reef effects, 323 Colorado Desert, 530 estuarine resources and, 844 snails, 618 wetlands, See also wetlands Colorado Front Range, 482 fishery resources and, 796 Colorado Plateau, 555, 556 Great Lakes region, 224Ð25 Colorado River, 72, 143, 519, 532, 561 coastal ichthyoplankton, 793 ecological effects of water use, 76Ð79 coastal Louisiana, 385Ð430 fishes, 565, 566Ð69 accretion, 392Ð93 Colorado River Compact, 76 amphibians, 425 Columbia River aquatic ecosystems, 413Ð20 coho salmon, 819Ð20 barrier islands, 391, 410Ð13 estuarine resources, 821Ð23 benthic organisms, 416Ð17 hydroelectric power dams, 68 birds, 421Ð25, 427Ð28 Columbia River basin, 658, 677, 815 Chenier Plain, 387, 391Ð93, 400, 404, 422 Colvin, VerPlanck, 186 cheniers, 392, 411Ð12, 421Ð22, 897 comb jellies, 898 climate, 394Ð95 combustion gases, 152 delta cycles, 388Ð89, 398Ð401 commensal, defined, 898 ecosystem change, 386Ð87 commercial fisheries, See also fishes endangered and threatened species, 426Ð29 Alaska, 711, 712Ð14, 718, 729, 733 fishes, 417Ð20, 429 Caribbean reef fishes, 325Ð27 fluvial processes, 395 coastal Louisiana, 413 forested wetlands, 408Ð10 driftnets, 839, 850 geology and geomorphology, 387Ð94 Great Lakes, 232, 240Ð42 human effects, 396Ð98 harvest and depletion, 47, 171Ð72, 236Ð43, 368Ð69 invertebrates, 417Ð18 long-line, 903 low-salinity marshes, 407Ð8 Lower Mississippi River, 357 mammals, 425, 427 management of, 855 marine processes, 395Ð96 marine bird and mammal effects, 850 marshes, 401Ð8 Mississippi River, 368Ð69 Hurricane Andrew impacts, 20Ð22 transboundary stocks issues, 849Ð50 Mississippi River Deltaic Plain, 387 community modern Mississippi River delta, 389Ð91 climate-caused disruption, 110, 113 natural levees, 410Ð13 defined, 173, 898 nekton, 417Ð20 harvest and, 173 nonindigenous species, 426 compensation, 170 reptiles, 425Ð26, 428Ð29 compensatory mortality, 170 research needs, 429Ð30 competition, defined, 28 ridges, 410Ð13 competitive displacement, 28Ð29 saltwater, 405Ð7 competitive exclusion, 28 subsidence, 392Ð94 conchs, 785, 794, 800 wetlands, 352 hawkwing, 332t degradation of, 356Ð57 milk, 332t forested, 408Ð10 Queen, 331, 332t loss, 385Ð86, 398 roostertail, 332t patterns, 398 West Indian fighting, 332t zooplankton, 415Ð16 condors, California, 626 Coastal Management Program, American Samoa, 829 coneflower, smooth, 185t, 280 coastal pelagic fishes, western Pacific, 834Ð35 conifers, 514, 549f, See also specific species Coastal Plain Mount St. Helens impacts, 24 acid precipitation, 136 Pacific Northwest, 645, 646 Alaska, 732 conservation, scientific, 169 California, 593 conservation movement, Southeast, 259 Southeast, 256 Conservation Reserve Program, 192, 457, 461, 465 coastal sageÐscrub, 605, 606 conspecific, defined, 898 Coast Ranges, 593 constructional phase, delta lobes, 388, 392Ð93 ecosystem status, 600Ð601 consumption, 29 human settlement, 597 contaminants, 131Ð57, See also air pollution; pollution; water topographic features, 595 pollution Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 921

acid mine drainage, 134Ð35 precious, harvesting of, 832Ð33 acid precipitation, 135Ð38 red tree, 809 agricultural, 142Ð52 scleractinian, 322 air pollution, 142 sea raspberry, 809 aquatic toxicology, 145Ð46 corcho bobo, 317 California least tern and, 630 cordgrasses chlorofluorocarbons, 154Ð55 big, 401, 406 chronic oil pollution, 141Ð42 salt meadow, 20, 21 coal, 134Ð39 smooth, 401, 402t, 406, 407, 408, 412 detection of, 131 Corkscrew Swamp, 81f dibenzofurans, 153Ð54 cormorants, 140, 369, 628t, 802, 820, 823, 824 dioxins, 153Ð54 double-crested, 146, 154, 208, 246t, 370, 371f, 454t, 455t, 803 effects of, 131, 186 great, 786 endocrine-disrupting compounds, 148 red-faced, 813 in estuarine and marine areas, 850Ð51 corn, 151 ferrous metals, 134Ð39 Corophium species, 416 herbicides, 151Ð52 corridor, defined, 898 industrial and urban development and, 152Ð53 Coscinodiscus species, 415t irrigation, 142Ð43 cotton, 151 nonferrous metals, 132Ð34 cotton-grass, tussock, 717, 724 oil fields, 740 cottonmouth, western, 425 oil spills, 140Ð41 cottontails, 579 pesticides, 144Ð51 eastern, 192, 249, 425 petroleum, 139Ð42 New England, 48, 192 polychlorinated biphenyls, 153Ð54 Cottonwood Lake Study Area, 350 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 138Ð39 cottonwoods, 78, 266, 476, 508, 560Ð63 research needs, 155Ð57 eastern, 359, 360, 409 transport of, 131 gallery forests, 560 volatile organic compounds, 154Ð55 cottonwood-willow forests, 78, 560 continental shelf cougars, eastern, 186, 188 defined, 898 cowbirds groundfish, 818 brown-headed, 53, 54, 246t, 374t, 493, 524, 632, 674t, 675, 679, Pacific Islands, 826Ð27 681 pelagic fishes, Pacific coast region, 817Ð18 shiny, 340 Convention on Biodiversity, Article 7, 175 cowpea, yellow, 407 Convention on Great Lakes Fisheries, 238 coyotes, 195, 210, 248, 249, 304, 425, 427, 461, 463, 477, 683, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild 723, 727 Fauna and Flora (CITES), 304, 837, 838, 848, 898 crabs, 207, 406, 785t, 816, 852 cooling, sulfur dioxide and, 98 7-11 (ala kumu), 828f cooling degree days, defined, 103f Atlantic rock, 780, 785 coontails, 50, 360, 361, 415t blue, 205, 418, 419, 419f, 420t, 785, 801, 844, 846 Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act (1978), 127t blue king, 808 Cooperative Holocene Mapping Project, 90Ð91, 109 common land, 331 coots Dungeness, 808, 816, 817, 822, 823, 844, 846, 851 American, 143f, 421, 454t, 455t estuaries and, 796 Caribbean, 337 golden (brown) king, 808 copepods, 416, 659Ð60, 779, 780, 807, 816 green, 821 defined, 898 horseshoe, 780 copper, 132, 134 Jonah, 785 Copper Basin, Tennessee, 134t kelp, 816 copper sulfate, 144 king, 808 coquis, 332, See also frogs Korean hair, 808 cricket, 333t lady, 780 golden, 331t, 333 larvae, 779 ground, 333t lesser blue, 418 mottled, 333 red, 785 Puerto Rican, 333t red king, 808 rock, 333 snow, 808 tree-hole, 333t stone, 794, 795, 795t, 797, 800 Virgin Islands, 333t Tanner, 808 warty, 333t cranberry, highbush, 87, 717 web-footed, 333 cranes wrinkled, 333t greater sandhill, 626t coral reefs Mississippi sandhill, 302 at risk, 844Ð45 sandhill, 246t, 714, 726 Caribbean Islands, 321Ð24, 325Ð27 whooping, 289, 427t, 428, 441 damage to, 827Ð28 Cranichis ricartii, 331t fishes, 325Ð27 crappies, 368 habitat degradation, 794, 848 black, 367, 368, 418, 419 human activities and, 325 bluegill, 367 national status and trends, 844Ð45 white, 418 natural disturbances, 321, 324 crayfishes, 622 Pacific Islands, 827Ð28 Shasta, 619t pristine, 844Ð45 Southeast, 295 protection of, 837 threatened, 69 western Pacific, 837Ð38 creepers corals, 794, 800, 809 brown, 678t black, 833 Maui, 765 elkhorn, 322, 323 creosote, 138Ð39 finger, 87, 837f creosotebush, 506, 530, 546, 556 gorgonian, 323, 325 scrub, 510 harvesting, 832Ð33 shrub-steppe, 529 Pacific Islands, 827 crevasse, 389 pink, 832Ð33 defined, 898 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 922 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

crickets effects, 144, 146 Kelso giant sand treader, 516 eggshell thinning and, 144, 146, 149 Kelso Jerusalem, 516 geographic distribution, 147f prairie mole, 447 mean concentrations, 147f croaker, Atlantic, 357, 417, 418t, 419, 420t, 795t, 800 DDT, 131, 133t, 548 crocodile, American, 300, 429 bald eagles and, 206 croplands, See also agricultural lands brown pelicans and, 303, 803, 820 land-use change, 38 concentrations, 147Ð48 Northeast, trends, 192 effects, 144, 146 crossbills, red, 246t as endocrine disruptor, 148 Crow (tribe), 478 history, 144 crowberry, 729 peregrine falcons and, 493 crown fires, 27 death rates, population size and, 170 defined, 898 Death Valley National Park, 516f, 521 Southwest, 553 debouch, defined, 898 subalpine forests, 480Ð81 debris, marine, 851Ð52 crows debris torrent, defined, 899 American, 246t, 374t, 631Ð32 deciduous, defined, 899 Cuban (lesser Puerto Rican), 329, 330 deciduous forest type, eastern, 182 fish, 374t decomposition, 19 northwestern, 140 deep-sea resources, national status and trends, 845 white-necked, 329, 330, 331t, 343 deep swamp, 409 crustaceans, 416, 780, 784, 793, 808, 823 Deepwater Dumpsite 106, 780Ð81 cryptobiotic (microbiotic) crusts, 14f, 558Ð59, 653 deer, 248, 476, 488, 499, 597, 686, 715, 737 Cryptomonas species, 415t Axis, 634 cryptophytes, 415t Columbian black-tailed, 686, 688f ctenophores, 416 Columbian white-tailed, 686 defined, 898 damage by, 53 Cubits Gap, 389Ð91 eastern white-tailed, 463 cuckoos, 422 fallow, 634 black-billed, 246t, 374t Key, 304, 305 western yellow-billed, 626t mule, 463, 477, 495, 496f, 579 yellow-billed, 246t, 374t, 522, 604, 605 sex-selective harvest, 172 cui-ui, 520 Sitka black-tailed, 715 Culebra archipelago, 315 white-tailed, 53, 172, 195, 210, 221, 222, 288, 305Ð6, 341, 425, cultivar, defined, 898 477, 495, 496f, 579, 632 Cumberland River system, Kentucky, 135 deforestation cupey, 318 in eastern United States, 40Ð41 curlews in Midwest, 41, 42f bristle-thighed, 726 in Pacific Northwest, 42Ð43 Eskimo, 289, 427t, 428, 444 rates comparison, 41f long-billed, 451t, 524, 627, 678t degradation, defined, 899 currants, 476 degree-days, defined, 899 cyanazine, 133t, 151 Delaware Bay cyanide-leach ponds, 134 benthic resources, 781 cyanobacteria, 13, 406, 653 fisheries resources, 785 defined, 898 Delaware River, 72 cyclonic, defined, 898 delta Cyclotella species, 415t defined, 899 Cyclura portoricensis, 330 Mississippi River, 355, 387, 408Ð10 Cylindrotheca, 406 Delta caribou herd, 723 cypress, 599, 600, 608 delta lobes (Mississippi River) Arizona, 553 constructional phase, 388, 392Ð93 fire and, 600 destructional phase, 388, 392Ð93 Sargent, 607 geomorphic cycles, 388Ð89 growth and degradation, habitats and, 398Ð401 dabbling ducks, 369, 424, 719 Delta Native Recovery Plan, 620 dace delta plain, defined, 899 blacknose, 137 demersal, defined, 899 Foskett speckled, 661t demersal resources Millicoma, 662t fish, 809Ð10 Nooksack, 662t groundfish, 781Ð82 Santa Ana speckled, 621 Denali caribou herd, 723 speckled, 520 Denali National Park and Preserve, 720 daisy, lakeside, 185t, 232t dendritic, defined, 899 Dalton Highway, Alaska, 735, 740 dendrochronology, defined, 899 dams density, 171 Great Lakes, 226, 241 canals, 397Ð98 historical, 64 density-dependent population growth, 171f impacts, 69 density-independent population growth, 171f lake sturgeon and, 241 Department of Agriculture Organic Act (1956), 127t navigation, 67 derby-style fishing, Alaska, 712 pearlymussel declines and, 448 Dermo, 205 species endangerment and, 65 Desecheo Island, 315 damselfish, agile, 837f desert, See also Great BasinÐMojave Desert region dandelion, 549 absolute, 510, 511t Daphnopsis hellerana, 331t heterogeneity, 13Ð14 darters shrublands, Southwest, 555Ð59 Arkansas, 449 Southeast, 256 Maryland, 197, 297 desert chaparral, 608 Darwin, Charles, 91, 750 desertification, Southwest, 555, 559 DDD, 133t, 144 desert-parsley, Bradshaw’s, 654t DDE desert springs, 559 bald eagles and, 823 fishes, 569Ð70 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 923 destructional phase, delta lobes, 388, 392Ð93 spiny, 781, 782 destructional processes, human effects and, 396 dogs, 341 detritus, defined, 899 dogwood anthracnose disease, 184, 272 devilsclub, thorny, 710 dogwoods, 183, 184 Devils Hole Hills, 519f doliolids, 779 diadromous fishes, 448 defined, 899 Diamond Chuitna coal project, 738 Dolly Varden, 711t, 725, 726, 729, 733, 736, 737, 739 Diaptomus copepods, 659Ð60 dolphins, 425, 787, 790, 795t, 798, 821 dorsalis, 416 Atlantic spotted, 788t, 789 kenai, 659, 660 Atlantic white-sided, 788t reighardi, 416 bottlenose, 154, 788t, 789, 789t, 790, 804Ð5, 843, 850 siciloides, 416 Central American spinner, 789t tyrrelli, 660 clymene, 788t diatoms, 406, 415, 415t, 816, 851 common, 788t, 789, 789t dibenzofurans, 153 eastern Pacific spinner, 841 dicamba, 271 eastern spinner, 789t, 821 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 133t, 151 Fraser’s, 788t dickcissels, 43f, 246t, 374t, 446, 451t, 452f long-beaked common, 789t dicofol, 133t, 149 mid-Atlantic coastal bottlenose, 789 dicrotophos, 271 northeastern spotted, 821 dieldrin, 133t, 144, 146, 148 northern bottlenose, 805 dike fields, 364 northern right-whale, 789t, 843 fish habitat, 367, 368 Pacific white-sided, 788t, 789t dinoflagellates, 332, 415, 816, 845 pantropical spotted, 788t, 789, 789t blooms, 849 Risso’s, 788t, 789t defined, 899 rough-toothed, 788t, 789t toxic, 817 short-beaked common, 789t dioxins, 153 spinner, 788t, 789t, 843 Diploneis elliptica, 415t spotted, 789t dippers, 628t striped, 788t, 789t, 806f American, 722 white-beaked, 788t disappearing streams, 294 whitebelly spinner (see also Fraser’s dolphin), 789t, 843 diseases white-sided, 790f black band, 323Ð24 dominance, defined, 899 chestnut blight, 121 domoic acid, 817, 851 dogwood anthracnose, 184, 272 Donut Hole area, 809, 850 Dutch elm, 184 Douglas-fir, 46f, 474, 476, 497, 513, 550, 600, 601, 645, 652, 653, fin rot, 141 687, 689, 691 laminated root rot, 653 old-growth, 646 Lyme, 210 Douglas-fir forests, Rocky Mountains, 476 as natural disturbances, 27 douglasia, Bering, 724 Northeast forest effects, 183Ð84 dovekies, 786 resistance, 138 doves whirling, 497 mourning, 186, 246t, 374t, 523, 524, 631, 632, 674t, 678t white band, 323 rock, 203, 631, 632 withering foot, 615 spotted, 631, 632 disjunct, defined, 899 white-winged, 631 dispersal Zenaida, 302 clonal, 898 dowitcher, long-billed, 441, 524 heterogeneity and, 30 downwelling, defined, 899 distributary, defined, 899 draba, Aleutian, 729 distribution, along gradients, 14Ð15 dragonflies, 195 disturbance, See also natural disturbances Ozark snaketail, 447 defined, 899 drainage canals, Mississippi River, 397 generalist species and, 509 Drake, Sir Francis, 596 nonindigenous species and, 120 drawdown, defined, 899 regimes, 27Ð28 driftnets, 839, 850 disturbance-adapted species, 228 dropseeds, 476 diurnal, defined, 899 coastal, 412 diurnal tides, coastal Louisiana, 395 sand, 476 diversity, See also biological diversity dropwort, Canby’s, 185t conceptual model, 32f Drosophila species, 768f defined, 899 drought, 27 in Everglades, 79Ð80 fire suppression and, 47 fire suppression and, 45Ð47 Mississippi River, 372 flux and, 32 tolerance, in grassland birds, 460 functional, 168, 169 Upper Mississippi River, 362Ð63 grasslands, 463, 465 drums harvest and, 173 black, 419, 420t, 800 heterogeneity and, 11, 16 freshwater, 240, 367, 368 human impacts on, 30Ð31 red, 357, 419, 420t, 795t, 800Ð801, 847 interaction among organisms and, 18 dry forests, Hawaii, 761 land use and, 37, 38Ð39, 44Ð52, 54Ð57 dubautia, 750 measuring, 173 duckpotato, delta, 403 natural disturbances and, 19, 28 ducks, 406, 422Ð24, 597, 719, 726, 802 nonindigenous species and, 121Ð22 American black, 138, 168, 197Ð200, 205, 373 research needs, 31Ð32 breeding population trends, 456Ð57 Southeast, 260Ð74 canvasback, 206, 371, 372, 378, 424t, 425, 456Ð57, 524 succession and, 18 Chesapeake Bay, 205Ð6 taxonomic, 168 dabbling, 369, 424, 719 diving ducks, 369, 371, 372, 424Ð25, 719 diving, 369, 371, 372, 424Ð25, 719 DNA, UV-B and, 155 fulvous whistling, 627 dodder, 406 harlequin, 671, 673, 722, 813 dogfish, 783t migration corridors, 423f ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 924 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

Mississippi River, 370Ð73 DDE and, 144, 146, 149 mottled, 357, 420t, 424, 425, 425t Egler, Frank, 182 prairie pothole region, 456Ð57 egrets, 81f, 327, 369, 421 puddle, 420t cattle, 288, 289t, 370, 374t, 455t ring-necked, 371, 372, 424t, 425 great, 289t, 291, 370, 455t ruddy, 371 snowy, 289t, 291, 421f, 455t water conditions and, 456Ð57 Southeast, 303 West Indian ruddy, 337 eiders, 140, 740 wood, 246t, 369, 373, 425 common, 208 duck virus enteritis (DVE) (duck plague), 458Ð60 king, 734 duckweeds, 409 spectacled, 726, 813 greater, 415t Steller’s, 726, 730, 813 lesser, 415t Elaphoglossum serpens, 331t dunes elasmobranchs, defined, 900 communities, California, 612Ð16 elderberry, Pacific red, 737 fields, 717 electric generating plants, coal-fired, 138 lake-edge, 227 eleotrids, 762, 766 perched, 227Ð29 elepaio, 765 duskywing, persius, 447 elephant’s ear, 403 dust bowl, 27 elk, 172f, 188, 221, 222, 248, 265, 303, 437, 440, 460, 476, 477, Dutch elm disease, 184 488, 489, 496f, 597, 686, 715 Dutchess County, New York, forest cover, 40 eastern, 280 Merriam’s, 577 eagles, 527 North American, 495 bald, 131, 138, 140, 146, 149, 154, 189t, 206, 231, 232t, 246t, Rocky Mountain, 577Ð79 247, 289, 369, 373, 378, 427t, 428, 492, 522, 626t, 671, 673f, Roosevelt, 687Ð88 714, 719, 726, 730, 737, 812, 823 Tule, 603 golden, 524, 527, 679, 681Ð82, 681f, 682f, 688, 722 elm phloem necrosis, 184 Steller’s sea, 730 elms white-tailed, 730 American, 184, 359, 360, 409, 411 earthworms, 445, 753 Siberian, 560 decomposition and, 19 slippery, 360 East Bering Sea, 853f El Niño events, 814 Eastern Cascades Slopes and Foothills, 675 anadromous species and, 665 eastern deciduous forest type, Northeast, 182 California least tern and, 630 eastside forests, Pacific Northwest, 645, 647Ð48, 690 defined, 900 eastside rangelands, Pacific Northwest, 649Ð50, 690 forecasting, 854 eat-outs, muskrat, 426 marine resources and, 853 echinoderms salmon effects, 819 defined, 899 Southern California Bight effects, 815 Pacific, 831 Southwest effects, 544 ecological impact assessments, 110 elodea, 360, 361 ecological models, 112 emajagua, 339 ecological succession, 16Ð19 emergent, defined, 900 competitive displacement and, 28Ð29 emersed, defined, 900 defined, 16, 183, 899 emperors, 836 fire and, 17 empirical, defined, 900 floodplain forest, 17 empirical-statistical approach, to climate prediction, 94 forest, 183 encinal, defined, 900 naturalness of, 17Ð18 encinal woodlands RHESSys model, 106 herpetofauna, 571 Southeast, 259 Southwest, 555 ecology, study of, 169Ð70 Endangered Species Act, 525, 775 ecoregions. See biogeographical regions Rocky Mountains effects, 495 ecosystems endangered/threatened species climate change and, 94Ð95, 98 aquatic, in contiguous U.S., 66t defined, 19, 899 birds, Great Lakes region, 247 disturbed, nonindigenous species and, 120 California, 598, 610, 628, 632Ð34, 636 diversity, Southeast, 260Ð74 Caribbean Islands, 330, 337 fire suppression and, 45Ð47 coastal Louisiana, 426Ð30 integrity, 175 in contiguous U.S., 66t management, vs. species-by-species management, 6 freshwater fish, 65 nonindigenous species and, 117 giant garter snake, 624Ð26 sustainability, marine resource issues, 852Ð54 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 519, 522Ð23 ecotones, defined, 386, 899 Great Lakes region, 232Ð33, 247Ð48 ecotypes, climate change and, 91 marine resources, 846Ð47, 855 Ectocarpus, 406 nonindigenous species and, 123Ð25 ectotherms Northeast, 185t climate change and, 101 Pacific coast region, 820 defined, 101, 899 Pacific Northwest, 654, 671 temperature restrictions, 110 plants, 185 edaphic, defined, 899 protection of, 837 edaphic communities, 516 pupfishes, 519 edge effects sea turtles, 838 defined, 899 Southeast, 261Ð62 saltwater marshes, 406 endemic, defined, 900 eelgrass, 781, 823 endemic species eels Alaska, 728 American, 296, 369, 801 California, 605, 606, 610Ð11, 618 spotted snake, 325 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 515, 519 Eemian interglacial, 111 Hawaiian Islands, 749Ð50, 842 effect and recovery, brown pelican, 820 Pacific Northwest, 652, 683 eggshell thickness Southwest, 563, 565, 580 acidification and, 138 endocrine-disrupting compounds, 148 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 925 endosulfan, 133t, 144 Everglades Agricultural Area, 290 endotherm, defined, 900 Everglades National Park, 290Ð91, 294 endrin, 133t, 144, 146 Exclusive Economic Zone, 849, 850 energy, of organisms, 13 Pacific Islands, 826, 827 energy intensity, defined, 93 potential and average yields, 845Ð46 ensatinas, 601, 667t Executive Order 11987 Exotic Organisms (1977), 127t large-blotched, 623t exotic species. See nonindigenous species Monterey, 623t Experimental Lakes Area, 73 Oregon, 623t extinctions painted, 623t amphibians, Caribbean Islands, 329 Sierra Nevada, 623t aquatic, 50Ð51 yellow-blotched, 623t birds yellow-eyed, 623t Caribbean Islands, 329Ð30 entanglements, of marine species, 851 Polynesia, 751 Enteromorpha, 406 Caribbean Islands, 329Ð30 environmental change, Texas, 264Ð72 defined, 900 environmental contaminants. See contaminants grasslands, 463 environmental heterogeneity, 28 Hawaii, 751, 769 community dynamics, 16Ð19 mammals, Caribbean Islands, 330 defined, 11 nonindigenous species and, 121 diversity and, 11, 16 prehistoric, 221Ð22, 751 episodic events and, 19Ð28 reptiles, Caribbean Islands, 329 gradients and, 14Ð15, 16 vascular plants, 45t homogenization and, 28 vertebrates, 45t maintaining, 32 extirpation, 900 natural disturbances and, 19Ð28 Exxon Valdez oil spill, 140Ð41, 714, 807, 811Ð12 organism response to, 12Ð13 patches and, 14, 15Ð16 falcons research needs, 31Ð32 American peregrine, 231, 232t, 247, 331t, 626t, 719 spatial, 13Ð16 aplomado, 271 succession and, 18 arctic peregrine, 231, 232t, 247, 289, 428, 734 environmental monitoring. See monitoring programs Peale’s peregrine, 714 environmental movement, history, 169 peregrine, 146, 149, 189t, 203, 209, 427t, 428, 493, 522, 576, environmental toxicology, 145, 156 719, 722, 734 epibenthos, defined, 896 pealei subspecies, 726, 730 Epidendrum krugii, 318f prairie, 146, 451t, 453, 524, 678t, 679, 681, 682f epilobium, pygmy, 604 fanshell, 196 epipelagic, defined, 900 fanwort, Carolina, 415t epipelagic zone, 816, 818 fauna, defined, 900 epiphytes, 318, 319, 753 feathermosses, 717 defined, 900 fecundity, defined, 900 episodic events, environmental heterogeneity and, 19Ð28 Federal Endangered Species Act, status and trends information and, epizootic, defined, 900 232 ericaceous, defined, 900 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (1947), 127t ermine, 248, 461, 462, 723, 734 federal laws, nonindigenous species, 126, 127t erosion, Upper Mississippi River, 354 Federal Noxious Weed Act (1974), 127t erubia, 331t federal parks, nonindigenous species and, 123Ð25 escapements Federal Plant Pest Act (1957), 127t of coho salmon, 718 Federal Seed Act (1939), 127t defined, 900 fens, 277, 477 Eskimos, 708 defined, 900 estrogen mimics, 148 feral, defined, 900 estuarine-dependent ichthyoplankton, 793 feral animals estuarine resources barrier islands, 288 Chesapeake Bay watershed wetlands, 202 cattle, Hawaii, 754 Columbia River estuary, 821Ð23 goats, Hawaii, 753Ð54 fishery resources and, 796 livestock, 341 habitat degradation, 848 pigs, Hawaii, 752Ð53, 759, 760, 763, 766, 789Ð70 importance of, 844 ferns, 729, 750, 753 national status and trends, 844 American hart’s-tongue, 185t, 232t Puget Sound, 823Ð24 epiphytic, 318 San Francisco Bay, 821 marsilea, 604 Southern California Bight, 824 royal, 404 toxic contaminants and, 850Ð51 shield, 331t estuary, defined, 900 southern marsh, 404 Eugenia woodburyana, 331t tree-ferns, 331t Euglandina, 762Ð63 ferrets, black-footed, 265, 460, 479, 577, 720 Euglandina rosea, 762Ð63, 767 ferric hydroxide, 134 euglenoids, 415t ferrous, defined, 900 eulachons, 711t, 712, 736, 811, 822 ferrous metals, 134Ð39 Eureka Dune, Death Valley National Park, 516f fertilizers, Rio Grande, 271 European settlers fescues, 549 arrival of, 44 six-weeks, 603 deforestation by, 41 fetch, defined, 900 Southeast, 258 fibropapillomas (tumors), in green turtles, 838Ð39 Southwest, 545 filefish euryhaline, defined, 900 fringed, 325 eustatic, defined, 900 scrawled, 325 eutrophication, 73, 81 finches coastal Louisiana, 413 Cassin’s, 678t defined, 49Ð50, 900 Darwin’s, 765 evapotranspiration, defined, 900 estrildid, 340 Everglades, 79Ð81, 289Ð92 house, 186, 203, 374t ecological effects of water use, 79Ð81 purple, 186, 246t ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 926 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

finfish, 420t DDE concentrations, 147 marsh, 420t Hawaii, 766 potential and average yield, 846 PCBs, 154 fingernailclams, 363, 372, 378 Southeast, 296Ð98 declines, 364Ð65 threatened, 69 long, 50 grasslands, 448Ð49 fin rot, 141 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 515, 519Ð20 FIRE-BGC model, 105Ð7 Great Lakes, 223, 239Ð40 fire and fire processes Great Lakes region, 236Ð43 Alaska, 716, 717, 739 harvest and depletion, 47, 171Ð72, 368Ð69 California, 608 insecticides and, 150 chaparral adaptation, 607 marine crown, 27, 480Ð81, 553, 898 Alaska region, 809Ð12 ecosystem recovery stages, 45Ð47 coastal wetlands and, 796 giant sequoias and, 602 Southeast, 794Ð802 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 528, 530 migratory, management of, 849 Hawaii, 755 Mississippi River, 366Ð69, 376, 378 as natural disturbance, 22, 27 distribution, 366Ð67 old-growth forest effects, 481 habitats, 367Ð68 Pacific Northwest, 690 national status and trends, 845Ð46 pine rocklands, 293 nonindigenous, 69, 118t, 120, 121t, 123t, 848Ð49 plant cover and, 44 California, 622 pocosins, 285Ð86 Caribbean Islands, 332 prairie, 444Ð45 Everglades, 90Ð91 prescribed, 608Ð9 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 528, 531 red, 600 Rocky Mountains, 487, 489, 491, 492 Sierra Nevada, 609 Southwest, 567 Southeast, 282, 283 Northeast region, 781 Southwest, 547, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555 oil spills and, 140 subalpine forests, 480Ð81 organochlorine chemical concentrations in, 147t succession and, 17, 26 Pacific coast region, 817Ð20 fire suppression continental shelf and slope groundfish, 818 California, 608 continental shelf pelagic fishes, 817Ð18 cypress and, 600 nearshore fishes, 817 diversity and ecosystem effects, 45Ð47 oceanic pelagic fishes, 818Ð20 forest composition and, 55 Pacific Northwest, 660Ð66 junipers and, 476, 512 planktonic phase migration, 416 Pacific Northwest, 43, 648 potential and average yields, 845Ð46 Rocky Mountains, 481, 483, 484, 485, 487 productivity of, 848Ð49 Southeast, 273, 282Ð83 reef, 325Ð27 Southwest, 553 Rocky Mountains, 481, 489, 492 whitebark pine loss and, 483, 484, 485 salt-tolerant, 271 firetree, 754, 756 Southeast, 294, 295 firs, 48, 260, 477, 645 Southwest, 548, 565Ð70 balsam, 182, 191 stocking, 124, 171Ð72 California red, 600 Alaska, 718 California white, 514, 602 threatened, 124, 197 Douglas, 46f, 474, 476, 497, 513, 550, 600, 601, 645, 652, 653, transboundary stocks, management of, 849Ð50 687, 689, 691 water quality and, 51 Fraser, 275, 276 western Pacific oceanic region, 832Ð38 grand, 476, 599 bottom fish, 835Ð36 noble, 600 coastal pelagic fishes, 834Ð35 Pacific silver, 24, 600, 688, 710 coral reefs, 837Ð38 red, 600, 602 invertebrates, 832Ð33 spruce-fir forests, 190, 191, 275Ð76, 474, 477, 481, 549, 550 reef animals, 836Ð37 as spruce grouse habitat, 190 sharks, 833Ð34 subalpine, 477, 549, 600 fishless lakes, 137 white, 525, 526f, 550, 600, 602, 606, 609 fish tests fishers, 222, 248, 633, 682, 683, 715 full life cycle, 145 Pacific, 525, 525t partial life cycle, 145 Fisheries-Oceanography Coordinated Investigations, 810 Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 775 fishes, See also commercial fisheries; freshwater fishes; marine Flacourt family, 331t resources; sport fishing; specific species and types of fish flammable nonindigenous plants, Southwest, 556 amphidromous, 895 flatfishes, 809Ð10 anadromous, 896 shallow-water, 810 aquarium, 118, 125, 800, 849 Flathead (tribe), 478 bottom-dwelling, 141 flatsedge, 403 California, 597, 619Ð21, 622, 638 variable, 402t anadromous, 620 flatworms, 831 Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, 620 fleabane, Muir’s, 732 Sierra Nevada, 621 fleas, water, 779 southern California, 621 flickers California abalone, 615 gilded, 626t cancer in, 138f northern, 24, 246t, 523, 675, 677, 678t, 679, 681 Caribbean Islands, 332 yellow-shafted, 374t coastal Louisiana, 417Ð20, 429 flies, 655 desert springs, 569Ð70 black, chemical control of, 146 diadromous, 448 Delhi Sands flower-loving, 619t endangered, 65, 124 picture-wing vinegar, 768 forage, 124, 810 Flint River, 67 freshwater floating marshes, coastal Louisiana, 404Ð5 Alaska, 711Ð14, 718Ð19, 722, 725Ð26, 729Ð30, 733, 736, flood control, See also levees 737Ð39 Southwest, 560Ð61 Caribbean Islands, 339Ð40 structures, 67 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 927 flooding forested wetlands ecosystem effects, 26Ð27 coastal Louisiana, 408Ð10 marshes and, 402 Southeast, 278Ð79 Southeast, 274 forest gap models, 104Ð5, 112Ð13 Upper Mississippi River, 359Ð60 Forest Health Monitoring Program, 184 floodplains forest products industry, 153 forest succession, 17 forestry, 478 historical changes, 65Ð66 contaminants, 142Ð52 landscape context, 54 forests, See also forest cover; logging; old-growth forests; pine land-use change and, 49 forests; spruce-fir forests; woodlands; specific trees Mississippi River, 351 ancient, Pacific Northwest, 43 Upper Mississippi River forests, 357Ð58 aspen-birch, Great Lakes, 231 flora, defined, 900 boreal, 90Ð91, 897 Florida bottomland hardwood, coastal Louisiana, 408Ð9 acid precipitation, 136 canyon, Rocky Mountains, 476 coral reef tract, 845 Caribbean Islands scrub, 293Ð94 limestone, 342Ð43 solution ponds, 296 reforestation, 319Ð20 Florida Current, 792 subtropical, 317Ð19 floristic, defined, 900 virgin, 316Ð17 flounders, 420t, 781 Chesapeake Bay, 204 arctic, 711t cloud, 898 arrowtooth, 809, 810, 811, 818 composition, fire control and, 55 southern, 419, 420t cottonwood, 78, 560 starry, 154, 711t, 822 deciduous type, 182 summer, 783t, 844 Douglas-fir, 476 winter, 146, 783t, 844 floodplain, 17, 357Ð58 witch, 783t gallery, 901 yellowtail, 782, 783t, 847, 850 hardwood, 21Ð22, 48, 408Ð9 Flower Garden Banks, 844 Hawaii, 761 flow regulation, impacts, 69 insect effects, 184 fluvial, defined, 900 limestone, 342Ð43 fluvial processes, coastal Louisiana, 395, 396 mycorrhizal fungi and, 652Ð53 flux, 32 Northeast, 181, 182Ð86 flycatchers, 244 disease effects, 183Ð84 alder, 246t forest composition, 183Ð86 ash-throated, 524 forest types, 182Ð83 buff-breasted, 576 old-growth, 181Ð85 dusky, 678t, 679 second-growth, 185 gray, 523, 679, 681 understory plant loss, 185Ð86 Hammond’s, 677 oak, 17, 41, 55, 231, 263, 272, 605Ð6 least, 246t Pacific Northwest, 646Ð48, 652Ð53, 690 olive-sided, 246t, 481, 631, 674t, 678t, 719 fragmentation, 668 Pacific-slope, 626 reforestation, 40Ð41 southwestern willow, 522, 626t Rocky Mountains, inventories, 498Ð99 vermilion, 575 Southeast, 260 willow, 25, 626t, 632, 678t, 679, 681 old-growth, 262, 263, 272Ð73 flytrap, Venus, 282, 286f, 384 Southwest, old-growth, 547 foam, meadow, 605f succession, 183 fog and fog drip understory, 45, 46f, 47, 185Ð86, 910 California, 600 virgin, 316Ð17 westside California, 594 For the Sake of the Salmon, 691 fogfruit, common, 405 Fortymile caribou herd, 723 fold, defined, 900 fossil fuel combustion, 152, 156 fonofos, 133t, 150 fossils Food, Agriculture, Conservation and Trade Act (1990), 127t plants, California, 596 food web, 173 pollen cores, 90Ð91 marine resources, 807 foul hooking, of sea turtles, 334 forage fish, 810 four-o-clock, MacFarlane’s, 654, 655f stocking, 124 Fourth of July Butterfly Count forbs, 511, 725 Great Lakes, 234 defined, 900 Pacific Northwest, 655 perennial, 512 fowl plague, 458 FOREST-BGC model, 106 foxes, 195, 248, 726, 730, 735, 739, 740 forest biogeochemistry model (FOREST-BGC), 106 arctic, 727, 731, 734 forest birds Channel Islands gray, 611, 633t forest cover and, 48Ð49 gray, 461 land-use change and, 53 kit, 682t Northeast, 186Ð88 red, 457, 460, 461, 633, 634, 683, 723, 727, 730Ð31, 734, 821 Southwest, 575Ð76 San Joaquin kit, 633t forest cover, See also forests Sierra Nevada red, 525t, 633t, 634 changes, 37, 47Ð51, 53, 183 swift, 460, 461, 479 deforestation, 40Ð43 foxtail, 604 Dutchess County, New York, 40 fragmentation. See habitat fragmentation forest animals and, 48Ð49 Franciscan missionaries, 596Ð97 Georgia, 40Ð41 Frémont, John C., 463, 505 historical, 38, 40 fresh water in Midwest, 41Ð42 consumptive use, 63 Petersham Township, Massachusetts, 40, 41f development of, 66Ð67 reforestation, 40Ð41 importance of, 63 resilience of, 47 trends in use of, 63 riparian, land-use change and, 49Ð51 freshwater ecosystems Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team, 664 Hawaii, 761Ð62 forest ecosystem models, 104 nonindigenous species and, 124 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 928 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

freshwater fishes, See also fishes Northwest, 653 Alaska, 711Ð14, 718Ð19, 722, 725Ð26, 729Ð30, 733, 736, 737Ð39 fungi, 233 Caribbean Islands, 339Ð40 Agaricia, 794 DDE concentrations, 147 coral, 652f Hawaii, 766 decomposition by, 19 nonindigenous, Caribbean Islands, 339Ð40 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 516 PCBs, 154 mycorrhizal, 18, 24, 652Ð53, 904 Southeast, 296Ð98 Northeast, 211 Southwest, 565Ð70 Pacific Northwest, 652Ð53, 691 threatened, 69 pathogenic, 653 freshwater mussels, Southeast, 298Ð99 Piloderma fallax, 652 frigatebirds, 628t, 802 furbearers, See also trapping magnificent, 421, 803Ð4 harvest, 375 fringing reef, defined, 900 traders, 48 fritillaries trapping, 47, 48 Apache nokomis, 518, 519 gadwall, 424, 425t, 456Ð57 regal, 445, 446f Galapagos Islands, 750, 751, 765 silver-bordered, 447 Gallatin National Forest, 485 frogs, 520, 570, 572Ð74, 597, 621, 666, See also coquis, treefrogs gallery forest, defined, 900 acidified habitats, 137 galleta, 476, 556 African clawed, 118, 623t gallinule, purple, 330, 421 Arizona leopard, 573Ð74 game fish stocking, 124 Blanchard’s cricket, 451 gamete, defined, 900 boreal chorus, 520t Gang-of-Four Report, 690 bronze, 425 gannets, northern, 786, 802, 803 California red-legged, 520t, 621Ð22, 623t, 624f GAP analysis, defined, 900 Caribbean white-lipped, 332 gars, 368, 419 Cascades, 155, 623t, 667t alligator, 417Ð18, 418t, 420t Cascades chorus, 623t gastropods, 780 Cascades spotted, 709 defined, 900 Chiricahua, 572 Gavins Point Dam, 75 Chiricahua leopard, 573t, 574 geckos, 624 chorus, 243 Monito dwarf, 331t coast chorus, 623t Switak’s banded, 625t Columbia spotted, 490, 668 geese, 369, 422Ð24, 597, 802 common mud, 332 Aleutian Canada, 626t, 628, 676, 730, 740, 813 cricket, 425 cackling Canada, 628, 676 ecosystem disruption and, 26 Canada, 195, 206, 209, 246, 371, 373, 374t, 425, 454, 456Ð57, foothill yellow-legged, 622, 623t, 667t, 668 675, 676Ð77, 726, 733, 823, 824 gopher, 301 dusky Canada, 676, 714, 737 grasslands, 450 emperor, 726, 730, 813 Great Lakes, 243 Great Basin Canada, 628 green, 243 greater white-fronted, 424t, 425t, 441, 726, 733 leopard, 451, 520, 573Ð74, 575, 668 lesser Canada, 676 leptodactylid, 332 lesser snow, 424t, 425, 425t lowland leopard, 572 Ross’s, 628 mountain yellow-legged, 520t, 623t snow, 330, 425, 733Ð34 northern cricket, 243 Tule white-fronted, 628, 714 northern leopard, 243, 450, 451, 489, 520, 520t, 572, 573t, 574, Vancouver Canada, 676, 714 623t, 667t, 668, 668t, 691 western Canada, 676 northern red-legged, 623t, 667t, 668 white-fronted, 425, 628 Oregon spotted, 623t, 666, 668, 669 gemsbok, 558, 580 Pacific chorus, 490f, 520, 520t, 623t, 667t, 668t general circulation models, 94, 96, 98, 99 pickerel, 243 genetic diversity, 12Ð13, See also biological diversity; diversity pig, 425 harvest and, 171Ð72 Plains leopard, 449t, 573Ð74 loss of, grasslands, 463 Ramsey Canyon leopard, 573t, 574 of marine mammals, 841 ranid genotoxins, 138 decline of, 668Ð69 geoducks, Pacific, 823 relict leopard, 520, 520t, 572, 573t, 574 Geographic Information System (GIS), defined, 900 Rio Grande leopard, 573, 623t geomorphology, defined, 900 Sierra chorus, 623t Georges Bank Southeast, 282, 300Ð301 benthic resources, 781 southwestern chorus, 623t environmental and physical features, 775, 776Ð77 spotted, 520, 520t, 521f, 667t, 668, 668t, 691 fisheries resources, 782 spotted chorus, 449t North Atlantic right whale, 791 striped chorus, 450, 451, 667t, 668t overfishing, 847 tailed, 25, 490f, 491, 601, 623t, 666, 667t, 668t planktonic secondary production, 779Ð80 Tarahumara, 571, 573 primary production, 778Ð79 Vegas Valley leopard, 572 shared management of, 849Ð50 wood, 243, 350, 709 Georgia, forest cover, 40Ð41 Yavapai leopard, 573t, 574, 622, 623t geothermal resources, 488 frog’s-bit, American, 409, 415t geotropic, defined, 900 frost sorting, 721 gerardia, sandplain, 185t fruit-doves, purple-capped, 764 Gila monsters, 521 full life cycle fish tests, 145 Gila River, 568 fulmar, northern, 786, 813 ginger, kahili, 754f, 759 functional diversity, 168, 169, See also biological diversity; glacial cycle, 91Ð92 diversity Glacier Bay National Park, 712Ð14 fundamental niches, See also niches Glacier National Park, 104Ð7, 484f, 494 defined, 108 glaciers fungal diseases predicting with RHESSys model, 107 chestnut blight, 121, 183, 263, 272 Rocky Mountains, 473 laminated root rot, 653 glades Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 929

defined, 900 brome, 604 over limestone, 279Ð80 buffalo, 440, 445, 476 Southeast, 279Ð80 buffel, 449, 755 global change forcings, 89, 95, 97 bunchgrass, 897 Global Ocean Ecosystems Dynamics program, 854 Chesapeake Bay, 204 global warming, 142, 764, See also climate change; greenhouse fountain, 755 effect; sea-level rise invasive, 754, 755 Alaska, 739, 740 kikuyu, 761f CFCs and VOCs and, 155 manatee, 324 grasslands and, 465 nonindigenous, Caribbean Islands, 339 greenhouse gases and, 108 perennial, 603 human activities and, 89 productivity of, 437 marine resources and, 855 shoal, 269 rate of, 90, 108 Tobosa, 557 Gloeocapsa species, 415t turtle, 324 glyphosate, 133t, 151 grasshoppers, 447, 489, 518, 655 gnatcatchers Idaho pointheaded, 655 blue-gray, 246t, 374t grasslands, 437Ð66 coastal California, 626 amphibians, 449Ð51 gnats, 146 aquifers, 442 goatfishes, 326 birds, 441, 446Ð47, 451Ð60 goatgrasses, 603 Great lakes region, 244Ð45 goats relative abundance, 43t feral, 341, 753Ð54 Southeast, 303 mountain, 477, 496f butterflies, 446Ð47 goatsuckers, 422 California, 603, 604 gobies, 418, 420t, 762, 766 conservation, 447, 465 round, 240 conversion of woodlands to, 555 soft-coral, 833 decline, 42 tidewater, 620t, 621, 664t fire disturbances, 22 tubenose, 240 fishes, 448Ð49 godwits herpetofauna, 572 Hudsonian, 441 historical, 438 marbled, 441, 451t, 453, 454t, 455t intracommunity management, 463Ð65 northern, 454 invertebrates, 445Ð48 gold, Rocky Mountains, 478 loss of, 42 goldeneyes, 371, 813 mammals, 460Ð63 golden-plovers mixed-grass prairies, 438, 439Ð40, 444, 445 American, 722 Pacific Northwest, 649Ð50, 655, 680 lesser, 444 plant assemblages, 445 goldenrods, 17f prairie integrity, 463Ð64 Houghton’s, 229, 232t prairie processes, 444Ð45, 463Ð64 spring-flowering, 384 precipitation, 437, 442 tall, 15 productivity of, 437, 443, 444Ð45 goldfields, California, 604f reptiles, 449, 451 goldfinches research needs, 465Ð66 American, 43f, 374t, 631, 678t, 679 Rocky Mountains, 479Ð80 lesser, 674t short-grass prairies, 438, 439t, 440, 445, 448, 476 Gomphospheria species, 415t soils, 443Ð44 goose. See geese Southeast, 279Ð80 gooseberry, 476, 512 Southwest, 557Ð59 gophers tall-grass prairies, 438Ð39, 444, 445 colonial pocket, 304 waterways, 442Ð43 Cumberland Island pocket, 304 wetlands, 440Ð42 Fish Spring pocket, 525t grasspink, tuberous, 404 mountain pocket, 633t grassy balds, Southeast, 277Ð78 Mt. Ellen pocket, 580 gravel mining, 76 plains pocket, 460 gravid, defined, 900 pocket, 579 grayling, arctic, 222, 711t, 718, 722, 725, 726, 733, 738 San Antonio pocket, 525t grazing Sherman’s pocket, 304 Alaska, 739, 740 southeastern pocket, 304 antigrazing plant structures, 440 Gorgonian, defined, 900 aquatic ecosystems and, 75 goshawks, northern, 481, 671, 673, 719, 737 barrier islands, 288 grackles, 420t California, 603, 610 common, 246t, 374t deforestation and, 41 Gradidierella species, 416 grasslands and, 43Ð44, 437, 444, 449, 480 gradients Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 509, 520, 522, 530Ð31, 532 defined, 14, 900 habitat stripping, 341 heterogeneity and, 14Ð15, 16 Hawaii, 752, 758, 761 grain crops, 437 junipers and, 476, 512 gramas, 476 monitoring effects of, 498 black, 557 Pacific Northwest, 649, 681, 688 blue, 440, 448 plant cover and, 43Ð44 graminoid, defined, 900 Rocky Mountains, 480, 489 Grand Canyon, river studies, 69 Southeast, 282 Grand Canyon National Park, 76 Southeast barrier islands, 288 Grand Coulee Dam, 822 Southwest, 546Ð47, 553, 554, 555, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 572 Grand Ronde River basin, 658 water supply and, 43 Grand Sable Dunes, 227Ð29 greasewood, 510Ð11, 532, 546, 556 Grand Teton National Park, 485 Great Basin Desert, 506 grape vines, 412 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 505Ð35 grass bugs, black, 655 absolute desert communities, 510 grasses, 318, 331t, 477, 512, 549, 710 alpine zone, 514 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 930 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

amphibians, 520 great-tellin, Alaska, 808 aquatic invertebrates, 518 grebes, 140, 141, 524, 628t, 802 biodiversity hot spots, 514 eared, 142, 454t, 455t, 523 birds, 508, 522Ð25 pied-billed, 189t, 374t, 421, 454t, 455t bogs, 527Ð28 red-necked, 454t Carson River developments, 532Ð33 western, 454t caves, 526 greenhouse effect, See also climate change; global warming; sea- climate, 506Ð7 level rise edaphic communities, 516 Alaska, 739, 740 endemic species, 515, 519 CFCs and VOCs and, 155 fishes, 519Ð20 climate models and, 97 floristic region, 506 defined, 89, 900 fungi, 516 greenhouse gases, 142 habitats, 526Ð28 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 133t, 153, 154Ð55, 897 human disturbances, 529Ð31 climate change and, 93, 97, 108 human-induced changes, 529Ð31 climate models and, 95 hydrographic Great Basin, 505 global change forcings, 89, 95, 97 invertebrates, 517Ð19 Greenland, ice cores, 90, 111 Las Vegas Valley development, 532 Green River, 143 mammals, 525 greensword, Maui, 760f mines, 526Ð27 green turtle fibropapilloma, 802 Mojavean zone communities, 510 gregarious, defined, 900 montane islands, 507, 514Ð15 groins, defined, 900 montane zone, 513Ð14 grosbeaks Neotropical migrant birds, 523Ð24 black-headed, 523, 679, 681 nonindigenous species, 528, 531 evening, 246t physiographic region, 505Ð6 pine, 246t pinyon-juniper zone, 512Ð13 rose-breasted, 246t, 374t plants, 516Ð17 ground-dove, ruddy, 632 reptiles, 521Ð22 groundfishes, 781 research needed, 525Ð26 bycatch problems, 847 riparian communities, 508Ð9 continental shelf and slope, 818 sagebrush-grass zone, 511Ð12 defined, 900 sand dunes, 515Ð16 Gulf of Alaska, 810 shadscale zone communities, 510Ð11 overfishing, 847 springs degradation, 531Ð32 groundsel, cleftleaf, 711 terminal-wetland communities, 509Ð10 ground squirrels terrestrial invertebrates, 518 arctic, 723, 727, 728, 731, 734 transition zones, 507Ð8 California, 633t Truckee River developments, 532Ð33 golden-mantled, 515t vulnerable birds, 522Ð23 Idaho, 689 vulnerable invertebrates, 518Ð19 Mohave, 525, 633t Walker River Basin/Walker Lake, 533Ð34 thirteen-lined, 460 waterbirds, 524Ð25 Townsend’s, 688f, 689 western juniper zone, 512Ð13 Washington, 689 wet-meadow communities, 509 groundwater Great Kobuk Sand Dunes, 717 development, Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 519, 531, 532 Great Lakes exploitation of, 510 characteristics, 219 grasslands, 442 climate effects, 219, 220 herbicide contamination of, 151 nonindigenous species, zebra mussels, 848 use of, 63 out-of-basin diversions, 224 groupers, 325, 326, 835Ð36 PAHs, 138 Nassau, 326, 800 PCBs, 153Ð54 grouse pollution of, 73Ð74, 138, 148, 153Ð54, 223Ð24 Columbian sharp-tailed, 522 toxaphene, 148 sage, 522, 680 water withdrawals, 224 sharp-tailed, 246t, 451t, 680, 719 Great Lakes Fishery Commission, 238 spruce, 189t, 190, 719 Great Lakes Fish and Wildlife Restoration Act (1990), 127t growth rates, for forest gap models, 104 Great Lakes region grunts, 326 amphibians, 243 French, 325 birds, 243Ð48 Guam, 825, 838 fishes, 236Ð43 nonindigenous species, 121 fungi, 233 physical characteristics, 826t history, 231Ð32 Guánica Forest, 317 human settlement, 221 guano invertebrates, 234Ð36 Hawaii, 758 mammals, 248Ð49 mining, 526, 527 plants, 233Ð34 guapote, jaguar, 125f regional ecosystems guava, strawberry, 753, 754, 756, 759 coastal shore, 226Ð29 guayacán blanco, 317 lake plains, 229Ð31 guild, defined, 900 open lake and connecting channels, 222Ð23 guillemots rivers and streams, 225Ð26 black, 208 wetlands, 223Ð24 pigeon, 813, 824 regional setting, 219Ð22 Gulf of Alaska, 806Ð7, 853f reptiles, 243 Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, 269Ð70 research needs, 249Ð50 Gulf of Maine status and trends, 232Ð33 environmental and physical features, 775Ð76 Great Plains, See also grasslands marine birds, 786 fishes, 448Ð49 North Atlantic right whale, 791 mussels, 448 planktonic secondary production, 779Ð80 Great Plains Program, Western Governor’s Association, 465 primary production, 778Ð79 Great South Channel, marine mammals, 790, 792 Gulf of Mexico, 853f Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 931

bottlenose dolphins, 804Ð5 halogeton, 511, 528 coral reefs, 844 halophytic, defined, 900 estuarine resources, 844 hamlet, butter, 325 overfishing, 847 hardhead, 620t physical features, 792 hard mast, defined, 900 salt marsh, 796f hard substrates, bottom-dwelling invertebrates and, 364 shrimp, 794 hardwood forests Gulf Stream, 111, 792 bottomland, coastal Louisiana, 408Ð9 gulls, 141, 421, 628t, 712, 719, 722, 726Ð27, 786, 802, 804, 812, Louisiana, Hurricane Andrew impacts, 21Ð22 820, 823, 850 northern, 48 Bonaparte’s, 804 hardwood hammock, defined, 900Ð901 California, 454t, 455t hares, 248, 579 Franklin’s, 451t, 452f, 454t, 455t, 524Ð25, 803 Sierra Nevada snowshoe, 525 glaucous, 786 snowshoe, 715, 720, 723, 727, 734, 735 glaucous-winged, 714, 730, 824 harrier, northern, 189t, 451t, 454, 455t, 523, 678t, 679 great black-backed, 208, 288, 289t, 786 Harrison, William Henry, 478 herring, 146, 149, 154, 208, 288, 289t, 722, 786, 803, 804 Hart Mountain National Wildlife Refuge, 522, 525, 681 Iceland, 786 harvest, 167Ð75 laughing, 208, 288, 289t, 455t, 786, 803, 804 of American woodcocks, 193 mew, 722 compensation and compensatory mortality, 170 ring-billed, 154, 454t, 455t, 786, 803 genetic diversity and, 171Ð72 gum, sweet, 183, 409 habitat fragmentation and, 174 gumbo limbo, 317 individual diversity and, 172 guppies, 328 keystone species and, 174 Gwichin people, 736 long-term effects, 174 Gymnodinium species, 415t mortality, as compensatory, 170 gymnosperm, defined, 900 population effects, 169Ð70 gypsum, 516, 517 sex-selective, 172 gyre, defined, 900 species effects, 170, 173, 174 gyrfalcons, 722, 734 sustainable use, 169Ð70 Gyrosigma, 406 Harvest Information Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 194, 195 habitat fragmentation, 37 Hawaii, 747, 825, See also Pacific Islands climate change and, 112Ð13 amphibians, 766 defined, 900 arthropods, 767Ð68 Great Basin birds and, 522Ð23 biodiversity, 829 harvest and, 174 biological invasions, 752 indirect effects, 53 birds, 765Ð66 land-use planning and, 55 bottom fish, 835Ð36 Lepidoptera population and, 234 corals, 833 Northeast, 209Ð10 ecosystems pervasive effects of, 51Ð52 coastal ecosystems, 762 pine rocklands, 293 degradation, 751, 769Ð70 Southeast, 258, 259, 260 dry and mesic forests, 761 Southwest, 548, 582 freshwater ecosystems, 761Ð62 habitat loss montane bogs, 760 amphibians, 243, 301 montane cloud forests, 764 bats, Southeast, 304 northwestern (leeward) islands, 762 California coast, 612 rain forests, 759Ð60 carnivorous plants, 285 subalpine-alpine ecosystems, 758 giant garter snake, 624Ð26 subterranean ecosystems, 761 marine resources, 794, 848, 855 endemic species, 749Ð50, 842 prairies, 479 extinctions, 751, 769 reptiles, 301 feral animals, 752Ð54, 759, 763, 769Ð70 Southeast, 301, 304, 794 feral pigs, 763, 769Ð70 species loss and, 51 forests, 757Ð58, 761 tall-grass prairie, 446 freshwater fishes, 766 water diversion and, 68 global climate change, 764 habitats human activities, 751Ð57, 764 defined, 900 invasive plants, 754Ð55 diversity, delta lobe age and, 399 land snails, 767 fire suppression and, 47 mammals, 766 land-use patterns and, 37 mangrove communities, 763Ð64 preservation, desert spring fishes, 570 mosquitoes, 754 habitat sharing, 413 native ecosystem development, 757Ð58 defined, 900 nonindigenous species, 117, 121Ð22, 751, 752Ð57, 762Ð63 hackberry, 359, 360 overview, 748Ð50 haddock, 781, 782, 783t, 850 physical characteristics, 826t overfishing, 847 plants, 750, 752, 768 Hague Line, 850 precipitation, 749 hairgrass, 710 reef protection, 837 annual, 604 reptiles, 766 tufted, 477 research needs, 768Ð69 hairstreak rodents, 754 Avalon, 610 seabirds, 758, 839Ð41 Hessel’s, 286 sea-level rise, 764 hake sea turtles, 838Ð39 Pacific whiting, 818 shrimp fisheries, 832 red, 783t soils, 757Ð58 silver, 781, 783t subsistence wildlife harvest, 764 white, 781 Hawaiian islands, leeward, 762 halibut Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 761 Greenland (turbot) hawkfish, longnose, 833 Pacific, 712Ð14, 808, 810, 811 hawks ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 932 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

ferruginous, 451t, 452, 453, 453f, 479, 681 holly, Cook’s, 331t Puerto Rican broad-winged, 331t Holocene, 90 Puerto Rican sharp-shinned, 331t defined, 901 red-shouldered, 373, 631 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 507, 515Ð16 red-tailed, 246t, 374t, 523, 524, 631, 679, 681 Rocky Mountains, 473, 474 rough-legged, 734 sediments, delta lobe subsidence rates and, 393 sharp-shinned, 189t, 719 homogenization, 28Ð31 Swainson’s, 451t, 524, 605, 626t, 679, 681 extreme, 32 hawksbeards, 680 human sources of, 30 hawksbill, 289, 331t, 333, 334Ð36, 427t, 801, 817, 838 sources of, 29Ð30 haws, 183, 411 honeycreepers, Hawaiian, 750, 765 hawthorns, 360, 445 Hoover Dam, 76 Headwaters (Mississippi River), 351, 352 horses, 740 heath balds, Southeast, 277Ð78 feral, 558 heaths, 26f, 331t, 710 Lambe’s, 720 heavy metals, defined, 901 wild, 263, 304, 580 hectare (ha), defined, 901 horsetails, 717 hedge-hyssop, 604 horticultural trade, Southwest plants, 563 hedgerows, 30 hosts, intermediate, 901 heliotropes, 412 hot spots, giant sequoias and, 602 helmets hot springs, 517 cameo, 332t Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 531Ð32 Caribbean, 332t howellia, water, 654t flame, 332t Howland Island, 825, 826t, 839 hemlocks, 260, 495 Hudson-Raritan Bay, primary production, 778 eastern, 48, 49, 183, 185, 191 human activities effects mountain, 24, 476, 600, 602, 710 Alaska, 738, 739, 740 western, 476, 601, 645, 687, 710 beach and dune habitats, 616 Henry Mountains (Utah), 580 Caribbean Islands, 320Ð21, 342 heptachlor, 133t, 144, 146 climate change and, 89 Heraclitus, 32 coastal Louisiana, 396Ð98 herbaceous plants coral reefs, 324 Great Lakes region, 233 grasslands, 463 Pacific Northwest, 680 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 519, 529Ð31 Southwest, 549 homogeneity and, 30Ð31 herbicides, 151Ð52 landscape fragmentation, 209 grasslands, 442 marine resources and, 854Ð55 Great Lakes, 223 maritime forests, 288 Rio Grande, 271 North Atlantic right whale, 791Ð92 herbivorous insects, as natural disturbances, 27 Northeastern spruce-pine forests, 191 herbivory, 29 Polynesia, 764 hermaphroditic, defined, 901 reef fishes and, 325Ð27 herons, 327, 369, 421, 628t, 786 Rocky Mountains, 478Ð79 great blue, 246t, 289t, 370, 374t, 454t, 455t, 712 sea turtles, 801Ð2 green, 289t, 455t Southeast barrier islands, 287, 288 little blue, 289t, 374t, 455t Southwest, 544, 545Ð48, 582Ð83 Southeast, 303 Upper Mississippi River, 354 tricolored, 289t, 455t western snowy plover, 629 herptiles, See also amphibians; reptiles human population growth climate change and, 101Ð2 estuarine resources and, 844 defined, 101, 901 Lower Rio Grande, 271 dispersion (colonization), 101Ð2 in Northeast, 181Ð82 herrings, 779, 810 projections, 93 Atlantic, 781, 783, 783t, 784t, 844 Rocky Mountains, 479 blueback, 137, 240 Southeast, 258Ð60 lake, 238, 241 humans, as keystone predators, 174 Pacific, 140, 811, 812, 817t, 818, 822, 823 human settlement river, 783, 783t, 801 Alaska, 707Ð8, 736 heterogeneity. See environmental heterogeneity California, 596Ð98 heterogeneous, defined, 901 Great Lakes region, 221Ð22 heterotrophic Hawaii, 752Ð57 defined, 901 prehistoric, in Polynesia, 750Ð51 systems, 415 Southwest, 559, 576Ð77 heterozygous, defined, 901 hummingbirds, 422, 553 hexachlorophene, 133t broad-tailed, 523, 524 hexacorals, 809 calliope, 626, 678t, 679 hickory, 183, 260 ruby-throated, 374t Southeast, 273 rufous, 674 Higgins eye, 232t, 366 humphead, giant, 836 high islands, western Pacific oceanic region, 825Ð26, 830 hunting high pine, 293 American black duck, 198Ð99 High Plains aquifer, 442 subsistence, Hawaii, 764 highways. See roads and highways Texas, 266 higo chumbo, 331t Hurricane Andrew, 20Ð22 higuero de sierra, 331t Hurricane Hugo, 26, 320f, 325 higuillo, 318 hurricanes hind, red, 800 Caribbean Islands, 320, 325, 342 hitch, 620t climate models and, 95 Hobsonia species, 416 coastal Louisiana effects, 20Ð22, 394Ð95, 412Ð13 florida, 417 coral reef effects, 321, 323, 324, 325 hogs, feral, 122 diversity and, 80 hog wallows, 604 return times, 20 Hohokam Indians, 64 Hutcheson Memorial Forest Center, 16f, 17f Holdridge life-zone classification, 100 hutia, Puerto Rico, 340 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 933 hyacinth, water, 118, 125, 274, 295, 409, 415t, 426, 622 Great Lakes region, 234, 235 hybridization, defined, 901 Hawaii, 752, 761, 762, 767Ð68 hydraulic mining, 132 nonindigenous, 118t, 123t hydric, defined, 901, 903 Northeast, 184, 210Ð11 hydrilla, 274, 415 Southwest, 565 narrowmouth, 417 temperature restrictions, 110 Hydrobiidae, 564 insolation, defined, 901 hydrocarbons, 139, 141 Institute of Ecosystem Studies, 16f, 18f aromatic, 139, 896 insular shelves, Pacific Islands, 826Ð27 defined, 901 integrity polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 133t, 138Ð30, 142 biological, 175 hydrogen, atmospheric, lakes and streams and, 73 defined, 463 hydrogen cyanide, 144 prairie, 463Ð64 hydrological cycle, defined, 901 Interagency Ecosystem Management Task Force, 6 hydrology interbasin transfer, 72 defined, 901 interglacials, 90, 91Ð92 Southeast, 273Ð74 defined, 901 hydromorphic, defined, 901 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 98 hydroperiod, defined, 901 interior boreal forest, Alaska, 716Ð20 hydropower birds, 719 Great Lakes region rivers, 226 freshwater fishes, 718Ð19 water diversion for, 67Ð68 mammals, 719Ð20 hydrothermal vents, 817, 845, 852 research needs, 737Ð38 hypoxic, defined, 901 vegetation, 716Ð18 Interior Low Plateaus, Southeast, 256 ibex, 580 interior mountains, Alaska, 720Ð23 ibis, 421, 628t birds, 722 glossy, 288, 289t freshwater fishes, 722 white, 80, 288, 289t, 291, 303, 455t mammals, 723 white-faced, 455t research needs, 737Ð38 Icacine family, 331t vegetation, 720Ð22 ice, climate change and, 93 intermediate host, defined, 901 Ice Age, 90 International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, Alaska, 707Ð8 798, 799 cycle, 91Ð92 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships Great Lakes effects, 220Ð21 (MARPOL), 851 role of humans in animal extinctions, 221Ð22 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Advisory sea-level change, 297 Committee on Fishery Management, 854 ice cores, climate change analysis, 90, 111 International GLOBEC program, 854 ice-edge dynamics, 807 International Institute for Sustainable Development, Sustainable iceplants, 613, 616 Development for the Great Plains Policy Analysis, 465 ichthyoplankton, 793 International Institute of Tropical Forestry, 318 Idaho Panhandle National Forest, 485 International Joint Commission, 223, 224 igneous rock, defined, 901 International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural iguanas Resources, 838 Cuban ground, 339 intertidal desert, 521 communities, California, 612Ð16 green, 340 defined, 901 rock, 343 introduced species. See nonindigenous species iiwi, 765, 765f invasive species. See nonindigenous species Ikalukrok creek, 739 Inventory of Rare and Endangered Vascular Plants of California, Ilex sintenisii, 331t 598 Illinois invertebrates deforestation, 41, 42f aquatic, 515, 657Ð58 prairie loss, 42 bottom-dwelling, 363Ð66 Illinois River, pollution of, 74 California, 616Ð19, 638 immortelle, mountain, 339 Caribbean Islands, 330Ð32, 339, 794Ð95, 797 Importation of Certain Mollusks (1951), 127t cave, 526 impounded river systems, 69Ð72 defined, 901 impoundment, defined, 901 fisheries, 794Ð95, 797 inbreeding, 171 grasslands, 445, 447Ð48 incense-cedar, 601, 602, 609 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 517Ð19, 526 inconnu, 711t, See also sheefish Great Lakes region, 234Ð36 Index of Biological Integrity, 175 insecticides and, 151 Indian paintbrush, San Clemente Island, 610 nonindigenous species, Caribbean Islands, 339 indicator species, defined, 901 Pacific Northwest, 657Ð58 indigenous, defined, 901 potential and average yield, 846 indio, 317 Puget Sound, 823 individual diversity, harvest and, 172 Rocky Mountains, 489 industrial development, See also urban development sand dunes, 516 contaminants, 152Ð53, 271Ð72 Southeast, 794Ð95, 797 warming caused by, 98 Southwest, 564Ð65 infauna, defined, 901 tropical, 852 inland wetlands, Great Lakes region, 224Ð25 western Pacific oceanic region, 832Ð33 insecticides, 148, See also pesticides invertebrate tests, aquatic toxicology, 145 Rio Grande, 271 invertivores, defined, 901 soft, 150 ions, defined, 901 insectivores, 248, 579 iris birds, 138 dwarf crested, 19f insects, 416, 750 dwarf lake, 229, 232t aquatic, 657Ð58 iron, mining, 134 California, 610, 617, 619 iron hydroxide precipitate, 135f Caribbean Islands, 330Ð31 Iron Mountain Mine, Redding, California, 134t defoliating, 184, 655 iron sulfide, 134 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 934 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

ironwood, Catalina, 87, 610, 611f Gulf, 419 irrigation, 68, 72 longnose, 419 California, 597, 604 marsh, 419 historical, 64 rainwater, 420t land-use change, 38 kingbirds Rio Grande, 270 eastern, 138, 246t, 374t toxic minerals from, 142Ð43 western, 678t Walker River basin, 534 kingfishers, 628t water consumption for, 72 belted, 137Ð38, 246t, 374t, 422, 454t, 455t, 631, 679, 681 water pollution and, 72Ð73, 75Ð76 kingfishes, 800 islands, See also Caribbean Islands; Channel Islands; Hawaii; northern, 420t Pacific Islands; other specific islands kinglets barrier, 21, 286Ð89, 391, 400, 411, 421Ð22 golden-crowned, 674, 674t, 677 high, 825Ð26, 830 ruby-crowned, 246t, 679 low, 825, 826f, 830 Kingman Reef, 825 nonindigenous species and, 121 physical characteristics, 826t spoil, 328 Kings Canyon National Park, 485 Isle Dernieres kingsnakes barrier beach system, 412Ð13 California mountain, 625t, 670 hurricane damage, 21 common, 670 isobath, defined, 901 prairie, 449t isopods speckled, 425 defined, 901 kinnikinnick, 717 isotherm, defined, 901 Kissimmee River, Florida, 69 kites jackrabbits, white-sided, 579 Everglades snail, 291 jacks, 835Ð36 Mississippi, 374t, 451t, 452, 453f crevalle, 420t snail, 125 jaegers, 628t, 726Ð27, 802, 803, 804, 820 kittiwakes, 730 long-tailed, 722 black-legged, 786, 813 pomarine, 786 red-legged, 813 jaguars, 265, 303, 577, 632, 633 Klamath Mountains, California, 47, 593, 600, 645, 655, 668 jaguarundi, 577 ecosystem status, 603 Jamaica, coral reefs, 324 topographic features, 595 Jarbidge Mountains, 514 knapweed, spotted, 234, 497 Jarvis Island, 825, 826t, 839 koa, 759, 761, 765 jays Kobuk River, 717 gray, 719 Kodiak Island, 737 Steller’s, 675 kokanee, 711t, See also salmon, sockeye Jemez Mountains, 549, 551, 577Ð78 krill, 807, 816 Jepson, Willis Linn, 616 defined, 903 Jim Woodruff Dam, 67 krummholz John Day River basin, 658 defined, 903 Johnston Island, 825, 840 islands, 477 biodiversity, 830 mat, 483 physical characteristics, 826t kudzu, 118, 120 joint-firs, 557 Kuparuk oil fields, 735Ð36 joint-vetch, sensitive, 185t jointweed, sensitive, 426 lacewings, 758 Joshua Tree National Monument, 521 flightless, 759f Joshua-trees, 510, 529 Lacey, Howard, 264 juncos Lacey Act, 775 dark-eyed, 24, 631, 674t, 678t, 679 lacustrine, defined, 903 slate-colored, 246t Lacy Act (1900), 127t Junegrass, 476 ladies’ tresses, 514 junipers, 512Ð13, 554Ð55 lady’s slipper, ram’s head, 229 alligator, 476 Lafitte, Jean, National Park, 386 pinyon-juniper woodlands, 476, 497, 511t, 512Ð13, 516, 523, Lafourche delta system, 388 528, 554Ð55, 571 lagoons Rocky Mountain, 476, 495 Caribbean Islands, 329 savannas, Southwest, 554Ð55 defined, 903 Utah, 476, 512 Pacific Islands, 829 western, 525, 526f, 650 Laguna Madre, 268Ð70 woodlands, 650, 651f, 681 Lake Agassiz, 353 Lake Andes National Wildlife Refuge, 459 Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, Hawaii, 837 Lake Champlain-Adirondack Biosphere Reserve, 189Ð90 karst, defined, 901 lake-edge dunes, 227 K (carrying capacity), defined, 897 Lake Erie, 73, 242 kelpfishes, 817 Lake Huron, 242 kelps, 816Ð17, 823 Lake Mead, 76 bull, 816 Lake Mendota, Wisconsin, 50Ð51 giant, 612, 816 Lake Michigan, 227Ð29, 242 kepone, 133t, 144 Lake Okeechobee, 296 kerosene, 144 Lake Onalaska, 361, 362f Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge, 143 Lake Ontario, 242Ð43 kestrels, American, 24, 246t, 374t, 523, 631, 674, 678t, 679, 719 Lake Pepin, 353, 354 keystone species lake plains, Great Lakes region, 229Ð30 defined, 901Ð2 lakes, See also ponds; reservoirs; water bodies harvest and, 174 atmospheric contaminants and, 73 killdeer, 195, 374t, 421, 454t, 455t, 523, 674t, 678t, 679 ecosystems, 81Ð82 “kill ‘em and count ‘em” tests, 145 eutrophication of, 49Ð50 killifishes, 418, 569 fishless, 137 bayou, 419 Great Lakes, 223Ð24 California, 620t land-use change and, 49 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 935

management, 56 Leopold, Aldo, 169 multiple pollutant effects, 73Ð74 Lepanthes eltoroensis, 331t nonindigenous species, 196 Lepidoptera, 445, 565 trout, 658, 659Ð60 Great Lakes region, 234Ð35 Southeast, 296 Leptocereus grantianus, 331t species loss, 50Ð51 levees, See also flood control Lake Superior, 223, 241Ð42 defined, 903 Lake Tahoe, 533f Lower Mississippi River, 355Ð56 Lake Washington, Seattle, 81 Mississippi River, 354, 355Ð56, 396 La Mesa fire, 551, 553 natural, 411 Lameshur Bay, 322f, 323, 324 break (crevasse) in, 389 lampreys habitat diversity and, 400 arctic, 711t vegetation, 411Ð12 Goose Lake, 661t Upper Mississippi River, 354 Kern brook, 620t Lewis, Meriwether, 478 Miller Lake, 662t Lewis and Clark expedition, 478 Pacific, 662t, 711t lichens, 14, 233, 549, 558, 653, 710, 735, 739 Pitt-Klamath brook, 620t, 661t canopy, 601 river, 663t, 711t defined, 903 sea, 124, 196, 223 foliose, 717 in Great Lakes, 236Ð39, 241, 242 lobaria, 653f western brook, 711t Northeast, 211 land cover, defined, 37 woven spored, 653 land-cover change, defined, 37 licoriceroot, Calder’s, 711 landscape context, 53Ð54, 56 life history, defined, 903 landscape triads, 191 life-zones, See also biome landslides, 27 in Southwest, 543 land-use and land-use change, 37Ð57 lightning fires, 609 defined, 37 lignumvitae, common, 317 diversity and, 37, 44Ð52, 54Ð57 lily eastern U.S., 40Ð41 fawn, 24 fire suppression and, 45Ð47 Minnesota dwarf trout, 232t forest communities, 40Ð55 western, 654t habitat fragmentation and, 51Ð52 white trout, 13f historical perspective, 38Ð51 limbo, gumbo, 317 indirect effects, 53 limestone invertebrates and, 517 cedar glades, 280 landscape context and, 53Ð54 forests, Caribbean Islands, 342Ð43 Midwest, 41Ð42 glades, 279Ð80 Pacific Northwest, 42Ð43 hills, Caribbean Islands, 318 present patterns, 51Ð55 mountains, 526 regional variation, 39Ð44 Southeast, 292Ð93 regulation issues, 56 limiting factors, population, 170 Southeast, 259Ð60 limnic, defined, 903 Southwest, 43Ð44 limpets, 816 trends, 55Ð57 Banbury Springs, 658 western U.S., 43Ð44 limpkins, 330, 343 land-use planning lingonberry, 717, 724 habitat fragmentation and, 55 lions, 720, See also cougar, eastern habitat loss and, 52 eastern mountain, 304 lanternfishes, 811 mountain, 47, 172f, 186, 248, 303, 305, 460, 461, 489, 496f, LaPlace, Joe, 334 577, 635Ð36, 715 larches, 476 List of Endangered or Threatened Species, See also western, 647 endangered/threatened species lark, horned, 25, 43f, 195, 451t, 452, 523, 631, 678t, 679f, 722 defined, 903 larkspur, San Clemente Island, 610 littlenecks, Japanese, 821, 823 larvae, defined, 903 littoral zone, 903 Las Vegas, 510 liveforevers, Santa Barbara Island, 610 Las Vegas Valley, 532 live oaks, 260, 411, 900 laurels canyon, 608 mountain, 277f coast, 605 swamp, 514 interior, 608 Laurentian mixed forest type, Northeast, 182 liver cancer, PAHs and, 138Ð39 Lava Beds National Monument, 689 live rock, 800 lawns, homogeneity and, 30 liverworts, 653 leachate, defined, 903 livestock leaching, defined, 903 feral, Caribbean, 341 lead, 132, 152 Rocky Mountains, 478 in gasoline, 142 livestock grazing. See cattle; grazing poisoning, 190 lizards, 530, 570, 572, 624, 670 pollution, 142 blunt-nosed leopard, 625t lead arsenate, 144 bunch grass, 572 Leadville, Colorado, 134t California legless, 625t leafhoppers, 447Ð48 Coachella Valley fringe-toed, 625t two-spotted, 756Ð57 collared, 449t leaf litter, decomposition of, 19 Culebra Island giant anole, 330 leatherbacks, 331t, 333, 334, 335f, 427t, 801, 817, 838 desert collared, 521, 670 legal issues, nonindigenous species, 126 desert horned, 670 Lehman Caves, 526 eastern fence, 449t lemmings, 734 Great Lakes, 243 brown, 723, 728, 734 island night, 611, 625t Greenland collared, 92f, 727 leopard, 521 northern collared, 728, 730, 734 lesser earless, 449t lentic, defined, 903 long-nosed leopard, 521 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 936 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

Mojave fringe-toed, 625t lupine, prairie, 24 Panamint alligator, 625t Lyme disease, 210 reticulate collared, 449t, 451 Lyngbya, 406 St. Croix ground, 331t, 333f contorta, 415t Southeast, 282 lynx, 188Ð89, 248, 461, 477, 719, 720, 723, 727 spot-tailed earless, 449t, 451 North American, 525t, 682t Texas horned, 449t Lyonia truncata variety proctorii, 331t western slender grass, 449t Lysimachia kipahuluensis, 754f lizard’s tail, 409 lobsters, 828, 832, 842 macaques, 341 American, 207, 784, 785f, 785t rhesus, 341 Caribbean spiny, 331, 794 macaws, St. Croix, 330 Hawaiian spiny, 829f, 832 mackerels, 779 slipper, 832 Atka, 809, 810 spiny, 795, 795t, 800 Atlantic, 781, 783, 783t, 784t local climate models, 99Ð100 chub, 815, 817t, 818 locoweed jack, 817t Fassett’s, 232t king, 795t, 798, 847 Kobuk Spanish, 420t, 795t, 798 Kokrine’s, 732 macroalgae, 794, 814 locusts macrobenthos, defined, 896 black, 187 macrofauna, defined, 903 Lake Huron, 229 macroinvertebrates, 364 Rocky Mountain, 489 macrozooplankton, 103, 832 loess, defined, 903 Madder family, 331t loggerheads, 289, 290f, 331t, 333, 427t, 801, 817, 838 Madison Valley, Montana, 44 logging Madrean forests, Southwest, 553 Alaska, 737, 738, 740 Madro-Tertiary Geoflora, 596 baldcypress, 409Ð10 magnolia, southern, 260 birds and, 54 Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 813 California, 597 Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, even-age methods, 54 775 habitat fragmentation and, 52 magpie, yellow-billed, 626 Northeastern spruce-pine forests, 191 mahogany, 318, 321, 331t old-growth forest effects, 481 maidencane, 401, 402, 404, 405 Pacific Northwest, 42Ð43, 668, 682Ð83 floating, 404 redwood, 601 Maine Rocky Mountains, 489 acidified lakes, 137 Southwest, 547Ð48 coastal islands, 207Ð8 uneven-age methods, 54 Gulf of. See Gulf of Maine Long Island Sound, 781 Maine, State of, Conservation Plan, 783 long-line fishing malaria defined, 903 avian, 754 for Pacific halibut, 713 Mallard Larkins Pioneer area, 485 longspurs mallards, 200, 205, 246t, 369, 373, 374t, 425t, 456Ð57, 458, 459, Cassin’s, 451t 460 chestnut-collared, 440, 451t nonmigratory, 200 Lapland, 722 mamane parkland, Hawaii, 758 McCown’s, 453, 453f mammals, See also marine mammals loons, 140, 628t, 802, 812, 820 Alaska, 715Ð16, 719Ð20, 727Ð28, 730Ð31, 734Ð36 common, 137, 189t, 190, 246t, 524, 714, 722, 803 California, 632Ð36 grebes, 812 Caribbean Islands, 330, 338, 340Ð41 Pacific, 714, 722 climate change and, 91, 102Ð3 red-throated, 722 coastal Louisiana, 425, 427 yellow-billed, 734 endangered and threatened, 427 Loop Current, 792 extinctions, Caribbean Islands, 330 loosestrife forest, Northeast, 186, 188Ð89 purple, 125, 196, 234, 363, 445, 497 grasslands, 460Ð63 roughleaf yellow, 384 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 103f, 525 lost streams, 294 Great Lakes, 248Ð49 lotic Hawaii, 766 defined, 903 Mississippi River, 375Ð76 Southeast, 295 nonindigenous, 121t lotus, American, 415t Caribbean Islands, 340Ð41 Louisiana, coastal. See coastal Louisiana Rocky Mountains, 497 louseworts, 514 Pacific Northwest, 682Ð90 Furbish, 185t Rocky Mountains, 477, 493Ð95, 497 lovage, beach, 710 Southeast, 303Ð6 lovegrasses, 603 Southwest, 576Ð81 African, 122 temperature restrictions, 110 Lehmann, 546, 558 Mammoth Cave, 295, 296 Lower Columbia River Development Program, 68 mammoths, 478 Lower Mississippi River woolly, 720 birds, 373Ð74 manatees, West Indian, 427t, 788t, 805, 846 bottom-dwelling invertebrates, 364 mandrone, 601 commercial and sport fisheries, 357 manglares, 327 defined, 351 mangos, Antillean, 330 fish habitats, 368 mangrove communities geography, geology, and human development, 254Ð56 Hawaii, disruption of, 763Ð64 sediment discharge, 396 Pacific Islands, 829 suspended sediment load, 396 swamps, 764 low islands, western Pacific oceanic region, 825, 826f, 830 mangroves, 79, 293, 294 low-salinity marshes, coastal Louisiana, 407Ð8 black-, 327, 406, 412 lungworm pneumonia, 497 buttonwood-, 327 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 937

Caribbean Islands, 317, 318, 320, 324, 327 deep-sea resources, 845 functional value, 327 estuarine resources, 844 natural restoration of, 327 fisheries resources, 845Ð46 red, 294, 327 marine mammals, 846Ð47 reef fishes and, 325 Northeast region white-, 327 benthic resources, 780Ð81 manjack, red, 317 environmental and physical features, 775Ð78 Manual of California Vegetation, 636 fisheries resources, 781Ð86 manzanita chaparral, 607 marine birds, 786 manzanitas, 607 marine mammals, 786Ð92 whiteleaf, 87, 607 planktonic secondary production, 779Ð80 mapleleaf, winged, 196, 232t, 366 primary production, 778Ð79 maples, 182, 260 Pacific coast region American, 409 benthic resources, 816Ð17 forests, 55 environmental and physical features, 814Ð16 red, 15, 17, 48, 185, 191, 409, 411 estuarine resources, 821Ð24 silver, 359, 360 fisheries resources, 817Ð20 sugar, 48, 183, 185, 187, 191 marine birds, 820Ð21 MAPS (Monitoring Avian Productivity and Survivorship) program, marine mammals, 821 576 primary production, 816 maquiladoras, 271 secondary production, 816 margay, 265 Southeast region Mariana Islands, 825, 830, 840 benthic resources, 793Ð94 Mariana Trench, 827 environmental and physical features, 792Ð93 mariculture, 271 fisheries resources, 794Ð802 marine birds marine birds, 801Ð4 Alaska, 812Ð13 marine mammals, 804Ð6 barrier islands, 421 primary production, 793 burrow-nesting, 740 secondary production, 793 coastal Maine, 207Ð8 western Pacific region commercial fishing and, 850 benthic resources, 831Ð32 Hawaii, 758, 766, 842 biodiversity patterns, 830 marine debris and, 851 characteristics, 824Ð25 Northeast, 786 environmental and physical features, 825Ð26 Pacific coast, 820Ð21 fisheries resources, 832Ð38 Pacific Islands, 830 marine mammals, 841Ð44 prehistoric extinctions, 751 pelagic ecosystems, 826Ð30 Puget Sound, 824 primary production, 831Ð32 Southeast, 802Ð4 sea turtles, 838Ð41 western Pacific region, 839Ð41 secondary production, 831Ð32 marine debris, national issues, 851Ð52 taxonomy status, 830Ð31 Marine Mammal Protection Act, 789, 792, 804, 805, 813, 821, 843, marine turtles. See sea turtles 846Ð47 maritime forests, Southeast, 286Ð89 marine mammals maritime tundra, Alaska, 724Ð28 Alaska, 813Ð14 birds, 726Ð27 commercial fishing and, 850 freshwater fishes, 725Ð26 genetic diversity of, 841 mammals, 727Ð28 national status and trends, 846Ð47 research needs, 738Ð39 nonconsumptive uses of, 786Ð87 vegetation, 724Ð25 Northeastern region, 786Ð92 marlins, 834 Pacific coast region, 821 blue, 784, 795t, 799, 834 Southeast, 804Ð6 white, 784, 795t, 799 strategic stocks of, 787 marmots western Pacific region, 841Ð44 hoary, 715, 723 Marine Mammals Protection Act, 775, 787 yellow-bellied, 515t marine processes, coastal Louisiana, 395Ð96 Marshall Islands, Republic of, 764 marine resources, 775Ð855 marshes, See also wetlands Alaska region coastal Louisiana, 401Ð8 benthic resources, 807Ð9 defined, 903 demersal fish resources, 809Ð10 floating, 404Ð5 environmental and physical features, 806Ð7 freshwater, 402Ð5 fishes, 809Ð12 habitat diversity, 399Ð400 marine birds, 812Ð13 hurricane damage, 20Ð21 marine mammals, 813Ð14 intermediate, 402 pelagic resources, 810Ð12 loss of, canal density and, 397Ð98 primary production, 807 management, 413 secondary production, 807 salinity, 397, 402, 407Ð8 Channel Islands, 612 saltwater, 405Ð7 food chains, 782f species richness, 402 food web, 807f marshpennyworts, manyflower, 402t, 415t marine debris and, 851Ð52 martens, 222, 248, 481, 633, 682f, 683, 715 national issues and threats pine, 248 bycatch, 847Ð48 martins, purple, 246t, 374t, 481 commercial fishery effects on birds and mammals, 850 Massachusetts Bay, North Atlantic right whale, 791 ecosystem biodiversity and sustainability, 852Ð55 massasauga, 197, 449t habitat alterations, 848 mastic, false, 318 marine debris, 851Ð52 mastiff-bat, greater western, 525t nonindigenous species, 848Ð49 matabuey, 331t overfishing, 847 Maui, 753 taxonomic knowledge, 852 maximum sustainable yield, 170 toxic wastes, 850Ð51 defined, 903 transboundary stocks, 849Ð50 mayflies, 657, 658 national status and trends burrowing, 235, 236f, 364 coral reef ecosystems, 844Ð45 hexagenia burrowing, 363, 364, 365 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 938 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

meadow communities, 477 environmental and physical features, 775, 777Ð78 meadow foam, 605f planktonic secondary production, 779 meadowlarks, 246 primary production, 778Ð79 eastern, 43f, 246t, 451t midges, 50, 364, 416 western, 25, 246t, 374t, 451t, 452, 453f, 523, 631, 674t, 678t, tube-building, 364 679 Midwest meadows deforestation, 41Ð42 Southwest, 549 prairie loss, 42 wet, 732 reforestation in, 41 Medicine Bow Forest Reserve, 478 migration routes, habitat fragmentation and, 113 Mediomastus species, 416 migratory birds Mediterranean grasses, 530 abundance, 187 Mediterranean shrublands, West Coast, 17 California, 605, 628 medusahead, 528, 649 coastal Louisiana, 386 megafauna game, 193 charismatic, 897 Mississippi River, 369 defined, 903 pesticides and, 149 meiobenthos, defined, 808, 896 short-distance, Great lakes region, 245 meiofauna, defined, 903 shrub-steppe, 522 melaleuca, Australian, 81, 122, 291, 292 waterfowl, 386, 422Ð24, 628 Melanesia, 747 migratory fishes, management of, 849 melania, quilted, 339 mildews, 653 menhadens, 419, 420t, 796, 797, 844 military activities, Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 529Ð30 Atlantic, 783, 784, 795t, 797 milk-vetches, 563, 655, 680 Gulf, 357, 417, 418t, 420t, 795t, 797 Applegate’s, 87, 654t Mentasta caribou herd, 723 Jesup’s, 185t menziesia, 710 milkweed, Mead’s, 185t, 232t mercuric chloride, 144 millet, Walter’s, 402t, 407 mercury, 132, 133, 138, 144, 152 millipedes, 655 mergansers Mimidae, 244 common, 138, 371 Minerals Management Service, 802 hooded, 369, 371, 373 mining red-breasted, 246t abandoned mines, 478Ð79 Merismopedia species, 415t Alaska, 738, 739 meristems, defined, 903 contaminants, 132Ð35 merlins, 146, 246t, 719, 722 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 526Ð27, 529 meroplankton, defined, 903 placer, 132, 738, 906 Merriam, C. Hart, 264 regulation of, 156 mesic, defined, 903 restoration regulations, 135 mesic forests, Hawaii, 761 Rocky Mountains, 478Ð79, 487 mesic species, Southeast, 273 stream siltation from, 75Ð76 mesopelagic, defined, 903Ð4 tunnel, 526Ð27 mesopelagic zone, 816 mink, 154, 248, 425, 461, 715, 727, 823 mesoscale climate models, 99 giant sea, 207 mesquites, 78, 317, 508, 546 Mississippi River, 375Ð76, 378 honey, 557 ranch, 153 metabolite, defined, 904 minnows, 136, 190, 418 metals fathead, 145 ferrous, 134Ð39 loach, 566 nonferrous, 132Ð34 plains, 449 metamorphic rock, defined, 904 Rio Grande silvery, 567Ð68 metapopulation, 28 sheepshead, 419 defined, 904 Miocene, defined, 904 methane mirex, 133t, 144 climate change and, 93 Mission Mountain Wilderness, 484f ice core analysis, 90 Mississippi Alluvial Plain, 354 methomyl, 133t, 150, 271 Mississippian Period, 258 methoxychlor, 133t, 144 Mississippi Embayment, 354 methyl parathion, 133t, 150 Mississippi Flyway, 357 metolachlor, 133t, 151 Mississippi River, 351Ð78, See also Lower Mississippi River; metribuzin, 133t, 151 Upper Mississippi River Metridia lucens, 780 aquatic vegetation, 360Ð63 Mexican Channel Islands, 609 birds, 369Ð75, 376 Mexico, Gulf of. See Gulf of Mexico bottom-dwelling invertebrates, 363Ð66 Mezereum family, 331t canals, 397Ð98 mice. See mouse coastal wetlands, 352, 356Ð57 miconia, 756 fishes, 363Ð69, 376, 378 microalgae, 845 floodplain, 351 microbenthos, 807Ð8 floodplain forest, 357Ð60 microclimate, defined, 904 fluvial processes, 395 microclimate model (MTCLIM), 106 glacial changes, 356Ð57 Microcystis aeruginosa, 415t habitat diversity, 401 Microdictyon species, 828 Headwaters, 351, 352 microfauna, defined, 904 hydrological regime, 356 Micronesia, 747 levees, 396 microorganisms, marine, 845 Lower, 351, 354Ð56 microsteris, 680 mammals, 375Ð76 Microtox tests, 145 pollution of, 74 microturbellarians, defined, 904 reclamation projects, 396Ð97 microzooplankton, 832 regulation of, 351Ð52 middens research needs, 376Ð78 defined, 904 river miles, 351 woodrats, 526 sediment transport, 356 Middle Atlantic Bight Upper, 351, 352Ð54 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 939

watershed, 351 mosaic, defined, 904 Mississippi River Delta mosquitoes degradation of, 356Ð57 chemical control of, 146 lobes, 388Ð91, 392Ð93, 398Ð401 southern house, 754 Mississippi River Deltaic Plain, 355 mosquitofern, Carolina, 409, 415t forested wetlands, 408Ð10 mosquitofishes, 271, 328 geology and geomorphology, 387 eastern, 124 Missouri River, 69, 70Ð71, 143, 354 western, 124 channel modification, 67 mosses, 186, 549, 558, 563Ð64, 653, 710, 717, 753 sedimentation in, 75, 443 drought-tolerant, 14 Missouri River Natural Resources Committee, 69, 72 sphagnum, 190, 514, 710 mistmaiden, Alaska, 711 moths, 195, 489, 518, 565, 758 mites, 655 fir tussock, 655 Mitracarpus grasslands, 445 maxwelliae, 331t Great Lakes region, 234 polycladus, 331t gypsy, 184, 185f, 234, 272Ð73 mixed-conifer forests, Southwest, 550 Kern primrose sphinx, 619t mixed-grass prairies, 439Ð40 phlox, 447 fire cycle and, 444 rattlesnake-master borer, 447 plant assemblages, 445 motillo, 318 Rocky Mountains, 476 mountain-ash, Sitka, 737 mockingbirds, 244 mountain bogs, Southeast, 277 northern, 374t, 523, 524, 631 mountain-dandelions, 680 Mojavean vegetation zone, 510, 511t, 512f mountain-heather, club-moss, 729 Mojave Desert, 505, 544, See also Great BasinÐMojave Desert mountain-mahoganies, 476 region curlleaf, 513 precipitation, 506 mountain wetlands, Southeast, 277 snails, 618 Mount St. Helens volcano, 23Ð26 Mojave Desert National Preserve, 521 mouse, 579 molassesgrass, 755 California, 633t molds, 233, 653 California pocket, 633t moles, 248 deer, 195, 611Ð12 broad-footed, 633t Desert Valley kangaroo, 525t mollusks, 416, 417, 565, 601, 784, 793, 794, 844 Fletcher dark kangaroo, 525t defined, 904 Florida, 304 marine, 331Ð32 house, 195, 203, 497, 634 nonindigenous, 118t, 123t Keen’s, 715 Pacific Northwest, 655 meadow jumping, 579 Southeast, 295 northern pygmy, 265 western Pacific oceanic region, 830Ð31 oldfield, 304 molly, sailfin, 419 olive-backed pocket, 460 Mona Island, 315, 321 Perdido Key beach, 304 sea turtles, 336 plains harvest, 460 monarchs plains pocket, 460 elepaio, 765 pocket, 579 mongoose, 341 salt marsh harvest, 612, 633t sea turtles and, 334 San Diego pocket, 633t Monito, 315 San Joaquin pocket, 633t monitoring programs Tehachapi pocket, 525 regulation and, 5Ð6 Tehachapi white-eared pocket, 525t Rocky Mountains, 498Ð99 western jumping, 515t Southeast, 307 yellow-eared pocket, 633t value of, 4Ð6 mouse-tail, 604 monkeyflowers, 604 MSX, 205 Michigan, 232t Mt. Baldy, 595 monkeys, 341 MTCLIM model, 106 common squirrel, 341 Mt. Lassen, 593 monkshood, northern wild, 185t, 232t Mt. McKinley, 707 Monostroma, 406 Mt. Rainier National Park, 658 montane Mt. San Gorgonio, 595 bogs, Hawaii, 760 Mt. San Jacinto, 595 chaparral, 607 Mt. Shasta, 593 cloud forests, Hawaii, 764 Mt. Whitney, 602 defined, 904 mucket, pink, 196 forests, herpetofauna, 570Ð71 mudminnow, Olympic, 662t grasslands, Southwest, 549 mudpuppies, 243, 450, 451 islands mudsuckers, longjaw, 620t Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 507, 514Ð15 muhly, mountain, 476 salamanders, 571 Muir, John, 169 seral forest, Rocky Mountains, 476 Muir Woods National Monument, 597 zone, 511t, 513Ð14 mulberry, white, 360 Monument Canyon Research Natural Area, 551, 552t Mulchatna caribou herd, 727 moonwort, 231 mullets, 801 Moorea, 763 striped, 418t, 419, 420t moorhen, common, 246t, 421, 455t murrelets moose, 174, 188, 221, 248, 477, 488, 496f, 715, 723, 727, 734, Kittlitz’s, 737, 813 735, 738 marbled, 52, 140, 601, 626t, 627, 671, 714, 737, 812, 813, moraine, defined, 904 820Ð21, 824 morning-glory, Pickering’s, 190 murres, 141, 628t, 820 morphology, defined, 904 common, 140, 812, 813, 824 mortality thick-billed, 813 additive, 170 mushrooms, 233, 652 compensatory, 170 honey, 87 natural vs. harvest, 170 clonal mass, 233 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 940 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

muskeg, 717 natural disturbances, 11, 12f, 19Ð28, 27f, 445, See also muskoxen, 221, 725, 727Ð28, 734Ð35 disturbance; fire and fire processes; hurricanes; storms; muskrats, 406, 425, 426, 634, 715, 727 tornadoes Mississippi River, 376 coral reefs and, 321, 324 round-tailed, 304 diversity and, 19, 28 mussels, 29, 51, 195, 518, 814, 852 fires, 22 blue, 785, 785t forest composition and, 55 endangered, 125 habitat change and, 37 freshwater, 226, 232t, 235Ð36, 298Ð99 homogenization and, 29 Great Lakes region, 235Ð36 hurricane impacts on Louisiana wetlands, 20Ð22 Great Plains, 448 Northeastern spruce-pine forests and, 191 pearlymussels, 67, 151, 236, 365Ð66, 377, 448 Southeast, 257Ð58 Southeast, 295, 298Ð99 types of, 22, 27 threatened, 69 volcanoes, 23Ð26, 92, 747, 749, 827Ð28 zebra, 118, 122, 125, 196, 223, 235Ð36, 298, 366, 377Ð78, 448, Natural Heritage Program, 211, 232, 233 848 natural processes, 11Ð32, See also natural disturbances mustards community dynamics, 16Ð19 garlic, 234 environmental heterogeneity, 11Ð16 tumble, 528 homogenization, 28Ð31 weedy, 558 research needs, 31 mustelids Nature Conservancy, The, 192, 211, 222Ð23 defined, 904 Great Lakes Program, 232Ð33 mutagens, 138 Southeast data, 260Ð62 defined, 904 naucorid mutualism, defined, 18Ð19, 904 Amargosa, 518t mycorrhizae, 18 Ash Meadows, 518, 518t, 619t conifers and, 24 Navicula, 406 defined, 904 navigation old-growth forests and, 652Ð53 canals, Mississippi River, 397 mynas control, Lower Mississippi River, 355Ð56 hill, 340 dams, Upper Mississippi River, 354 white-vented, 340 river transportation, 67 myotis Nearctic-Neotropical migratory bird system, 422 California, 715 nearshore resources, 801 cave, 525t, 526 Nebraska Sandhills, 440Ð41 fringed, 525t, 689t necton. See nekton Keen’s, 689t, 715 needle-and-thread, 476 long-eared, 525t, 526f, 635, 689t needlegrasses, 438, 476 long-legged, 525t, 635, 689t, 715 perennial purple, 604 small-footed, 189, 525t nehu, 829 western small-footed, 689t neighborhood landscapes, homogeneity and, 30 Yuma, 525t, 689t nekton Myrcia paganii, 331t coastal Louisiana, 417Ð20 Myrtle family, 331t defined, 417, 904 myrtle, wax, 404 nematodes, 831 defined, 904 naiads, 81 nemerteans, defined, 904 nannoplankton nemocá, 319 defined, 904 neotenic, defined, 904 in northeast region, 778f, 779 Neotropical migrant birds, 189t Nantucket Shoals, primary production, 778 abundance, 187 naphthalene, 144 barrier islands, 288 National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program, 276 California, 637 National Audubon Society, 108, See also Christmas Bird Count coastal Louisiana, 421Ð22 National Biological Service (NBS) defined, 904 establishment of, 3 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 523Ð24 merger with USGS, v Pacific Northwest, 675 National Center for Atmospheric Research, 99 Rocky Mountains, 493 National Coastal Monitoring Act (1992), 853 Southeast, 303 National Marine Fisheries Service, 775, 787, 794, 819, 820, 821, Southwest, 575, 576 845, 849, 855 Neotropical-Tertiary Geoflora, 596 Northeast Fisheries Science Center, 780 nerite National Marine Sanctuary, for humpback whales, 843 Clench’s, 332t National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 775, 783, 853 sad, 332t Fisheries-Oceanography Coordinated Investigations, 810 zebra, 332t Marine Resources Monitoring, Assessment, and Prediction neritic, defined, 904 Program, 779, 786 net pen escapes, of Atlantic salmon, 849 National Park Service, 123 netplankton National Park Service Organic Act (1916), 127t defined, 904 National Stream Survey, 75, 135 distribution, 778f National Surface Water Survey (NSWS), 137 in Northeast region, 778f, 779 National Water Quality Assessment Program, 299Ð300 nets (ground patterns), 721 Native Americans net submergence, delta lobes, 392 in California, 596, 597, 606 net subsidence, low-salinity marshes, coastal Louisiana, 408 cave use by, 526 Nevada Natural Heritage Program, 514 deforestation by, 41 New England, See also southern New England marine region fires set by, 608 forest cover changes, 48Ð49 population, 44 New Jersey Rocky Mountains, 478 Coastal Plain, 22f salmon harvest, 822 Pine Barrens, 26f, 190, 192 Southeast, 258 uplands, heterogeneity in, 12 Southwest, 545 Newlands Project, 520, 532 steelhead harvest, 820 newts native species, habitat loss and, 37Ð38 black-spotted, 449t Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 941

Coast Range, 623t pine rocklands, 293 eastern, 243 plants, 118t, 119, 123t, 263, 272, 274, 292, 339, 497, 528, 530, northern rough-skinned, 623t 531, 556, 616, 622 red-bellied, 623t purple loosestrife, 363 rough-skinned, 667t, 709 reptiles, 121t, 340 Sierra, 623t Rocky Mountains, 487, 489, 491, 492, 495, 497 striped, 301 rodents, 341 New Zealand, 747 snails, 617 niches Southeast, 263, 272, 274, 298 fundamental, 108 Southwest, 556, 567, 575, 580Ð81 realized, 108 success factors, 119 temporal, 909 tamarisks, 509 nickel, 132 threats to parks and endangered biota, 123Ð25 nighthawks unintended introductions of, 118 Antillean, 330 water development and, 66 common, 374t, 523, 674t, 678t, 679, 681 western Pacific region, 840Ð41 night-herons nonnative species. See nonindigenous species black-crowned, 154, 189t, 289t, 454t, 455t nonpoint, defined, 904Ð5 yellow-crowned, 288, 289t, 455t nonpoint sources nightjar, Puerto Rican, 331t, 341 of chronic oil pollution, 141 nightshade, 331t of water pollution, 73Ð76 nitrate, water pollution and, 73 North American Amphibian Monitoring Program, 450 nitrogen North American Breeding Bird Survey. See Breeding Bird Survey from agricultural fertilizers, 142, 442, 443 North American Butterfly Association, 234 grasslands and, 442, 443, 444 North American Free Trade Agreement, 268, 271 in guano, 758 North American Maple Project, 184 lakes and streams and, 73 North Atlantic, estuarine resources, 844 Upper Mississippi River, 365 North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization, 850 nitrogen fixation, defined, 904 North Carolina Biotic Index, 299 nitrogen oxides, 142, 184 North Carolina Division of Environmental Management, 299 Nitzschia species, 406, 415t North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 658, 659 nival, defined, 904 Northeast, 181Ð212 nodal rooting, grasslands, 445 acid precipitation, 184Ð85 noddies, 802 agricultural lands, 192, 195 brown, 803 American black duck, 197Ð200 Nogahabara Sand Dunes, 717 American woodcock, 193Ð95 nonferrous metals, contamination caused by, 132Ð33 amphibians, 197 nonindigenous, defined, 904 beavers, 200 Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control Act birds, 186, 189, 786 (1990), 117, 127t Chesapeake Bay resources, 204Ð6 nonindigenous species, 3, 117Ð27 Chesapeake Bay watershed wetlands, 201Ð3 Alaska, 715, 731, 739Ð40 coastal Maine habitats, 207Ð8 aquatic vegetation, 119 endangered/threatened species, 197 arachnids, 118t fishes, 197 beach and dune habitats, 616 forest birds, 186 biodiversity and, 121Ð22, 854 forest mammals, 186Ð89 birds, 119, 121t, 340 forests, 181, 182Ð92 bullfrogs, 668 fragmented landscapes, 209Ð10 California, 617, 619, 622, 634 marine resources Caribbean Islands, 329Ð30, 332, 338Ð41 benthic resources, 780Ð81 characteristic of, 119Ð20 continental shelf, 853f characteristics of invaded communities, 120Ð21 environmental and physical features, 775Ð78 clams, 821 fisheries resources, 781Ð86 coastal Louisiana, 426 marine birds, 786 defined, 117 marine mammals, 786Ð92 economic consequences of, 125Ð26 planktonic secondary production, 779Ð80 ecosystem changes and, 117, 120, 121 potential and average yields, 845t, 846 endangered/threatened species, 123Ð25 primary production, 778Ð79 eutrophication and, 50 taxonomic knowledge, 852 Everglades, 292 nonindigenous species, 196, 209 federal laws, 126 reptiles, wetland, 197 fire suppression and, 47 research needs, 210Ð11 fishes, 69, 90Ð91, 118t, 120, 121t, 123t, 239Ð40, 332, 487, 489, spruce-fir forests, 191 491, 492, 520, 567, 622, 848Ð49 unique forest environments, 189Ð92 freshwater mussels and, 298 urban environments, 200, 203, 209Ð10 future research, 126Ð27 wetlands, 195Ð200 grasses, 754, 755 wood duck, 200 grasslands, 449, 463 Northeast Multispecies Fishery Management Plan, 792 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 519, 520, 528, 530, 531, 532 Northern Mariana Islands, 826t Great Lakes region, 234, 239Ð40 North Pacific Current, 814 habitat change and, 37 North Slope, 732, 740 Hawaii, 751, 752Ð57, 762Ð63 Northwest. See Pacific Northwest intentional introductions, 118 northwestern California, 599Ð601 invertebrates, 339 northwestern Hawaiian (leeward) islands, 762 mammals, 121t, 340Ð41, 497, 634 Northwest Forest Plan, 689 management of, 119 Aquatic Conservation Strategy, 690, 691 marine, national issues, 848Ð49 Northwest Power Planning Council, 690 marine bird predation by, 839 Nulato Hills, 721 mollusks, 118t, 123t nunataks, 709 Northeast, 196, 209 defined, 905 origins, 118 nutcracker, Clark’s, 483 Pacific coast region, 821 nuthatches pathogens, 495, 497 brown-headed, 302 pathways, 118 red-breasted, 246t ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 942 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

white-breasted, 631 old-growth, defined, 905 nutria, 265Ð66, 304, 425, 823 old-growth forests baldcypress seedling damage, 410 after fires, 46f, 47 dermatitis, 404 Alaska, 710, 737 grazing damage, 426 fungi, 652Ð53 marsh damage, 406 loss of, habitat fragmentation and, 52 nutrient loading Northeast, 181, 185 algae and, 362 Pacific Northwest, 646Ð47 marine resources and, 853 Rocky Mountains, 480Ð81, 499 Southeast, 262, 263, 272Ð73 oak forests Southwest, 547 encinal oak woodlands, 555 oldsquaws, 734 longleaf pineÐturkey oak, 281 oligochaetes, 416, 905 mixed, 17 oligotrophic systems oak barrens, 231 defined, 905 oak-chestnut forests, nonindigenous, 263, 272 western Pacific oceanic region, 831Ð32 oak-hickory forests, 41, 55, 272 Olympic National Park, 686, 687Ð88 oak woodlands, 605Ð6 Olympic Peninsula, Washington, 43, 44f pine-oak, 109, 476 omao, 765 oaks, 48, 183, 187, 207, 260, 359, 476, 550 ontogenetic, defined, 905 Arizona white, 550, 553, 555 oopu alamoo, 766, 767f bear, 15, 26f open lake ecosystems, Great Lakes, 223Ð24 black, 14, 15f, 17 opossums, Virginia, 195, 248, 249, 425, 449, 634 blue, 601, 602, 605 opportunistic species, 13 bur, 359 orchids, 185, 318 California black, 602, 609 eastern prairie fringed, 185t, 230, 232t chestnut, 14, 15f snowy, 404 disturbance and, 55 Oregon Emory, 476, 553, 555 climate map, 98Ð99 encinal, 555 comprehensive plan legislation, 691 Engelmann, 605 sea otters, 684 evergreen, 553, 555 Oregon Cascades, 595 evergreen black, 605 Oregon Caves National Monument, 689 Gambel, 476, 550 Oregon Natural Heritage Program, 657 gray, 550, 553, 555 organic carbon, grasslands, 443 Great Lakes region, 233 organic pollutants, in lakes and streams, 73Ð74 huckleberry, 607 organo-arsenicals, 144 leather, 605, 607 organochlorine compounds live, 260, 411, 900, See also live oaks Great Lakes, 224 Mexican blue, 553, 555 industrial, 153 netleaf, 476, 553, 555 pesticides, 144Ð49 northern red, 14, 15f, 183 organo-metallic compounds, 144 Nuttall’s scrub, 605, 607, 608 organophosphates, 149Ð51 Oregon, 605 organpipe, 556 pin, 359, 360 orioles scrub, 605 Baltimore, 246t, 374t silverleaf, 476, 553, 555 Bullock’s, 523, 524, 674t, 679, 681 Southeast, 273 orchard, 246t, 374t southern, 605 Scott’s, 523 swamp white, 14, 15f, 359, 360 ornamental aquarium fishes, 118, 125, 800, 849 turkey, 281 oscar, 125f valley, 605 osmerid, defined, 905 water, 411 Osphrantieum labronectum, 416 wavyleaf, 550 ospreys, 137, 146, 154, 189t, 246t, 247, 369 white, 14, 15f, 605 otters oatgrasses, 549 river, 140, 154, 248, 304Ð5, 461, 633, 712, 727, 823 oats sea, 140, 174, 597, 684Ð86, 728, 788t, 812, 813, 821 sea, 287f, 412 Alaska, 846 wild, 603 California, 846 Oberholser, Harry C., 264 southern, 613 obligate, defined, 905 southwestern, 525t oceanic ichthyoplankton, 793 Ouachita Mountains, 256 oceanic pelagic fishes, 818Ð20, 833Ð34 Ouachita uplands, 136 oceans, See also sea-level rise Our Living Oceans, 845 climate models and, 95 Our Living Resources,v petroleum discharges into, 139 Our Lord’s candle, 607 surface temperature, 93 Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest Physiographic Province, 385 warming, 853 Ouzel Lake area, Rocky Mountain National Park, 482 ocelots, 265, 303, 577 overfishing, 47, See also commercial fisheries Ochoco National Forest, 658 national issues, 847 Ochromonas species, 415t recruitment, 325 ocotillo, 556 overgrazing. See grazing octocorals, 809 ovigerous, defined, 905 octopuses, 836 owls, 719 off-highway vehicles, Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 530 barred, 374t, 673 offshore rocks, Caribbean Islands, 328 boreal, 481 Ogallala aquifer, 442 burrowing, 451t, 453, 681 ohia, 755f, 756, 759, 765 elf, 626t dieback, 757Ð58 flammulated, 481, 677 Ohio River, 67, 140 great gray, 626t, 677 oil. See petroleum great horned, 374t Okanogan HighlandsÐBlue Mountains, 675, 677, 679 long-eared, 189t, 192 Olax family, 331t Mexican spotted, 481 old-field birds, Great lakes region, 244Ð45 northern spotted, 52, 626t, 652, 671, 672Ð73, 690, 691 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 943

short-eared, 189t, 451t, 678t, 734 palms, 319, 331t snowy, 734 Puerto Rican royal, 318 spotted, 601, 821 Sierra, 318, 320f oxbow ponds, 296 Palmyra Atoll, 825, 826f, 840 oxidation, defined, 905 physical characteristics, 826t oxygen levels, marine resources and, 853 palo colorado, 319, 331t Oxytropis kobukensis, 717 palo de jazmín, 331t oystercatchers, 628t palo de nigua, 331t black, 626, 730 palo de Ramón, 331t oysterleaf, 725 palo de rosa, 331t oysters, 419, 420t, 801, 844, 852 Palos Verdes Peninsula, 610 Atlantic, 846 Palouse Prairie grasslands, 649 eastern, 205, 417, 785, 785t, 848 paloverde, yellow, 556 mangrove, 332t palustrine wetlands, Chesapeake Bay watershed, 202Ð3 Pacific, 823 palynology, defined, 905 Ozark emerald, 447 panthers, Florida, 52, 148, 303, 304, 305, 427 Ozark Mountains, 256 paper mills, 138 Ozark uplands, 136 parakeets ozone, 155 Carolina, 302 Hispaniolan, 329 PACFISH, 691 monk, 340 Pacific coast region, 814Ð24 orange-fronted, 340 benthic resources, 816Ð17 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 823, 851 environment and physical features, 814Ð16 parasites estuarine resources, 821Ð24, 844 defined, 905 Columbia River estuary, 821Ð23 nonindigenous, Hawaii, 767Ð68 Puget Sound, 823Ð24 parasitism, See also cowbirds San Francisco Bay, 821 brood, 897 Southern California Bight, 824 by brown-headed cowbirds, 53, 679 fisheries resources, 817Ð20 homogenization and, 29 marine birds, 820Ð21 parrotbill, Maui, 765 marine mammals, 821 parrotfishes, 326 potential and average yields, 845t, 846 bucktooth, 325 primary production, 816 parrots, 340 secondary production, 816 Caribbean Islands, 338 Pacific flyway, 628 Puerto Rican, 319, 320, 330, 331t, 337, 338f, 343 Pacific Islands, 747Ð24, See also Hawaii; western Pacific oceanic parsleys, desert, 680 region parsnips, cow, 729 geographic areas, 747Ð48 partial life cycle fish tests, 145 high islands, 825Ð26, 830 Partners in Flight, 582 low islands, 825, 830 partridge, gray, 246t overview, 747Ð48 parula, northern, 189t, 246t prehistoric human settlement, 750Ð51 paspalum, seashore, 402t, 407 U.S. jurisdiction over, 825Ð26 passerines Pacific Northwest, 645Ð92 Alaska, 722, 727, 730, 734 amphibians, 666Ð70, 691 defined, 905 arthropods, 691 passes, Lower Mississippi River, 355 bats, 689Ð90 pasture, 151 birds, 671Ð82 patches Breeding Bird Survey, 674, 675 animal-generated, 16 deforestation, 42Ð43 boundaries, 15 ecosystems defined, 15 aquatic ecosystems, 650Ð52, 690Ð91 dynamics, 28, 905 eastside forests, 645, 647Ð48, 690 forest, diversity and, 51Ð52 eastside rangelands, 649Ð50, 690 heterogeneity and, 14, 15Ð16 riparian ecosystems, 650Ð52, 690Ð91 landscape context, 53Ð54 westside forests, 645, 646Ð47, 690 natural disturbances and, 28 endangered species, 654 pathogens endemic species, 652, 683 defined, 905 fishes, 660Ð66 fungi, 653 forests, 690 plant, nonindigenous, 118t, 123t fungi, 652Ð53, 691 Rocky Mountains, nonindigenous, 495, 497 invertebrates, 655Ð58 pathways, for nonindigenous species, 118 mammals, 682Ð90 patterned ground, defined, 905 physiographic overview, 645Ð46 PCBs. See polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) plants, 653Ð55 pea, 331t reptiles, 670 beach, 710, 725 research needs, 690Ð92 pearly eye, Creole, 273f riparian habitats, 681 pearlymussels, 151, 377 ungulates, 686Ð89 declines, 365Ð66 Pago Pago Harbor, 829 elktoe, 448 paintbrushes, 563 scaleshell, 448 pair bonding, defined, 905 snuffbox, 448 Pala Lagoon, American Samoa, 829Ð30 spectacle-case, 448 Palau, Republic of, 762 white cat’s paw, 236 paleoecology pebblesnail, Columbia, 68 defined, 905 pecan, 359 Rocky Mountains, 474 Pecos Wilderness, 548 palila, 765 Pediastrum biradiatum, 415t palma de lluvia, 318 peepers, spring, 243, 425 palma de manaca, 331t pelagic, defined, 905 Palmerton, Pennsylvania, 134t pelagic resources palmetto, 411 Alaska, 810Ð12 palmgrass, 759 birds, 786, 802, 803 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 944 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

fishes oil spills, 140Ð41, 740 coastal, 798, 817Ð20, 834Ð35 Exxon Valdez, 140Ð41, 714, 807, 811Ð12 Northeast region, 781, 783, 784 pets and pet trade oceanic, 798Ð800, 818Ð20, 833Ð34 aquarium fishes, 118, 125, 800, 849 Pacific coast region, 817Ð20 Mojave Desert reptiles, 521 Pacific Islands, 826Ð30 reptiles, 670 western Pacific region, 833Ð35 Southwest, 571, 572 Pacific Islands, 826Ð30 pH sharks, 797Ð98 defined, 905 Southeast, 802, 803 toxicity, 137 pelicans, 369, 628t, 802 phainopepla, 631 American white, 421, 454t, 455t, 524, 627, 803, 804 phalaropes, 628t, 802, 803, 820 brown, 146, 288, 289t, 302, 303, 327, 331t, 427t, 428f, 802Ð3, red, 786 820 red-necked, 523, 524 eastern brown, 289, 421, 427 Wilson’s, 441, 451t, 453, 454t, 455t, 523, 524 Pelos del Diablo, 331t pheasants, 119 Peninsular Ranges, 595 ring-necked, 195, 246t pennyworts, 415t phenology, defined, 905 largeleaf, 415t phenotypes, defined, 905 penstemons, 563 phloxes, 680 pentachlorophenol (PCP), 133t, 153 phoebes Pentagenia vittigera, 364 black, 631 peperomia, 292f eastern, 110, 111f, 246t Wheeler’s, 331t, 341 Say’s, 678t peppers, 331t Phosphorescent Bay, 332 Brazilian, 126, 756 phosphorus peppervine, 87 from agricultural runoff, 142 percent cover, defined, 905 in the Everglades, 80 perch, 449 grasslands, 443Ð44 Pacific ocean, 809, 818 in guano, 758 Sacramento, 620t mycorrhizal fungi and, 18 shiner, 711t in soils, 757 silver, 418t water pollution and, 73, 80 surf, 822 photic zone, defined, 905 Tule, 620t photoperiod, defined, 905 yellow, 239, 240, 242, 368 phreatophyte, defined, 905 perched dunefields, Great Lakes, 227Ð29 phylogenetic, defined, 906 perennials physas, 565 bunchgrasses, 549 Physa cubensis, 331, defined, 905 physiognomy, defined, 906 forbs, 512 physiographic province, defined, 906 needlegrasses, 604 physiography, defined, 906 pickleweeds, 412 physiological variation, 13 Peridinium cinctum, 415t phytoplankton, 730, 816 peritonitis, 613 defined, 906 Perkinsus marinus, 417 habitat degradation and, 848 permafrost, 707, 716, 732, 733f northeast marine region, 778 defined, 905 pickleweeds, 406 persimmon, common, 411 perennial, 412 pesticides, 144Ð51 pigeons agricultural use, 149f band-tailed, 631, 632, 674t aquatic toxicology, 145 Pacific, 764 carbamate, 149Ð51 passenger, 48, 222, 302 economic losses attributed to, 151 plain, 343 grasslands, 442 Puerto Rican plain, 331t, 337 Great Lakes, 223 white-crowned, 327 inorganic, 144 pigs, 740 organochlorine, 144Ð49 feral, 263, 304, 341, 634 organophosphate, 149Ð51 Hawaii, 752Ð53, 759, 760, 766, 789Ð70 soft, 149Ð51 pikas, 515t, 579 synthetic pyrethroid compounds, 149Ð51 collared, 723 total use, 149f pikes, 69 Wyoming toad and, 451 blue, 241 pest species, insects, 211 northern, 69, 711t, 718, 725, 726 Petersham Township, Massachusetts, forest cover, 40, 41f, 47Ð48 pilewort, 13 petrels, 330, 628t, 751, 786, 802 Piloderma fallax, 652 Bermuda, 802 pimpleback, orange-foot, 196 black-capped, 804 Pinchot, Gifford, 169 Bonin, 840 pine barrens Bulwer’s, 802, 840 Great Lakes region, 231 cape, 802 New Jersey, 26f, 190, 192 dark-rumped, 840 Pine Bush, Albany, New York, 190, 192 Hawaiian dark-rumped, 758, 759f, 840t pine cones, serotinous, 907Ð8 herald, 802 Pinedale Glaciation, 473, 474 white-chinned, 803 pine forests petroleum, 139Ð42 longleaf pine savanna, 280 air pollution, 142 longleaf pineÐturkey oak, 281 Alaska, 735, 740 longleaf pineÐwire-grass communities, 281, 282f chronic oil pollution, 141Ð42 pine-oak, 109, 476 compounds, 850 pine rockland, 292Ð93 discharges into ocean, 139Ð40 ponderosa, 476, 480, 550Ð53 hydrocarbons, 139, 141 Southeast, 276Ð77 oil fields, 735, 740 Pinelands, New Jersey, patches, 15 oil slicks, 139 pines, 44, 48, 260, 645 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 945

Apache, 553 plant pathogens, nonindigenous, 118t, 123t Arizona, 553 Plant Quarantine Act (1912), 127t Australian-, 125 plants bishop, 599 adventive, 895 bristlecone, 233, 477, 513 Alaska, 710Ð11, 716Ð18, 720Ð22, 724Ð25, 728Ð29, 732Ð33 California white, 485 antigrazing structures, 440 Chihuahua, 553 California, 595, 596, 616 closed-cone, 599, 600, 608 Caribbean Islands, 330, 339 Colorado pinyon, 512 carnivorous, 285, 286 eastern white, 182, 185, 191 climate change and, 91, 92f, 93 foothill, 601, 605 endangered/threatened species, 185 foothill digger, 602 extinctions, 45, 751 foxtail, 600 functions of, 233Ð34 Great Basin bristlecone, 514 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 516Ð17, 525Ð26 Great Lakes region, 233 Great Lakes region, 233Ð34 jack, 112Ð13, 228, 229 habitat loss, 285 Jeffrey, 602, 606 Hawaii, 750, 752, 754Ð55, 768 knobcone, 599, 600 Holdridge life-zone classification, 100 limber, 474, 477, 486, 513, 514 horticultural trade, 563 loblolly, 41, 183, 280 Mount St. Helens impacts, 23Ð24 lodgepole, 474, 476, 480, 513, 602, 606, 647, 710 nonindigenous, 118t, 119, 123f, 274, 292, 339, 497, 528, 530, longleaf, 109, 280Ð83 531, 616, 622, 752 Mexican pinyon, 476 Northeast, 185Ð86 Monterey, 599 Pacific Northwest, 653Ð55 pinyon, 476, 497, 512Ð13 Rocky Mountains, 497 pitch, 15, 26f, 183, 273, 276 Southwest, 563Ð64 ponderosa, 474, 476, 487, 497, 547, 550Ð53, 551f, 600, 601, 602, temperature-caused disruption, 110, 113 647, 691 vascular, 45t, 910 short-leaf, 41, 276 plastic, ingestion of, by marine species, 851 singleleaf pinyon, 476 plasticity, 12Ð13 slash, 280 Playa lakes, 442 Southeast, 259, 273 playas, 559 southwestern white, 550 defined, 906 sugar, 485, 601, 602, 606 Pleistocene, 473 Table Mountain, 273, 276 Alaska, 707 Torrey, 611 defined, 906 Virginia, 187, 276 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 506Ð7, 515 white, 207 Southwest, 545 whitebark, 477, 483Ð85, 513, 514, 600, 602 plovers, 628t, 786 pingos, 725 black-bellied, 421 defined, 906 mountain, 440, 451t, 452f, 479, 627 pink piping, 232t, 247, 302, 331t, 427Ð28, 454t ring, 196 snowy, 524 swamp, 185t western snowy, 524, 616, 626t, 627, 629 pinnipeds, 612, 846 plum, Chickasaw, 412 defined, 906 plutonic, defined, 906 pintails, 457 pocketbook, fat, 196, 232t, 366 northern, 420t, 422Ð23, 424, 424t, 425t, 456Ð57, 458, 460, 719, pocosins, 284Ð85 734 defined, 906 white-cheeked, 337 pogonia, small whorled, 185, 185t, 232t pinyon-juniper woodlands, 497, 511t, 512Ð13, 516, 523, 528 point bars, 716 herpetofauna, 571 Point Reyes National Seashore, 616 Rocky Mountains, 476 point sources, of water pollution, 73Ð74 Southwest, 554Ð55 poka, banana, 754, 759 pinyons, 554Ð55 polar ice caps, expansion/contraction cycle, 90 Mexican, 553 pollen records, 90Ð91, 474 singleleaf, 512Ð13 pollination, as mutualism, 19 pioneers, defined, 906 pollocks, 781, 783t, 809, 850, 853 pipistrelle, western, 689t walleye, 809, 810Ð11, 823 pipits pollution, See also air pollution; contaminants; water pollution red-throated, 727 grassland effects, 442 Sprague’s, 109, 451t lead, 142 water, 25, 722 petroleum, 141Ð42 piscivores Rocky Mountains, 478Ð79, 482 defined, 905 polychaetes fishes, 326 defined, 906 pitcher-plants, 285 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 133t, 153Ð54, 155f Jones’, 285 bald eagles and, 824 sweet, 384 defined, 906 yellow, 285f mink and, 375Ð76, 378 placer mining, 132 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 133t, 138Ð30, 142 Alaska, 738 Polymorphus sp., 613 defined, 906 Polynesia, 747, See also Hawaii plaice, American, 783t human activities, 764 plains, Rocky Mountains, 475 overview, 747Ð48 plankton, See also ichthyoplankton; meroplankton; microzoo- population growth, 764 plankton; nannoplankton; netplankton; zooplankton prehistoric extinctions, 751 defined, 906 prehistoric human settlement, 750Ð51 Northeast region, 779Ð80 Polysiphonia, 406 Southeast region, 793 Polystichum calderonense, 331t planktonic phase migration, fishes, 416 pomarrosa, 339 planorb, blood fluke, 126 pomfrets, 818 plantain, broad-leaved Maui, 760f pompano, Florida, 801 plant-derived organic pesticides, 144 ponds ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 946 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

saltwater, Caribbean Islands, 328 defined, 906 Southeast, 296 northeast marine region, 778Ð79 pondweeds Pacific coast region, 816 curly leaf, 274, 360, 361 Southeast region, 793 flat-stem, 360, 361 western Pacific oceanic region, 831Ð32 long-leaf, 360Ð61, 415t primary productivity, defined, 906 narrow-leaf, 360, 361 primrose Richardson, 361 boreal, 724 sago, 360, 361 Chukchi, 724 small, 415t primrosewillow poolfishes, 569 anglestem, 405 pahrump, 569 creeping, 415t poo-uli, 765, 766f Prince of Wales Island, 711, 737 poplars, 716 Prince William Sound, 140, 714, 737, 807, 811Ð12 balsam, 716, 721, 724Ð25, 733 prior appropriation doctrine, 65 yellow-, 48, 183 progradation, defined, 906 poppies progressive agriculture, 169 California, 603f pronghorns, 248, 265, 440, 477, 495, 496f, 603 California bearpaw, 510, 516, 517 Prorocentrum species, 415t prickly, 563 protists, 831 population protozoan encephalitis, 613 defined, 906 province, defined, 906 density, 171 Prudhoe Bay, 735Ð36, 740 limiting factors, 170 Pseudocalanus sp., 780 persistence, genetic diversity and, 171 Pseudonitschia australis, 851 regulating factors, 170 ptarmigans, 714, 740 harvest and, 170 Evermann’s rock, 730 individual diversity and, 172 rock, 719, 722, 730, 734 population ecology, 169Ð70 white-tailed, 493, 498, 722 population growth willow, 719, 722, 734 density-dependent, 171f Yunaska rock, 730 density-independent, 171f public health individual diversity and, 172 marine toxic wastes and, 850Ð51 Polynesia, 764 toxic contamination and, 850Ð51 Rocky Mountains, 487f Public Health Services Act (1944), 127t porcupine public land, Southeast, 259 North American, 508 Pueblo people, 551 Porcupine caribou herd, 736 Puerto Rican Bank, 315 porgies, 326 Puerto Rico, See also Caribbean Islands porpoises, 790 description, 315Ð16 Dall’s, 788t, 789t, 810, 824 human activities, 320Ð21 Gulf of MaineÐBay of Fundy harbor, 789, 790 life zones, 317Ð19 harbor, 787, 788t, 789t, 790, 823, 824 location, 315 possumhaw, 411 sea turtles, 334Ð37 Potential Biological Removal (PBR), 787 puffball, stalked, 516 power plant ash, 138 puffins prairie-chickens Atlantic, 208, 786 Attwater’s greater, 427t, 428 horned, 813 greater, 43f, 280, 447, 451t tufted, 140, 813, 824 lesser, 451t Puget Sound, 815, 823Ð24 prairie-clover, leafy, 232t puma, Yuma, 577 prairie dogs, 437, 440, 449, 453, 460, 499, 579 pupfishes, 121, 125, 569 black-tailed, 460, 479f, 577 Amargosa, 519, 520 ecosystems, 479 Ash Meadows, 519 prairie pothole region, 440 Devils Hole, 520, 569 amphibians, 450Ð51 Saratoga Springs, 519 carnivores, 461Ð63 Shoshone, 519 waterfowl, 456Ð57, 460 Tecopa, 519 wetlands, 422, 454Ð55 Warm Springs, 519 prairies. See grasslands purse seine, defined, 906 prawns, 420t pussytoes, 477 Pacific black tiger, 849 put-and-take hunting, 172 precipitation, See also acid precipitation Pyramid Lake, 532 Alaska, 707 pyrethroid compounds, synthetic, 149Ð51 coastal Louisiana, 394 pyrethrum, 144 grasslands, 437, 442 pyrite, 134 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 506, 514 pyroclastic, defined, 906 Hawaii, 749 pyroclastic flow zone, Mount St. Helens, 23, 24, 25 Southwest, 544, 545, 555Ð56, 558 predation quahogs homogenization and, 29 northern, 785, 801 predator removal, 174 ocean, 784, 785t prehistoric extinctions, 221Ð22, 751 quail-doves prehistoric human settlement, in Polynesia, 750Ð51 Key West, 302 prescribed fires, 608Ð9 Puerto Rican, 329 President’s Council on Sustainable Development, 6 quails, 119 Pribilof Islands, 808 mountain, 626 prickle, white, 318 Quaternary, defined, 906 prickly-ash, 411 quicksands, 443 St. Thomas, 331t quillworts, Howell’s, 604 prickly pear, 412 primary production rabbitbrush, whitebark, 546 Alaska, 807 rabbits, 29, 248 coastal Louisiana, 413Ð15 black-tailed jack, 688, 689 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 947

brush, 633t Recovery Implementation Program for Endangered Fish Species, European, 731 69 pygmy, 525t, 689 recovery plans swamp, 425 brown pelican, 820 white-tailed jack, 460 defined, 907 rabies Delta Native Recovery Plan, 620 raccoon, 203 recreational activities, Alaska, 738 Raccoon Island, 412f, 413, 414f recreational fishing. See sport fishing raccoons, 195, 248, 425, 449, 460, 461Ð63, 715 recruitment, defined, 907 rabies, 203 recruitment overfishing, 325 racers, 449t redcedars Alameda striped, 625t eastern, 17, 260 striped, 625t western, 476, 687, 688, 710 racerunner, six-lined, 449t Red Dog Creek, 739 radiation (in ecology) redfish, 407, 420t, 783t adaptive, 895 redheads, 205Ð6, 269, 371, 372, 424t, 425, 456Ð57 defined, 906 redhorses, 367 radiation (sun) Red Paint people, 207 heat fluctuations, 91 redpolls terrestrial infrared, 89 common, 719 ultraviolet, 155, 668, 910 hoary, 719 ragweeds, 17 Red River, flood-control structures, 67 common red shank chaparral, 607 silver bur, 616 redstarts, American, 374t ragworts red tide, 849 Rugel’s, 258 reduction, defined, 907 seaside, 725 redundancy, biodiversity and, 175 rails, 369, 420t, 628t Redwood National Park, 601 black, 330 redwoods, 600Ð601 California black, 626t coast, 594, 602 California clapper, 612, 616f, 626t, 627 reedgrass, 725 clapper, 421 Pacific, 729 DeBooy’s, 329, 330 reeds, common, 402t flightless, 751 reef species king, 421, 455t fishes, 800 light-footed clapper, 612, 626t, 627 ichthyoplankton, 793 Virginia, 246t, 454t reef animals, western Pacific, 836Ð37 yellow, 454t reef-building corals, Pacific Islands, 827 Yuma clapper, 626t Reelfoot Lake, 296 rain forests, Hawaii, 759Ð60 reforestation, 40Ð41 Rainwater Basin, 440, 441 refugium, defined, 907 ranch farming, 42 regime, defined, 907 raptors, 288 region, defined, 907 Alaska, 714 regional climate maps, 98Ð100 insecticides and, 150 Regional Hydro-Ecological Simulation System (RHESSys), 105Ð7 Mississippi River, 373 regulation Rare Plant Program, California Native Plant Society, 636 of contaminants, 156 rare species, species richness and, 173 fear of, 5Ð6 Raritan Bay monitoring programs and, 5Ð6 benthic resources, 781 reindeer, 727, 728, 739Ð40, See also caribou petroleum discharges into, 139 feral, 731 raspberries, 476 relative humidity, 104 Himalayan, 759 relative sea level, coastal Louisiana and, 385 rats, 579, 739Ð40 relict, defined, 907 agile kangaroo, 633t remigrant, defined, 907 black, 333, 341, 634, 754 remote sensing, defined, 907 cotton, 579 Reno, Nevada, 532 Fresno kangaroo, 633t reptiles giant kangaroo, 633t California, 624Ð26 Heermann’s kangaroo, 633t Caribbean Islands, 329, 332Ð37, 340 kangaroo, 579, 634 climate change and, 101, 102 marine bird predation by, 839 coastal Louisiana, 428Ð29 Morro Bay kangaroo, 633t desert, 510 narrow-faced kangaroo, 633t endangered and threatened, 428Ð29 Norway, 203, 341, 497, 634 extinctions, 329 Panamint kangaroo, 633t grasslands, 449, 451 Polynesian, 751 Great Lakes, 243 Stephens’ kangaroo, 633t Hawaii, 766 Tipton kangaroo, 633t Mojave Desert, 521Ð22 rattlesnakes nonindigenous species, 121t, 340 banded rock, 571f Northeast, 197 New Mexican ridge-nosed, 571 Pacific Northwest, 670 Panamint, 521 Southeast, 300Ð302 rock, 571 Southwest, 570Ð75 timber, 189 temperature restrictions, 110 twin-spotted, 571 wetland, 197 western, 449t, 670 resacas, 270 ravens, common, 246t, 631, 719 reservoirs razorbills, 786 Caribbean Islands, 328 reagents, defined, 906Ð7 climate change and, 67Ð69 realized niches, defined, 108 ecological effects, 78 Reclamation Act (1902), 72 eutrophication of, 49Ð50 reclamation projects, Mississippi River, 396Ð97 historical, 64 land-use change and, 49 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 948 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

Rocky Mountains, 482, 487 rockfishes, 809, 814, 817, 823Ð24 residential development. See urban development demersal shelf, 810 resilience, of forest cover, 47 northern, 810 resource extractions, 51 pelagic shelf, 810 resource management, 169 shortbelly, 818 resource partitioning, defined, 907 slope, 810 revetments, defined, 907 widow, 818 RHESSys model, 105Ð7 rocky coast, Caribbean Islands, 328 Rhizoclonium, 406 Rocky Mountain National Park, 478, 482, 487Ð88 rhododendrons, 600, 601f Rocky Mountains, 473Ð99, 506 Kamchatka, 729 acid precipitation, 136 rice, 151, 604 amphibians, 489, 490Ð91 prairies, 438Ð39 biotic inventories, 497Ð98 water diversion for, 68 birds, 492Ð93, 498 ricegrasses, 546 economic resources, 478 Indian, 556 ecosystems, 479Ð89 ridleys air pollution, 482 Kemp’s, 289, 290f, 331t, 427t, 428Ð29, 801, 838t aquatic, 482, 487 olive, 334, 801, 817, 838 bordering prairie, 479Ð80 riffleshell Greater Rocky Mountain National Park Ecosystem, 487Ð88 Appalachian, 196 Greater Yellowstone National Park, 488Ð89 northern, 232t intermountain, 479Ð80 ringgrass, 476 limber pine, 486 Rio Grande, 560, 562Ð63 old-growth forest, 480Ð81 agricultural contaminants, 271 ponderosa pine, 480 fishes, 565, 567Ð69 postdisturbance, 481Ð82 industrial contamination, 271Ð72 simulation of, 105Ð7 water diversion, 270Ð71 wetlands, 482, 487 riparian, defined, 907 whitebark pine, 483Ð85 riparian birds, 78 fishes, 489, 492 Great Basin, 522 geology, 473 Southwest, 575 human development, 478Ð79 riparian common law doctrine, 64Ð65 hydrology, 473 riparian ecosystems invertebrates, 489 California, 604, 632 mammals, 477, 493Ð95, 497 forests, 54, 476, 604 monitoring, 498Ð99 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 508Ð9, 522 nonindigenous species historical changes, 65Ð66 mammals, 497 Pacific Northwest, 650Ð52, 681, 690Ð91 pathogens, 495, 497 Rocky Mountains, 476, 480 plants, 497 Southwest, 560Ð63, 575 paleoecology, 474 vegetation, 49Ð51, 75 pollution, 478Ð79 riparian zone research needs, 497Ð99 nonindigenous plant species, 78 residential development, 44 scour, 79 vegetation patterns, 474Ð77 unimpounded, 69 alpine tundra, 477 riprap, defined, 907 canyon forests, 476 river miles, 351 Cascadian Forest, 476 rivers, See also Mississippi River; streams; water bodies; specific Douglas-fir forest, 476 rivers montane seral forest, 476 bank erosion, 560Ð61 pine-oak woodland, 476 California, 597 pinyon-juniper woodland, 476 Caribbean Islands, 328 plains, 476 channel modifications, 49 ponderosa pine woodland, 476 dewatering, 443 riparian forests, 476 grasslands, 443 spruce-fir forest, 477 Great Lakes region, 225Ð26 subalpine white pine forest, 477 impounded systems, 69Ð72 treeline vegetation, 477 land-use change and, 49Ð51 rocky stream gorges, Southeast, 278 navigation and transportation, 67 rocky substrates, bottom-dwelling invertebrates and, 364 Pacific Northwest, 650Ð52 rodents, See also specific species regulated, 351Ð52 distribution along gradients, 14Ð15 Rocky Mountains, 482, 487 Great Lakes, 248 sedimentation and, 74Ð75 Hawaii, 754 Southeast, 294Ð95 nonindigenous, Caribbean Islands, 341 species loss, 51 roller, sand, 663t threats to, 66 rookeries, defined, 907 unimpounded corridors, 69 Roosevelt, Theodore, 169, 478, 495 water hyacinth and, 426 root rot, laminated, 653 River Warren, 353 roots Rivularia, 406 mycorrhizae, 18 roaches nodal, 445 California, 620t, 661t rose, prickly, 717 Tuna Cave, 331 roseroot, Leedy’s, 185t, 232t roads and highways rosy-finches, gray-crowned, 25, 626 habitat fragmentation and, 52, 210 rotenone, 519 reptile and amphibian deaths, Southeast, 301 rotifers, 416 Southwest, 548 defined, 907 robins, American, 146, 246t, 374t, 523, 631, 678t, 679, 681 tests, 145 roble blanco, 318 row crops, wildlife habitat, 195 rock ruffe, 240, 242 igneous, 901 runoff metamorphic, 903 defined, 907 rock-cress, McDonald’s, 654t Upper Mississippi River, 354 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 949 rushes, 549 lungless, 300 leafybract dwarf, 604 Mount Lyell, 520t, 623t needlegrass, 401, 402t, 407 northwestern, 623t, 667t, 709 smooth, 406 ocelot-spotted giant, 601 toad, 604 Olympic torrent, 667t whitebeaked, 384 Oregon slender, 666, 667t, 668 Russian-olives, 442, 463, 560, 562Ð63 Owens Valley web-toed, 520t, 623t rusts, 653 Pacific giant, 25, 623t, 667t, 668 white pine blister, 483, 484, 485, 486, 489 relictual slender, 623t ryegrass, beach, 710, 725 Sacramento Mountain, 571 San Gabriel slender, 623t sablefish, 809, 817t, 818 Santa Cruz long-toed, 622f, 623t sacatons, 557 Santa Lucia slender, 623t Sacramento River, 68, 819 seep, 601 Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, 620 Shasta, 623t, 667t Sacramento Valley, 603 Siskiyou Mountains, 623t, 666, 667t sage Southeast, 282, 294, 295, 300Ð301 black, 606 southern long-toed, 623t purple, 606 southern seep, 623t white, 606, 607 southern torrent, 666, 667t sagebrushes, 44, 445, 476, 512, 513, 563, 680, 732 spotted, 243 alpine, 477 Tehachapi slender, 623t Artemisia arctica ssp. comata, 732 tiger, 450, 451, 520t, 623t, 667t, 668t Artemisia senjavinensis, 724 Van Dyke’s, 666, 667t big, 476, 506, 554, 556 western red-backed, 667t California, 606, 607 Sale-Cypremort delta, 388 little, 513 salinity Vasey’s, 513 benthic organisms and, 416 sagebrush-grass communities, 474, 511Ð12, 528 coastal Louisiana marshes, 397, 402, 407Ð8 sagebrush-steppe, 508, 531, 649Ð50 defined, 907 saguaro, 556, 559 Laguna Madre, 269 sailfish, 784, 795t, 799Ð800, 834 of marshes, 397, 402 sails, desert, 618 of Rio Grande, 271 St. Bernard delta, 388 of sea ice, climate change and, 93 St. Croix, 321, 328 salmon, 223, 620, 645, 652, 660, 664f, 712, 729Ð30, 736Ð37, 812, coral reefs, 322 817, 818, 822, 823, 853 description, 315, 316 amago, 812 sea turtles, 336 anadromous, 664f, 665Ð66 St. Croix River, 353 Atlantic, 136, 137, 146, 196, 222, 239, 783, 783t, 844, 850 St. John, 315, 322 net pen escapes, 849 Saint Lawrence Island, 724, 728 broad, 733 Saint Matthew Island, 724 chinook, 68, 154, 239, 620, 660, 664, 665, 711, 718, 725, St. Thomas, 315, 321, 322 736Ð37, 812, 817t, 819, 821, 822, 847 sakau, 764 chum, 661t, 711, 718, 725, 729, 733, 812, 817t, 819, 847 salamanders, 273, 570, 621, 659, 666 coho, 68, 153, 154, 239, 242, 620, 660, 661t, 664f, 711, 718, acidified habitats, 137 725, 729, 736Ð37, 812, 817t, 819, 847 arboreal, 623t escapements, 718 black, 623t, 667t, 668 dog, 812 black-bellied slender, 623t fall chinook, 822 Breckenridge Mountain slender, 623t king, 812 California giant, 623t Lower Columbia River fall chinook, 662t California slender, 623t, 667t masu, 812 California tiger, 622, 623t overfishing, 847 Cascade torrent, 666, 667t Pacific, 68, 239Ð40, 242, 620, 819, 847, 850 Channel Islands slender, 623t pink, 663t, 664, 711, 725, 729, 733, 812, 817t, 819, 847, 850 clouded, 623t, 667t, 668 red, 812 Columbia torrent, 667t silver, 812 Cope’s giant, 667t Snake River chinook, 663t Del Norte, 623t, 666, 667t Snake River sockeye, 663t desert slender, 623t sockeye, 658, 660, 664f, 711, 725, 726, 729, 812, 817t, 819, 822, Dickinson County tiger, 451 847, 850 Dunn’s, 623t, 667t south coast fall chinook, 663t eastern red-backed, 243 spring-summer chinook, 822 eastern tiger, 197, 451 salmonberry, 710 ecosystem disruption and, 26 Salmonid, defined, 907 Fairview slender, 623t saltbushes, 556, 563 flatwoods, 301 beach, 613 four-toed, 243 saltbush scrub, 510 Gabilan slender, 623t saltcedar, 78, 118, 122, 266, 412, 560, 561, 622 garden slender, 623t saltgrass, 401, 402t, 406, 407 grasslands, 450 salt-intrusion events, in coastal marshes, 20 gray tiger, 450 Salt River Canyon, 322 Great Lakes, 243 salt-tolerant fishes, 271 Guadalupe slender, 623t saltwater marshes, 405Ð7 Hell Hollow slender, 623t saltwater ponds, 328 Huachuca tiger, 572 saltwort, 402t, 406, 412 Inyo Mountains slender, 520t, 623t sambar, 634 Jemez Mountains, 571 Samoa, 764 Kern Canyon slender, 623t sampling, marine resources, 852 Kern Plateau slender, 623t sampling frame, 17f land-dwelling, 54 San Andreas Fault, 594 Larch Mountain, 666, 667t San Antonio Mountain, 595 limestone, 623t San Clemente, 610 long-toed, 490Ð91, 520t, 659, 660, 667t, 668t, 709 sandalwood, 752 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 950 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

sandburs, 558 Malheur mottled, 662t sand dunes marbled, 620t beachgrass stabilization, 17 margined, 662t Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 515Ð16, 527Ð28 Pacific staghorn, 711t, 822 sandfish, Pacific, 811 Paiute, 662t sandhill vegetation, Southeast, 256 pit, 620t, 663t sand lance, Pacific, 811 prickly, 711t Sand Mountain (Nevada), 528 reticulate, 663t sand-myrtle, 190 riffle, 620t, 663t sandpipers, 421, 786 rough, 620t, 663t Baird’s, 441, 722 sharpnose, 711t buff-breasted, 441 shorthead, 25 least, 524, 722 Shoshone, 663t pectoral, 441 slimy, 242, 663t, 711t, 722 rock, 730 spoonhead, 239 spotted, 454t, 455t, 524, 719 staghorn, 712 stilt, 441 Wood River, 664t upland, 43f, 451t, 452, 453, 453f, 722 sea anemones, 814 western, 524, 714 sea birds. See marine birds white-rumped, 441 sea cucumbers, 808 sand-reeds, 476 seagrasses sandworts Caribbean Islands, 324, 327 marsh, 654t Laguna Madre, 269 sea-beach, 710, 725 manatee grass, 324 Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge, 335 Pacific Islands, 828Ð29 San Francisco Bay turtle grass, 324 estuarine resources, 821 sea ice, climate change and, 93 features, 595, 605 sea-level change, Ice Age, 297 wetlands, 815 sea-level rise, See also climate change; global warming; green- San Joaquin River basin, 624Ð26 house effect San Joaquin Valley, 603 coastal Louisiana, 395 San Juan Mountains, 473 mangrove forests and, 294 Santa Catalina, 610 Mississippi River and, 356Ð57 Santa Cruz Island, 610 Pacific Islands, 764 Santa Fe National Forest, 548 relative, 385 Santa Monica Mountains, 610 sea lions, 712, 850 Santa Rosa Island, 611 California, 612, 789t, 813, 821, 823, 824 Santa Rosa Mountain, 595 Northern, 612, 788t, 813, 814, 823, 824 sardines, 801, 814, 853 sea-lovage, Calder’s Pacific, 817 seals, 787, 850 satyr, Mitchell’s, 232t bearded, 788t sauger, 138, 367, 368, 369 elephant, 823 savanna, defined, 907 fur, 821 sawgrass, 79, 80, 122, 401 gray, 788t, 790 sawtimber industry. See logging Guadalupe fur, 612, 788t, 821 Sawtooth National Recreation Area, 485 harbor, 612, 712, 787, 788t, 789t, 790, 813, 823, 824 saxifrage, Aleutian, 729 harp, 788t, 790 scads Hawaiian monk, 766, 789t, 841, 842, 843, 852t bigeye, 834Ð35 hooded, 788t, 790 mackerel, 834Ð35 northern elephant, 171, 612, 789t, 824, 841 scale insects, 184 northern fur, 788t, 789t, 813, 851 scaling, strategic cyclical, 108Ð9 North Pacific right whale, 841 scallops, 808t ribbon, 788t Atlantic calico, 801 ringed, 788t bay, 785, 785t, 801, 846 South African fur, 174 calico, 846 seamounts sea, 781, 784, 850 defined, 907 weathervane, 808 Pacific Islands, 826Ð27 scarabs sea-oxeye, 406, 412 aegialian, 516 searobin, bighead, 420t Giuliani’s dune, 516, 518, 519 sea-rockets scaups, 424t, 425, 719 American, 616 greater, 371, 372f maritime, 613 lesser, 371, 372, 425f, 456 seasonal cycles, climate models and, 96 Scenedsemus quadricauda, 415t sea stars, 174 Schistosoma mansoni, 339 seatrouts, 407, 419 schistosomiasis, 126 sand, 417 Schoepfia arenaria, 331t spotted, 357, 419, 420t, 800 scientific conservation, 169 Seattle, Chief, 499 scientific methods, for monitoring programs, 5 sea turtles, 125, 289, 290f, 331t, 333Ð37, 419, 427t, 428Ð29, scorpions, 52 801Ð2, 817, 838 scoters, 141, 719, 813 as bycatch, 801Ð2 screech-owl, Puerto Rican, 340 foul hooking, 334 scrub ecosystems green, 333, 334Ð35, 817, 828, 831, 838 Florida, 293 harvest, 334Ð37 scrub oak chaparral, 607 hawksbill, 289, 331t, 333, 334Ð36, 427t, 801, 817, 838 scrub-jays, 631 Kemp’s ridley, 289, 290f, 331t, 427t, 428Ð29, 801, 838t Channel Island, 611f leatherback, 331t, 333, 334, 335f, 427t, 801, 817, 838 Florida, 293, 302 loggerheads, 289, 290f, 331t, 333, 427t, 801, 817, 838 sculpins, 814, 817 marine debris and, 851 bigeye marbled, 661t nesting beaches, 802 Coastrange, 711t olive ridleys, 334, 442, 463, 560, 562Ð63, 801, 817, 838 deepwater, 239, 242 Pacific coast region, 817 fourhorn, 711t tagging, 335Ð36 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 951

western Pacific region, 830, 838Ð39 Manx, 803 sea urchins, 207, 612, 785t, 808Ð9, 808t, 816 Newell’s Townsend’s, 758, 840 purple, 817 short-tailed, 813 red, 816Ð17 sooty, 786, 803, 813, 820 seaweeds, 207 wedge-tailed, 840f secondary production sheefish, 711t, 718, 725, 726 Alaska, 807 sheep, 611, 740 defined, 907 Audubon bighorn, 460 Pacific coast region, 816 Barbary, 580, 634 Southeast region, 793 bighorn, 265, 477, 495, 496f, 579, 635 western Pacific oceanic region, 831Ð32 California bighorn, 525, 525t, 633t secondary productivity, defined, 907 Dall, 723 second-growth forests, Northeast, 185 desert bighorn, 579 sedge-graminoid meadows, 725 mountain, 735 sedges, 476, 477, 549, 710, 717, 729 peninsular bighorn, 633t Alaska long-awn, 729 sheep grazing, See also grazing Hawaii Island, 760f Southwest, 546 Hoppner, 725 sheepshead, 419, 420t loose-flowered alpine, 725 Sheldon National Wildlife Refuge, 522 Lyngby, 725 shellfish, See also specific species prickly, 760f amnesiac shellfish poisoning, 851 Ramenski, 725 Pacific coast region, 816 sediment-dwelling species, cancers in, 850Ð51 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 823, 851 sediments shield-ferns, Aleutian, 729 aquatic plant loss and, 74 shieldwort, arrowleaf, 384 coral reef effects, 323, 324 shiners defined, 907 Arkansas River, 449 delta lobe subsidence rates and, 393 emerald, 239, 242 grain size, coastal Louisiana, 403, 416 Lahontan, 662t habitat modification and, 75 phantom, 567 hurricane damage to wetlands, 21 Rio Grande, 567 Lower Mississippi River, 396 Rio Grande bluntnose, 567 Mississippi River, 356 spottail, 242 Missouri River, 443 Topeka, 449 Rio Grande, 562 shipworm, 821 river channel effects, 74 shooting stars, 514 Southeast, 274 shorebirds, 786 suspended, 909 Alaska, 722, 734, 740 water storage capacity and, 74 Southeast, 802Ð3 seine nets, purse, 906 short-grass prairies, 438, 439t, 440 seleniferous, defined, 907 leafhoppers, 448 selenium, 138, 143, 152 plant assemblages, 445 poisoning, 143 Rocky Mountains, 476 Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness, 483 short-stopping, 423 semidesert grasslands, Southwest, 555Ð59 defined, 908 sequoia, giant, 602 Shoshoni, 478 Sequoia National Park, 485 shoulderbands, 617 seral, defined, 907 El Paso, 618 serotinous, defined, 907 mimic, 618 serotinous cones, defined, 907Ð8 Mojave, 618 serpentine, defined, 908 Morro, 618, 619t serpentine chaparral, 607Ð8 Panamint, 618 serpentine soils, California, 599, 600, 605 San Miguel, 618 sessile, defined, 908 Soledad, 618 settlement patterns, 39, 40f surf, 618 sewage shovelers, 424t eutrophication and, 50 northern, 142, 425t, 456Ð57 recovery from pollution caused by, 364 shrew-mole, 683t Seward Peninsula, 724, 726, 727 shrews, 248, 304, 579, 723, 728, 734 sex determination, temperature-dependent, 102 Baird’s, 683t sex-selective harvest, 172 fog, 683t shadowscale scrub, 510 Mt. Lyell, 633t shads, 801 ornate, 633t American, 204Ð5, 620, 783, 821, 822 Pacific, 633t, 683t Atlantic, 783t Pacific marsh, 683t gizzard, 242, 369 Preble’s, 525t shadscale zone, 510 shrikes sharks, 783t, 802 loggerhead, 189t, 523, 524, 678t, 679f Atlantic, 795t, 797Ð98 San Clemente loggerhead, 626t blue, 818, 833 shrimp, 406, 420t, 762, 794, 808, 833, 844, 852 cookie-cutter, 833 brown, 357, 418, 419f, 420t, 794Ð95, 795t, 796 Gulf of Mexico, 797Ð98 by-catch, 418f, 419 oceanic whitetip, 833 California freshwater, 619t pelagic, 784, 797Ð98 estuaries and, 796 salmon, 833 fairy, 510 shortfin mako, 833 freshwater, 331 silky, 833 Hawaii, 832 western Pacific, 833 Mona Cave, 331 shearwaters, 628t, 751, 786, 802, 804, 812, 820 mysid, 221 Audubon’s, 802, 803, 840t nonindigenous, 849 Christmas, 840 northern, 784, 785t Cory’s, 786, 803 opossum, 122 greater, 786, 803 Pacific, 846 little, 802 Pacific white, 849 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 952 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

penaeid, 794 longfin, 711t pink, 418, 794Ð95, 795t, 808, 817, 823 pond, 711t rock, 794 rainbow, 223, 239, 240, 242, 711t, 811 royal red, 794 surf, 811 seabob, 418, 794 smog, 142, 155 sidestripe, 823 Smokey Mountains National Park, 22f white, 357, 418, 420t, 794Ð95, 795t, 796 smolt, defined, 908 shrubland birds, Great lakes region, 244Ð45 smuts, 653 shrub-steppe, 508, 522, 523 snags, 547, 635 shrub-steppe birds, 522 defined, 908 sidewinders, Mojave Desert, 521 fungi and, 653 Sierra Nevada, 136, 506, 593 snails, 195, 207, 331, 518, 617, 655, 762, 814 climate, 98, 594 abalone, 614Ð15 ecosystem status, 601Ð2 aquatic, 564 fire processes, 609 Bliss Rapids, 658 fishes, 621 brown garden, 617 human settlement, 597 Bruneau Hot Springs, 658 mammals, 634Ð36 cactus, 610, 618 topographic features, 595 California, 610 uplift of, 596 California desert, 618 Sierra-Nevada Ecosystem Project, 602 Catalina cactus, 618 Silent Spring (Carson), 145 Catalina mountain, 618 silica, water pollution and, 73 Channel Islands, 618 silk-tassel, interior, 607 cheat three-toothed, 196 silver, 132 Chittenango ovate amber, 232t silverfishes, 418 decollate, 617 silversides Euglandina, 762Ð63 inland, 418t, 420t freshwater, 295, 339 rough, 418t giant African, 763 tidewater, 419 Hawaii, 750, 762Ð63, 767 Waccamaw, 298 Iowa Pleistocene, 448 silverswords, 750 island, 610 Haleakala, 768 plain cactus, 618 silversword-tarweed, 750 sea, 808 silverweeds, Pacific, 710 shoulderband, 617, 618 Silvex, 133t talus-, 565 silviculture Utah valvata, 658 defined, 908 wreathed cactus, 618 Southwest, 550 Snake River sink, defined, 908 basin, 658 sinkhole, defined, 908 salmon, 822 Sioux, 478 sockeye salmon, 819 sipunculids, 831 Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area, 649, 681, siskins 688 pine, 631, 674t, 678t Snake River Plains, 523 red, 331t, 337, 338, 339 snakes, 189, 195, 570, 624 skates, 781, 782, 783t broadbanded, 425 skimmers, 628t brown tree, 121, 755Ð56, 840Ð41 black, 288, 289t, 421, 803 California black-headed, 625t skinks California king, 521 blue-tailed mole, 293 checkered garter, 449t broad-headed, 103f, 425 common garter, 243, 449t, 575, 709 Florida sand, 293, 300 Dekay’s brown, 243 Gilbert’s, 625t diamondback water, 425, 449t grasslands, 450 eastern indigo, 300 Great Plains, 449t Florida pine, 282 prairie, 449t giant garter, 605, 624Ð26 skipperling, poweshiek, 446, 447 glossy, 449t skippers, 489 Great Lakes, 243 byssus, 447 Great Plains rat, 449t Dakota, 445, 446 green water, 425 maculated manfreda, 447 ground, 670 ottoe, 447 gulf salt marsh, 425Ð26 skuas, 628t, 786 indigo, 301 Antarctic, 802 lined, 449t great, 802 long-nosed, 670 South Polar, 802 Mexican garter, 571, 572 skunks, 248, 449 milk, 243, 449t hog-nosed, 265 narrow-headed garter, 572 spotted, 461, 611 night, 449t striped, 425, 460, 461Ð62 northern water, 243 sky island mountain ranges, 553 northwestern garter, 670 sliders, 449t Oregon garter, 670 slough, defined, 908 plain-bellied water, 449t slugs, 655 plains black-headed, 449t banana, 601 plains garter, 449t Guadalupe shelled, 618 queen, 243 Santa Barbara shelled, 618 racer, 243 shelled, 610 rat, 243 smartweed, water, 360, 409 red-bellied, 243 smelters, 132, 134 ring-necked, 670 smelts, 817, See also eulachons St. Croix tree, 330 Columbia River, 822 San Francisco garter, 624, 625t delta, 620t Santa Cruz Island gopher, 611 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 953

sharp-tailed, 625t, 670 Central and South Florida, 289Ð94 Sierra garter, 625t Piedmont and Coastal Plain, 278Ð89 smooth green, 243 southern Appalachian mountains, 275Ð78 Southeast, 300Ð301 trends, 262Ð74 Texas slender blind, 449t Everglades, 289Ð92 wandering garter, 572 evolutionary history, 258 western hog-nosed, 449t fire suppression, 273 western ribbon, 425 fishes, freshwater, 296Ð98 snakeweeds, 546 Florida scrub, 293Ð94 broom, 546 forests, 182, 262, 263, 272Ð73, 286Ð89, 292Ð93 snappers, 326, 836 geology, 256 deepwater, 835Ð36 human populations, 258Ð60 gray, 325 hydrology, 273Ð74 lane, 800 Interior Low Plateaus, 256 red, 800, 847 invertebrate fisheries, 794Ð95, 797 vermilion, 800 landforms, 256 snipes, common, 246t, 421, 454t, 455t, 524, 719 land use, 258Ð60 snow mammals, 303Ð6, 804Ð6 avalanches, 27 marine resources climate change and, 93 benthic resources, 793Ð94 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 514 continental shelf, 792, 853f RHESSys model for snowpacks, 106, 107 environment and physical features, 792Ð93 snowbell, 331t fisheries resources, 794Ð802 snow-wreath, Shasta, 616 marine birds, 802Ð4 societal forces, climate change and, 93 marine mammals, 804Ð6 sodium arsenate, 144 potential and average yields, 845t, 846 sodium chlorate, 144 primary production, 793 sodium cyanide, 134 secondary production, 793 sodium dichromate, 144 taxonomic knowledge, 852 sodium hydroxide, 138 maritime forests, 286Ð89 soft pesticides, 149Ð51 mussels, freshwater, 298Ð99 soil creep, 721 natural disturbances, 257Ð58 soil crust, 14f nonindigenous species, 263, 272, 274, 298 soil pockets, 14f old-growth forest, 262, 263, 272Ð73 soils pine rockland, 292Ð93 alluvial, 895 rare, endangered, and threatened ecosystems, 261Ð62 compaction, Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 531 reptiles, 300Ð302 cryptobiotic crusts, 14f, 558Ð59, 653 research needs, 306Ð7 formation, 444 soils, 256 grasslands, 443Ð44 tropical hardwood hammocks, 292Ð93 Hawaii, 757Ð58 upland old-growth forests, loss of, 263, 272Ð73 productivity, 443 water quality, 273Ð374 Southeast, 256 wetlands, 278Ð79, 792Ð93 Southwest, 558Ð59 southern California, fishes, 621 topsoil loss, 444 Southern California Bight, 824 soles El Niño effects, 815 dover, 817t, 818 estuarine resources, 824 English, 817t, 823Ð24 southern New England marine region flathead, 810 environmental and physical features, 775 petrale, 817t planktonic secondary production, 779 rock, 847 primary production, 778Ð79 yellowfin, 808 Southern Oscillation, defined, 900 solid waste disposal, 152 Southwest, 543Ð83 solifluction, 721 amphibians, 570Ð75 defined, 908 aquatic snails, 564Ð65 solitaire, Townsend’s, 678t biocides, 548 solution ponds, 296 birds, 547, 561, 575Ð76, 582 songbirds, 420t climate, 543Ð44 contaminant effects, 186 cryptobiotic crusts, 558Ð59 insecticides and, 150 ecosystems, 548Ð63 land-use change and, 53 alpine tundra, 549 Mississippi River, 369, 373Ð74 desert shrublands, 555Ð59 Neotropical migrants, 493 encinal oak woodlands, 555 Southeast, 303 juniper savannas, 554Ð55 sonic-tracking, of Pacific halibut, 713 Madrean forests, 553 Sonoran Desert, 556, 557, 558 meadows, 549 herpetofauna, 571Ð72 mixed-conifer forests, 550 sora, 421, 454t, 455t montane grasslands, 549 sorghum, 151 pinyon-juniper woodlands, 554Ð55 sorrel, Krange’s, 724 ponderosa pine forests, 550Ð53 sotols, 557 riparian ecosystems, 560Ð63 south coast (California), 605 semi-desert grasslands, 555Ð59 Southeast, 255Ð308 subalpine forests, 549Ð50 amphibians, 300Ð302 subalpine grasslands, 549 Appalachian Highlands, 256 fire processes, 547 Atlantic white-cedar swamps, 286 fishes, 565Ð70 barrier island communities, 286Ð89 forest logging, 547Ð48 benthic macroinvertebrates, 299Ð300 geographic area, 543 birds, 302Ð3 grazing, 546Ð47 climate, 257 human settlement, 544, 545Ð48, 559 Coastal Plain, 256 invertebrates, 564Ð65 ecosystem diversity, 260Ð74 land-use variation, 43Ð44 ecosystem status and trends, 274Ð96 mammals, 576Ð81 aquatic ecosystems, 296Ð6 marine resources, 852 ✩ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999—746–390 954 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

nonindigenous species, 567, 575, 580Ð81 splittail plants, 563Ð64 Clear Lake, 620t precipitation, 544, 545, 555Ð56, 558 Sacramento, 620t reptiles, 570Ð75 spoil islands, Caribbean Islands, 328 research needs, 582Ð83 sponges, 323, 831 soils, 558Ð59 sport fishing, See also fishes water diversion, 548 Alaska, 711, 718, 729, 736, 738Ð39 Southwestern California, ecosystem status, 606Ð9 Hawaii, 834 sow bugs, 655 Lower Mississippi River, 357 soybeans, 151 marine finfish, estimated catch, 846 spadefoots, 520 Southeast nearshore resources, 801 Couch’s, 623t spot, 417, 418t, 420t, 800 Great Basin, 520t, 623t, 667t, 668, 670f spring beauty, Siberian, 729 plains, 449t springfishes, 125, 569 western, 623t Spring Mountains (Nevada), 514 sparrows, 246 springs, Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 531Ð32 Bachman’s, 188, 283 springsnails, 532, 564, 565 Baird’s, 440, 451t springtails, 655 Belding’s savannah, 612, 626t spruce, 48, 182, 207, 260, 477, 645 black-chinned, 631 black, 191, 716, 717 black-throated, 523, 524 blue, 476, 549, 550 Brewer’s, 523, 678t Brewer, 600 Cape Sable seaside, 289, 302 Engelmann, 474, 477, 480, 549, 600 Cassin’s, 451t, 452f Great Lakes region, 233 chipping, 374t, 523, 631, 674t, 678t red, 138, 184, 191, 275, 276 clay-colored, 451t, 452f Sitka, 599, 687, 710 dusky seaside, 302 as spruce grouse habitat, 190 field, 43f, 246t, 374t white, 477, 716, 717, 721 golden-crowned, 628, 722 spruce-fir forests, 474, 481 grasshopper, 43f, 189t, 246t, 374t, 446, 451t, 452, 453f Northeast, 190, 191 Henslow’s, 189t, 246t, 446, 451t, 452f, 453 Rocky Mountains, 477 house, 118, 120, 186, 246t, 340, 374t, 632 Southeast, 275Ð76 lark, 188, 374t, 451t, 524, 678t, 679, 679f Southwest, 549, 550 Le Conte’s, 454, 454t, 455t spruce flats, 191 Nelson’s sharp-tailed, 454, 454t, 455t spruce swamps, 191 prairie, 446Ð47 squawfish sage, 523, 678t Colorado, 77, 78, 143, 519, 566Ð67 San Clemente sage, 612, 626t northern, 665Ð66 savannah, 25, 43f, 246t, 451t, 452Ð53, 454t, 523, 678t, 679, 681 Sacramento, 620t song, 43f, 246t, 523, 674t, 678t, 679, 681, 730 squids, 810 swamp, 455t brief, 418 tree, 681 long-finned, 784, 785t vesper, 43f, 189t, 246t, 374t, 451t, 452, 523, 679 pelagic, 818 white-crowned, 24, 674t, 678t, 679, 719 short-finned, 784, 785t white-throated, 246t squirrelfishes, 326 spatial heterogeneity, 13Ð16 squirrels, 203, 688, See also ground squirrels spawn, defined, 908 Abert’s, 481 spearfish, 784, 834 Delmarva peninsula fox, 209Ð10 longbill, 799 Douglas’, 686 speciation, aquatic invertebrates, 518 flying, 304 species fox, 249, 283, 304 defined, 168, 908 gray, 203, 210, 425 disturbance-adapted, 228 Nelson’s antelope, 633t indicator, 901 northern flying, 652f, 686 interaction, harvest and, 173 red, 52, 715 keystone, 174, 901Ð2 swamp, 425 nonindigenous. See nonindigenous species tree, 579 opportunistic, 13 staghorn, Pacific, 822 pest, 211 staging area, defined, 908 relative abundance of, 174 staging birds, 726 species diversity. See biological diversity; diversity standard error, defined, 908 species loss, 3 standing stock, defined, 908 nonindigenous species and, 121 stand initiation, after fire, 45, 46f species richness, 168, 173, See also biological diversity; diversity starfishes, 814 defined, 908 hogwallow, 604 saltwater marshes, 406 star-grass, water, 360, 361 spectacle-case, 448 Starkey Experimental Forest, 686 sperm counts, endocrine disruptors and, 148 starlings sphagnum bogs, 710 European, 118, 119, 120, 147f, 154, 203, 246t, 340, 632 spicebushes, 12Ð13, 13f Ponape mountain, 766 spiderlily, Carolina, 415t star-thistle, yellow, 528 spiders State Water Project (California), 603, 604 Hawaii, 761, 767Ð68 Staurastrum americanum, 415t long-jawed, 768 steam-electric power plants, Great Lakes, 224 spruce-fir moss, 275Ð76 steelheads, 196, 620, 621, 663t, 665, 711t, 736, 817t, 818, 819, spikedace, 566 820, 822 spikerushes, 402, 404, 415t southern, 621 Baldwin’s, 404, 405 Stellwagen Bank, marine mammals, 790, 792 common, 404 stem exclusion, after fires, 45, 46f, 47 dwarf, 402t, 404, 405, 407, 415t steppe small, 21 Alaska, 717 spinedace, Virgin, 519, 566 creosote bush shrub-steppe, 529 spinymussels, tar, 151 defined, 908 spiraea, Virginia, 185t shrub-steppe, 508, 522, 523 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 955 sticklebacks subsidence ninespine, 711t defined, 908 threespine, 711t, 712 delta lobes, 392Ð94 unarmored threespine, 620t, 621 net, coastal Louisiana marshes, 408 stickyseed, common, 604 subsistence harvest, Hawaii, 764 Stillwater National Wildlife Refuge, 532 subspecies, defined, 908 stilts, 628t substrate, defined, 908 black-necked, 421, 524 subterranean stochastic, defined, 908 defined, 909 stocking, of fish, 124, 171Ð72, 718 ecosystems, Hawaii, 761 stone circles (ground patterns), 721 subtidal, defined, 909 stoneflies, 518, 657, 658 subtropical Lake Tahoe benthic, 518t defined, 909 Wahkeena Falls flightless, 657 forests, Caribbean Islands, 317Ð19 storks, 628t suburban development, 51, See also urban development wood, 80, 302, 303, 421 birds, 49 storm-petrels, 628t, 786, 802, 803, 804, 820 diversity and, 55 band-rumped, 802, 803, 840 succession. See ecological succession fork-tailed, 813 succulents, 477 Harcourt’s, 840t defined, 909 Leach’s, 208, 786, 803, 813 suckers Tristram’s, 840 blue, 369 white-faced, 802 flannelmouth, 77, 567 Wilson’s, 786, 803 Goose Lake, 661t storms, See also hurricanes; natural disturbances harelip, 297 black-dust, 443 Jenny Creek, 661t blowdowns, 11, 12, 23Ð25, 549, 710, 897 Klamath largescale, 620t, 662t Southeast, 257Ð58 longnose, 711t thunderstorms, 257 Lost River, 620t, 651, 662t tornadoes, 11, 12f, 26, 27f Modoc, 620t tropical, 257Ð58, 320, 342, 396 mountain, 662t windstorms, 481 razorback, 77Ð78, 125, 143, 519, 566, 567 strategic cyclical scaling, 108Ð9 Sacramento, 620t strategic stocks, of marine mammals, 787 Salish, 663t strawberry, beach, 710 Santa Ana, 620t, 621 stream fishes, hydropower dams and, 226 shortnose, 620t, 651, 663t streams, See also rivers Tahoe, 664t atmospheric contaminants and, 73 Warner, 664t Caribbean Islands, 328Ð29 sugarberry, 360, 409, 411 degradation, 561 sugar bush, 607 ecology alteration, 65 Suisun Marsh, 603 ecosystem succession, Mount St. Helens, 25Ð26 sulfide minerals, 132 grasslands, 443 sulfur, atmospheric, lakes and streams and, 73 Great Lakes region, 225Ð26 sulfur dioxide, 132, 133, 142 Hawaii, 762 cooling induced by, 98 lost or disappearing, 294 emissions restrictions, 156 multiple pollutant effects, 73Ð74 Northeast forest effects, 184 Pacific Northwest, 650Ð52 sources of, 135 pollution, Rocky Mountains, 487 sulfuric aid, 132 sedimentation and, 74Ð75 sumacs, 15, 476 siltation, from mining, 75Ð76 mahogany, 606 Southeast, 294Ð95 smooth, 15 Streblospio species, 416 sumpweed, bigleaf, 406 stress, long-term, 27 sun strychnine, 144 heat radiation fluctuations, 91 sturgeons, 783, 783t, 801 ultraviolet radiation, 155, 668, 910 green, 620t, 711t, 822 sundew, roundleaf, 15f gulf, 427t, 429 sunfishes, 69, 124, 196, 367, 449 lake, 241, 242, 449, 492 ocean, 818 pallid, 427t redear, 419 shovelnose, 369 spotted, 419 white, 652, 711t, 822 sunflowers, 331t, 750 subaerial, defined, 908 Schweinitz’s, 280 subalpine, defined, 908 surfbirds, 626 subalpine ecosystems surfclams, 808 Alaska, 710Ð11 Atlantic, 784, 785t conifers, 514 surfperch, 817 forests surgeonfishes, 326 Great BasinÐMojave Desert, 513 Surirella robusta, 415t Rocky Mountains, 480Ð81 suspended sediments, defined, 909 Southwest, 549Ð50 sustainability white pine, Rocky Mountains, 477 biological diversity and, 170, 465 grasslands, Southwest, 549 defined, 909 subalpine-alpine ecosystems, Hawaii, 758 grasslands, 465Ð66 Subarctic Current System, 806 marine resources, 852Ð54 subarctic ecosystems, 139Ð40 Northeast croplands, 192 sublethal tests, 145, 156 sustainable use, 169Ð70 sublittoral zone, defined, 908 sustainable yield, 169Ð70 submerged aquatic vegetation, Chesapeake Bay, 204 Sustainable Development for the Great Plains Policy Analysis, submergence, net, delta lobes, 392 International Institute for Sustainable Development, 465 submersed, defined, 908 swale, defined, 909 subnivian swallows defined, 908 bank, 626t, 678t, 679, 681 environments, 734 barn, 246t, 374t, 631, 674t, 678t, 679 956 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

cliff, 681 terminal wetland communities, 509Ð10 northern rough-winged, 374t, 631, 678t, 679, 681 ternlet, black-footed, 840t savannah, 679 terns, 208, 421, 628t, 786, 802, 804 tree, 138, 374t, 677 arctic, 140, 712 violet-green, 523, 677, 678t, 681 black, 246t, 369, 374t, 454t, 455t, 524Ð25, 803 swampbuster clauses, 192 bridled, 803, 804 swamps California least, 616, 626t, 627, 629Ð31 Atlantic white-cedar, 15, 286 Caspian, 154, 288, 289t, 823 baldcypress, 422 common, 154, 289t, 454t, 786 baldcypress-tupelo swamps, 385, 401, 408Ð10 Forster’s, 154, 289t, 421, 454t, 455t deep, 409 gray-backed, 840t, mangrove communities, 764 gull-billed, 288, 289t spruce, 191 interior least, 441 swans, 369, 802 least, 232t, 247, 288, 289t, 302, 370, 427t, 428, 820Ð21 trumpeter, 493, 524, 714 roseate, 331t tundra, 371, 726 royal, 288, 289t, 803 sweetbay, 15 sandwich, 288, 289t, 421 sweet gum, 183 sooty, 803, 804, 840f swifts, 422 white, 840 chimney, 246t Ternstroemia subsessilis, 331t Vaux’s, 24, 671, 674, 677, 678t terrapins, diamondback, 425, 426 swordfish, 784, 795t, 799, 818, 849 terrestrial infrared radiation, defined, 89 central-western Pacific, 833 terrestrial inland system, Great Lakes region, 230Ð31 sycamore, 359, 360 terrestrial vertebrates, nonindigenous, 118t, 123t sympatric, defined, 909 tertiary, defined, 909 synergistic Teton Range, 473, 485 climate change effects, 112Ð13 Teton Wilderness Area, 481 defined, 909 Texas synthetic pyrethroid compounds, 149Ð51 biological survey, 264Ð65 syntopic, defined, 909 chronic oil pollution, 141 environmental change, 264Ð72 tabonuco, 319f south, 268Ð72 tailings, defined, 909 Texas Lower Rio Grande Valley, 268Ð72 tailwaters, fish habitats, 367 Thaliaceans, 779 Talkeetna Mountains, 720 defined, 909 tall-grass prairies, 438Ð39 Thelypteris fire cycle and, 444 inaborensis, 331t Great Lakes region, 233 verecunda, 331t habitat loss, 446 yaucoensis, 331t plant assemblages, 445 Thelypteris family, 331t talussnails, 565 thermokarst, defined, 909 tamaracks, 182, 191 thermokarst lakes, 725 tamarisks, 78, 509, 510, 528 thistles, 518 Tamaulipan brushland, 268 barbwire, 87, 528 tanager, western, 674t Pitcher’s, 185t, 227Ð29, 232t tangs, blue, 326 Russian, 528 tanoak, 601, 605 Thoreau, Henry David, 169 Tapto Lakes, 659f thornyheads, 810, 818 tarbush, 557 thrashers, 244 tarpon, 801 Bendire’s, 576 tattlers, wandering, 722 brown, 246t tawny crescent, 445 sage, 523 taxonomic diversity, 168 threadfin, Atlantic, 417, 420t taxonomic knowledge, marine resources, 830Ð31, 852 threatened species. See endangered/threatened species taxon (taxa), defined, 909 three awns, 603 Taylor Grazing Act of 1934, 546 threesquare, leafy, 402t TCDD, 133t thrushes bald eagles and, 823 gray-cheeked, 719 TDS, 510 hermit, 246t, 677, 678t Tea family, 331t omao, 765 tea, Labrador, 717, 724 Swainson’s, 246t, 678t, 679, 719 tea, Mormon, 557 varied, 628 teak, 318, 321 wood, 246t teals, 420t, 422Ð23 thunderstorms, See also natural disturbances; storms blue-winged, 200, 373, 424t, 425t, 456Ð57, 458, 460 Southeast, 257 green-winged, 200, 246t, 424, 425t, 456 tide effects, coastal Louisiana, 395, 406 tebuthiuron, 548 tidytips, smooth, 604 Teche delta lobe, 412 tilapia, blue, 271 Tectaria estremerana, 331t tilefishes, 800 tectonic movement, defined, 909 timber harvest. See logging Tehachapi Mountains, 602, 603 Timpanagos Cave National Monument, 526 temperature, See also climate; global warming tin, 144 Alaska, 707 Tionesta Scenic Natural Area, 11, 12f, 13, 18f, 19f, 26 change, 111 titmouse Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 514 plain, 631 restrictions, climate change and, 110 tufted, 246t temperature-dependent sex determination, in turtles, 102 toads, 520, 570, 572, 621 temporal niche, 413 acidified habitats, 137 defined, 909 Amargosa, 520 Tennessee-Tombigbee Canal, 297 American, 243, 450, 451 Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, 67 Arizona, 623t teratogens, 138 arroyo, 623t, 624 defined, 909 black, 520, 623t terbufos, 133t, 150 California, 623t, 624 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 957

Canadian, 450 canyon, 520t Colorado River, 622 Cuban, 80, 332 Couch’s spadefoot, 623 gray, 243, 451 eastern narrow-mouthed, 425 green, 425 ecosystem disruption and, 26 tree gaps, single, 27 Fowler’s, 425 tree growth rate models, 104, 106 grasslands, 450 treeline Great Lakes, 243 defined, 477, 909 Great Plains, 350, 449t, 451, 520t, 623t Rocky Mountains, 477 Great Plains narrow-mouthed red, 449t tree snails, 767 green, 449t trend analysis, 4Ð5 Gulf Coast, 425 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 133t, 153 marine, 80, 332, 340 tricholoroethylene, 144 Puerto Rican ridge-headed, 331t, 332, 333 trifluralin, 133t, 151 red-spotted, 449t, 520t, 623t triploid, defined, 909 ridge-headed, 340 Tri-State Mining District, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, 134t Sonoran Desert, 623t tritons southern, 80 angular, 332t southwestern, 520t, 572 Atlantic trumpet, 332t western, 155, 489, 490f, 491, 520, 572, 623t, 667t, 668t, 709 Oregon, 808 Woodhouse’s, 449t, 450, 520t, 623t, 667t, 668t trophic, defined, 909 Wyoming, 449t, 451 tropical, defined, 909 Yosemite, 520t, 622, 623t tropical hardwood hammocks, Southeast, 292Ð93 tomcod, Pacific, 822 tropical storms, See also storms Tonsona caribou herd, 723 Caribbean Islands, 320, 342 top-down forecasting techniques coastal Louisiana, 396 for climate change, 103 Southeast, 257Ð58 combined with bottom-up approaches, 104Ð5, 108 tropicbirds, 628t, 786, 802, 804 criticisms of, 108 red-tailed, 802 topminnows white-tailed, 802, 803, 840 Gila, 124 troupial, 340 plains, 449 trout-perches, 711t Sonoran, 125 trouts, 124, 223, 480, 660 whiteline, 297 Alvord cutthroat, 661t topography, defined, 909 anadromous, 665Ð66 topsnail, West Indian, 332t brook, 25, 136, 137, 190, 242, 711t topsoil loss, 444 brown, 196, 240, 489, 492 Torch Lake, Michigan, 134t bull, 661t, 666 tornadoes California golden, 621 forest damage, 26, 27f Catlow Valley redband, 661t Tionesta Scenic Natural Area, 11, 12f, 27f coastal cutthroat, 661t torreya, Florida, 258 cutthroat, 25, 487, 488, 520, 659, 660, 711t, 736, 817t Torrey Pine State Reserve, 611 Eagle Lake rainbow, 621 tortoises, 624 Gila, 568 desert, 510, 521Ð22, 571Ð72, 625t Goose Lake redband, 661t gopher, 53, 174, 283, 300, 427t, 429 greenback cutthroat, 489, 492, 497 red-footed, 340 interior redband, 661t tortoise shell, 336 introduced, Pacific Northwest, 658, 659Ð70 Tortopus incertus, 364 Kern rainbow, 621 towhees Lahontan cutthroat, 155, 520, 534, 621, 662t eastern, 48, 246t lake, 4, 146, 154, 196, 241, 492, 711t, 718, 722 green-tailed, 523, 681 sea lamprey and, 237Ð39 Inyo California, 626t Little Kern golden, 620t spotted, 678t, 679 McCloud River redband, 662t toxaphene, 133t, 144, 148 nonindigenous, 78 Toxic Substances Control Act (1990), 127t Paiute cutthroat, 621 toxic wastes, marine resources and, 850Ð51 Pyramid Lake cutthroat, 532 Toxoplasma gondii, 613 rainbow, 136, 240, 332, 489, 492, 659, 711t, 718, 725Ð26 toxoplasmosis, 613 sea-run cutthroat, 819, 820 toyon, 607 Snake River fine-spotted cutthroat, 663t Trachelomonas hispida, 415t Umpqua River cutthroat, 820 Trans-Alaska Pipeline, 735, 740 Warner Valley redband, 664t transbasin water import projects, Rocky Mountains, 482 westslope cutthroat, 492, 664t transboundary marine stocks, management issues, 849Ð50 whirling disease, 497 transect, defined, 909 Yellowstone cutthroat, 492 transition zones, Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 507Ð8 Truckee-Carson River, 133 transpiration Truckee Meadows, 532 defined, 909 Truckee River, 520, 532 in forest ecosystem models, 104 truffles, 652f transplanted species. See nonindigenous species tulipán Africano, 339 transportation. See navigation tumors, in fishes, 141 Transverse Ranges, 595, 606 tuna, 781, 833, 834 trapping, See also furbearers albacore, 799, 818 Alaska, 720 bigeye, 784, 795t, 798Ð99, 834t California, 597 blackfin, 799 fishers, 683 bluefin, 784, 795t, 849 furbearers, 47, 48 frigate, 799 tree-ferns, 319, 331t, 753 northern bluefin, 798 Australian, 754 skipjack, 784, 795t, 799, 834t common, 318 yellowfin, 784, 795t, 798, 831, 834t elfin, 331t tuna canneries, Pago Pago, 829 spiny, 319 tundra treefrogs alpine, 475, 477, 514, 549, 711, 720Ð21, 724, 895 California, 623t arctic, 731Ð36, 740 958 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

defined, 909 navigation and transportation, 67 maritime, 724Ð28, 738Ð39 Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge, 354, tussock, 724, 733 370, 375 tunicate, defined, 909 upwellings, 793 Tunnel fire, 608 defined, 910 tunnel mines, 526Ð27, See also mining urban development, 51 tunny, little, 799 California, 597 tupelos, 21 contaminants, 152Ð53 baldcypress-tupelo swamps, 385, 401, 408Ð10 diversity and, 55 water, 409, 416 industrial contaminants, 152Ð53, 271Ð72 turbid, defined, 909 marine resources and, 855 turbot, Greenland, 809, 810 Northeast, 200, 203, 209 turkeys, wild, 186, 195, 222, 374t Rocky Mountains, 44 turnstones, black, 626, 726 Southwest, 559, 561, 574Ð75 turtles, See also sea turtles stormwater runoff, 844 alligator snapping, 301, 425 Walker River basin, 534 aquatic, 570, 575 warming caused by, 98 Blanding’s, 243 water resource effects, 39 bog, 196, 277 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 64, 69, 352 common map, 243 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 69 common musk, 425 U.S. Conservation Reserve Program, 447 common snapping, 243 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Stream Survey, 75 European pond, 102 U.S. Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Billfishes, 799 freshwater, 624 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 740, 783 Great Lakes, 243 American Woodcock Management Plan, 194 green, 289, 290f, 331t, 333, 334Ð35, 427t Harvest Information Program, 194, 195 map, 301 U.S. Forest Service, 691 Mississippi mud, 425 U.S. Geological Survey (U.S.G.S.), 108, See also Biological musk, 301 Resources Division ornate box, 449t Global Change Research Program, 105 painted, 243, 425 National Water Quality Assessment Program, 299Ð300 Plymouth red-bellied, 197 North American Breeding Bird Survey, 187, 243Ð46 red-eared, 425 U.S. territories, 39f, 825Ð26 ringed sawback, 427t, 429 Utah, juniper, 512 smooth softshell, 425 Ute, 478 snapping, 154 utilitarianism, 169 Sonoran mud, 624 utility corridors, Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 529, 531 Southeast, 282, 300Ð301 uvilla, 318 spiny softshell, 425, 449t uvillo, 331t spotted, 301 temperature-dependent sex determination, 102 vascular plants, See also plants western pond, 625t, 670 defined, 910 wood, 243 veery, 246t, 678t, 679 yellow mud, 449t, 451 vegetation. See plants tussock, defined, 909 vegetative reproduction, defined, 910 tussock tundra, 724, 733 vehicular emissions, 142 Tutuila, 764 Verbena family, 331t twin-flower, 717 verbenas coastal sand, 613 Ulothrix, 406 pink sand, 613 ultisol, defined, 909 vernal pools, 604, 605f ultraviolet radiation, 155 Vernonia proctorii, 331t defined, 910 vertebrates frog declines and, 668 defined, 910 uluhe nonindigenous species, 118t, 123t dieback, 756 species extinctions, 45t Ulva, 406 vetchling, Grime’s, 517 umbellifer, defined, 910 viburnums, 183 Umnak Island, 740 Vieques Island, 315 Unalaska Island, 740 vines, 412 understory violets, 518 defined, 910 birdfoot, 276f loss of, Northeast, 185Ð86 vireos reinitiation after fires, 45, 46f, 47 Arizona Bell’s, 626t ungulates, See also specific species Bell’s, 374t, 604 Alaska, 723 gray, 576 defined, 910 least Bell’s, 626t, 632 Pacific Northwest, 686Ð89 plumbeous solitary, 632 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, red-eyed, 49, 246t, 678t, 679 851Ð52 solitary, 246t, 631, 679 United States. See U.S. warbling, 25, 246t, 523, 679, 681 Unsinkable Molly Brown, The, 479 white-eyed, 374t Upper Colorado River, 69 yellow-throated, 246t, 374t Upper Mississippi River virgin forest, Caribbean Islands, 316Ð17 aquatic vegetation, 360Ð63 Virginia-willow, 409 birds, 370, 373 Virgin Islands, See also Caribbean Islands bottom-dwelling invertebrates, 363, 365Ð66 coral reefs, 321Ð24, 325Ð27 colonial waterbirds, 370 description, 316 defined, 351 human activities, 321 dominant tree species, 359 life zones, 317Ð19 flooding, 359Ð60 location, 315 geography, geology, and human development, 252Ð54 sea turtles, 334Ð37 impoundment effects, 360Ð61 Virgin Islands National Park, 324 mammals, 375Ð76 Virgin River (Great Basin), 519 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 959 viruses water budget, coastal Louisiana, 394 marine, 831 water chestnut, 196 VOCs. See volatile organic compounds (VOCs) water diversion, 67Ð68, See also dams; levees volant, defined, 910 California, 603 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 133t, 153, 154Ð55 climate change and, 67Ð68 volcanoes habitats and, 68 dust, climate change and, 92 interbasin, 72 Hawaii, 749 rice farming and, 68 Mount St. Helens, ecosystem recovery following, 23Ð26 Rio Grande, 270Ð71 Pacific Islands, 827Ð28 Southwest, 560Ð61, 562 Polynesia, 747 water flow, Southeast, 274 voles, 728, 734 waterfowl, 175, 812 Amargosa, 525t, 633t Alaska, 714, 740 Ash Mountain montane, 525t California, 628 California, 633t coastal Louisiana, 422 creeping, 683t, 686 Columbia River, 823 distribution along gradients, 15 grasslands, 441 long-tailed, 515t insecticides and, 150 Mt. Ellen long-tailed, 580 Mississippi Flyway, 357 northern red-backed, 723, 727 prairie pothole region, 456Ð57 Owens Valley, 525t Rocky Mountains, 480 Pahranagat Valley montane, 525t Upper Mississippi River, 370Ð73 red-backed, 728 Waterfowl Breeding Population and Habitat Survey, 456 red tree, 633t, 683, 683t, 686 waterhyssops singing, 723, 734 blue, 415t southern red-backed, 481, 683t, 715 bulltongue, 402t succession and, 18 coastal, 407, 415t tundra, 723, 727, 728, 734 water impoundment, Southwest, 560Ð61, 562 western red-backed, 652, 683t, 686 water levels, See also sea-level change; sea-level rise white-footed, 683t coastal Louisiana, 395Ð96 vulture, turkey, 246t, 340, 374t, 524, 678t Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 510 waterlily, American white, 415t wading birds, 407, 420t waterlocust, 411 barrier islands, 421 watermilfoils Everglades, 291Ð92 Eurasian, 50, 196, 274, 361, 363, 415 wagtail, yellow, 727 parrot feather, 274 wahoo, 799 twoleaf, 415t Wake Island, 825, 826t waternymph, southern, 415, 415t Walker Lake, 524, 533Ð34 water pollution Walker River basin, 533Ð34 aquatic toxicology, 145 walleye, 138, 241, 242, 367, 368, 369 atmospheric contaminants and, 73 WallowaÐWhitman National Forest, 653 benthic macroinvertebrates and, 299Ð300 walruses duck population and, 456Ð57 North Pacific, 846 grazing and, 75 Pacific, 788t land-use change and, 39, 50 warblers, 244 mining and, 75Ð76 arctic, 722, 727 multiple pollutants, 73Ð74 Bachman’s, 52, 289, 302, 427t, 428 nonpoint, 72Ð76 bay-breasted, 246t point sources, 73Ð74 blackpoll, 719 Rocky Mountains, 487 black-throated blue, 189t sediment, 74Ð75 black and white, 246t sources, 72Ð73 blue-winged, 374t Southeast, 273Ð74 Canada, 246t water development and, 66 golden-winged, 189t Water Pollution Control Act (1956), 72 hermit, 626 Water Pollution Control Act (1972), 72 Kirtland’s, 112Ð13, 232t, 247Ð48 waterprimrose, creeping, 20, 21 MacGillivray’s, 25, 674t, 675, 678t, 679, 681 water processes, Rocky Mountain landscape and, 473 magnolia, 246t water rights, 64 Nashville, 679 watersheds orange-crowned, 25, 674t, 675, 679, 719 defined, 910 pine, 246t effects of water use on, 65Ð66 prairie, 374t future management, 83 prothonotary, 374t, 422f Mississippi River, 351 Swainson’s, 302 watershield, 415t Townsend’s, 719 water temperature, dams and, 77 Wilson’s, 631, 674, 674t, 678t, 679 water use, 63Ð83 yellow, 25, 246t, 523, 679, 681, 719 Colorado River, 76Ð79 yellow-rumped, 246t, 674t, 675 consumptive, 63 warmouth, 419 development, 66 Wasatch Range, 513 diversions, 67Ð68 washes, 559 ecological effects, 76Ð79 Washington state, sea otters, 684Ð86 Everglades, 79Ð80 wasps, 518 flood control, 67 wastewater reuse, 532 grasslands, 443 waterbirds grazing and, 43 California, 604 historical, 64Ð65 coastal, Southeast, 289t hydroelectric power, 67Ð68 colonial, Mississippi River, 370 interbasin transfer, 72 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 510, 524Ð25 irrigation, 68, 72 migratory, 510 lake ecosystems, 80Ð81 water bodies, See also lakes; ponds; reservoirs; rivers; streams management responsibility, 64 acidified, 136Ð38 nature of, 66 herbicide contamination of, 151 navigation and transportation, 67 960 Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2

pollution, 72Ð76 Rocky Mountains, 487 regulation, Colorado River, 76 San Francisco Bay, 815 research needs, 82Ð83 Southeast, 278Ð79, 792Ð93 Southwest, 574Ð75 Southwest, 560Ð63 urban areas and, 39 wet meadows watersheds and, 65Ð66, 83 Alaska, 732 waterways, grasslands, 442Ð43 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 509Ð10 waterwillow, looseflower, 404 whales, 425, 427, 790 waxwing, cedar, 246t, 374t, 678t, 679 Baird’s beaked, 788t, 789t weakfish, 800 beaked, 789t, 810 weasels, 195, 248, 734 beluga, 788t, 813 least, 461, 723, 734 black right, 171 long-tailed, 461 Blainville’s beaked, 788t wedgemussel, dwarf, 196 blue, 427t, 612, 788t, 789, 789t, 821, 843 weeds bottlenose, 810 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 530 bowhead, 788t, 813 nonindigenous plants as, 119 Bryde’s, 788t, 789t, 841 weevils central North Pacific humpback, 813 boll, 41 Cuvier’s beaked, 788t, 789, 789t Nelson’s miloderes, 516 dwarf sperm, 788t, 789, 789t, 805 West, land-use variation, 43Ð44 false killer, 789t West Dock Causeway, 740 fin, 427t, 787, 788t, 789t, 790, 813, 821, 843 Western Arctic caribou herd, 727, 736 Gervais’ beaked, 788t Western Governor’s Association, Great Plains Program, 465 gray, 612, 788t, 813, 823, 824 western juniper zone, 511t, 512Ð13 humpback, 427t, 612, 712, 787, 788t, 789t, 790, 812, 813, 821, western Pacific oceanic region, 824Ð44, See also Hawaii; Pacific 827, 827f, 831, 843 Islands killer, 788t, 789t, 805f, 812, 823, 824, 841, 850 benthic resources, 831Ð32 long-finned pilot, 788t, 789 biodiversity patterns, 830 melon-headed, 788t, 789t coral reefs, 844Ð45 mesoplodont beaked, 789t, 821 environmental and physical features, 825Ð26 migration patterns, 790 fisheries resources, 832Ð38 minke, 788t, 821, 824, 841 bottom fish, 835Ð36 nonconsumptive uses of, 786Ð87 coastal pelagic fishes, 834Ð35 North Atlantic right, 788t, 789, 791Ð92 coral reefs, 837Ð38 northern bottlenose, 788t invertebrates, 832Ð33 northern right, 788t oceanic pelagic fishes, 833Ð34 North Pacific humpback, 843Ð44 reef animals, 836Ð37 North Pacific right, 813 sharks, 833 pygmy killer, 788t marine resources pygmy sperm, 788t, 789, 789t, 805 potential and average yield, 845t, 846 right, 427t, 787 taxonomic knowledge, 830Ð31, 852 sei, 427t, 787, 788t, 789t, 821 pelagic ecosystems, 826Ð30 short-finned pilot, 788t, 789, 789t, 805, 821 primary production, 831Ð32 Sowerby’s beaked, 788t westside California, 593, See also California sperm, 427t, 788t, 789, 789t, 790f, 805, 810, 813, 821, 843 climate, 594 Stejneger’s beaked, 788t ecosystems, 598Ð616 tropical bottlenose, 841, 843 topographic features, 594Ð96 True’s beaked, 788t westside forests, Pacific Northwest, 645, 646Ð47, 690 western North Atlantic right, 791 West Wind Drift, 814 western North Pacific humpback, 813 wet-dry cycle, grasslands, 443 white, 154 wetland loss, 66t whale watching, 786Ð87 for agricultural purposes, 38Ð39 wheatear, northern, 722 coastal Louisiana, 20Ð22, 398 wheatgrasses, 44, 438, 476, 549 Great BasinÐMojave Desert region, 524 western, 476, 556 historical, 66 whelks, 785 interior, 398 fat, 808 rates, coastal Louisiana, 398 lyre, 808 shoreline, 398 Pribilof, 808 Southwest, 561 whimbrels, 722 wetlands, See also coastal ecosystems, wetlands; marshes; prairie whipsnakes, striped, 670 pothole region whiptail, canyon spotted, 571 arid, 142Ð43 whirling disease, 497 birds, 454Ð55 whistling-ducks California, 603Ð4 black-bellied, 330 carnivorous plants, 285 West Indian, 337 Carolina bays, 283Ð84 white band disease, 323 Chesapeake Bay watershed, 201Ð3 white-cedar defined, 910 Atlantic, 191, 260, 262 forested, coastal Louisiana, 408Ð10 Atlantic white-cedar swamps, 15, 286 gains, 66t whitefishes, 221, 718, 725 grasslands, 442 broad, 711t Great Lakes region, 224Ð25 Great Lakes, 236, 238Ð39, 241, 242 Hawaii, 760 humpback, 711t, 718, 733 Hurricane Andrew and, 20Ð22 lake, 241, 242Ð43 landscape context, 56 pygmy, 663t, 711t land-use change and, 49 round, 711t, 718, 722, 733 mountain, 277 White, Gilbert, 169 Northeast, 195, 197, 200 white-mangrove, 327 pocosins, 284Ð85 White Mountains (Alaska), 721Ð22 prairie, 440Ð42 White Sands Missile Range, 558 protecting from cropland conversion, 192 white-eye, Ponape greater, 766 Puget Sound, 823 whiting, 800, See also hake, Pacific Status and Trends of the Nation’s Biological Resources — Volume 2 961

Pacific, 817t, 818, 823 red-bellied, 246t, 374t whitlowgrass, few-flowered, 732 red-cockaded, 109, 110, 283, 289, 302, 427t, 428 Whit Mountains (Nevada), 514 red-headed, 189t, 246t, 374t widgeongrass, 402t, 415t red-tailed, 631 wigeon, American, 424t, 425t, 456, 460 three-toed, 481Ð82 wildcelery, 50, 360, 361, 363, 371, 378 white-headed, 626 Wilderness Society, 664 wood-pewees wildflowers, 273, 477 eastern, 246t, 374t Wildlife Management Areas, California, 604 western, 631, 674t, 679, 681 wild-rye, giant, 607 woodrats Wild and Scenic Rivers, 65 bushy-tailed, 515t wilkesia, 750 dusky-footed, 633t Willamette River, 49, 651 middens, 526 willet, 421, 454t, 455t worms willow bustic, 317 annelid, 416 willows, 21, 24, 359, 403, 445, 476, 477, 508, 549, 561, 562Ð63, feather-duster, 836Ð37 716, 720, 722, 724, 734 marine, 831 Bebb, 717 nematode, 416, 808 black, 359, 360, 403, 409 oligochaete, 416, 417 coyote, 78 polychaete, 416Ð17, 780, 793, 807 netleaf, 711 segmented, 831 willow shrubs, 721 wormwoods, 717 wind, coastal Louisiana water levels and, 395Ð96 Aleutian, 729 windowpane, 783t woundfin, 519, 566 windstorms, See also storms Napoleon, 836 old-growth forests and, 481 wrens windthrow, 549 Bewick’s, 188, 631, 674, 674t Winnemucca Lake, 532 house, 246t, 523, 677, 681 winterfat, 511, 546 marsh, 374t, 454t, 455t wintergreen, 24, 717 rock, 25, 523, 678t, 679 wire-grass, 280, 281, 282, 401, 402t, 404, 406, 407, 408, 412 sedge, 43f, 189t, 246t, 454t, 455t wire-lettuce, Malheur, 654t winter, 246t, 674, 674t wire-tagging, of Pacific halibut, 713 wrentit, 674t Wisconsin, forest composition, 48 Wisconsin Glacier, 352Ð53 Xerces Society, 234 prairie pothole region, 454 xeric, defined, 903, 910 withering foot disease, 615 wolverines, 245, 460, 461, 477, 481, 633t, 682t, 720, 723, 734, yagrumo hembra, 318 735, 739, yagrumo macho, 318 California, 525, 525t Yazoo Basin, flood-control structures, 67 North American, 525t year-class, defined, 910 wolves, 47, 48, 52, 172f, 463, 488, 489, 727, 734, 735, 737 yellowjackets, 767, 768 control of, 723, 738 yellowlegs, 719 dire, 720 greater, 712 gray, 186, 222, 231, 232t, 248, 265, 303, 304, 305, 440, 460, yellow-poplar, 48, 183 461, 494, 577, 632, 682t, 715, 723, 727, 730, 735, 738, 739 Yellowstone National Park, 478, 481Ð82, 485, 485f, 488Ð89, 494, red, 168, 265, 303, 304, 305, 427 495, 497 woodcocks fire succession, 17, 26 American, 193Ð95, 421 glaciation, 473 Puerto Rican, 329 mammals, climate change and, 102Ð3 wood decomposition, 19 Yellowstone River, 69 woodland chaparral, 608 yellowtail, 818 woodland herbs, 13 yellowthroats, common, 43f, 374t, 454t, 455t, 631, 675, 678t, 679 Woodland Period, 258 yew, Pacific, 710 woodlands, See also forests; birds Yosemite National Park, 597, 609 Great Lakes region, 245 Younger Dryas, 111 Southwest, 575Ð76 Yucca Mountain, 531 conversion to grasslands, 555 yuccas, 557 defined, 910 Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge, 738 woodpeckers, 422, 673 Yukon-Kuskokwim River delta, 726 acorn, 675 black-backed, 246t, 482, 671, 673 zinc, 132, 134 downy, 246t, 675 mining, Rocky Mountains, 478Ð79 Gila, 626t zoeae, defined, 910 hairy, 24, 246t, 675 zooplankton, 730, 816, See also plankton ivory-billed, 52, 259, 279, 302, 303, 427t, 428 Alaska, 807 ladder-backed, 576 coastal Louisiana, 415Ð16 Lewis’, 678t, 679 Mississippi River, 376 pileated, 246t, 671, 674, 675, 677