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Mary, mother of

[13] For the 1999 television film, see Mary, Mother of Jesus cal references. Mary (: ᐵᐙఆ௷ , translit. Maryām ) (film). For other uses, see Mary (disambiguation), also has a revered position in , where one of the Nuestra Señora (disambiguation), and Mary longer chapters of the is devoted to her. (disambiguation). This article is an overview. For specific views, see: Anglican, Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Ecumenical, Islamic, Lutheran, Mormon, and Protestant perspectives. 1 Names and titles Mary (Greek: Μαρία, translit. María; : , :translit. ; Arabic , מִרְיָם :translit. Mariam ; Hebrew ᐵᐙఆ௷ , translit. Mariam ), also known by various titles, styles and honorifics, was a 1st-century Galilean Jewish[2] woman of and the mother of Jesus, according to the and the Quran.[3][4] The of Matthew and Luke in the New Testa- ment and the Quran describe Mary as a virgin (Greek: παρθένος, translit. parthénos)[5] and believe that she conceived her son while a virgin by the . The miraculous birth took place when she was al- ready betrothed to and was awaiting the conclud- ing rite of marriage, the formal home-taking ceremony.[6] She married Joseph and accompanied him to , where Jesus was born.[7] The of Luke begins its account of Mary’s life with the , when the appeared to her and announced her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. According to canonical gospel accounts, Mary was present at the crucifixion and is depicted as a mem- ber of the early Christian community in . Ac- cording to the Catholic and Orthodox teaching, at the end of her earthly life her body was assumed directly into Heaven; this is known in the Christian West as the Assumption.[8][9] Mary has been venerated since Early ,[10][11] and is considered by millions to be the most meritorious saint of the religion. She is claimed to have miraculously appeared to believers many times over the centuries. Virgin and Child with and Sts. George and Theodore. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, , from around 600, from Saint Catherine’s . Anglican, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, as mother of Jesus, is the Mother of (Greek: Θε- οτόκος, translit. , lit. 'God-bearer'). There Main article: is significant diversity in the Marian beliefs and devo- tional practices of major Christian traditions. The Ro- man Catholic holds distinctive Marian , Mary’s name in the original manuscripts of the New namely her status as the Mother of God, her Immaculate Testament was based on her original Aramaic name [14] Conception, her perpetual , and her Assumption , translit. or Mariam. The English name into heaven.[12] Many Protestants minimize Mary’s role "Mary" comes from the Greek Μαρία, which is a short- within Christianity, based on the argued brevity of bibli- ened form of Μαριάμ. Both Μαρία and Μαριάμ appear in the New Testament.

1 2 2 NEW TESTAMENT

1.1 In Christianity Maryām ), mother of Isa (Arabic: ᐵᐙఆ௷ ౷ౢ ၊ᄫᅴ჻ , translit. ʿĪsā ibn Maryām, lit. 'Jesus, son of Mary' ). She is of- In Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the ten referred to by the honorific title sayyidatuna, mean- Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that she con- ing “our lady"; this title is in parallel to sayyiduna (“our ceived Jesus miraculously through the Holy Spirit with- lord”), used for the .[27] A related term of en- out her husband's involvement. Among her many other dearment is Siddiqah,[28] meaning “she who confirms the names and titles are the Blessed Virgin Mary (often truth”. Another title for Mary is Qānitah,.[29] abbreviated to “BVM”), Saint Mary (occasionally), the Mother of God (primarily in ), the Theotokos (primarily in ), Our Lady 2 New Testament (Medieval Italian: ), and (: Regina Coeli),[15][16] although the title “Queen of Heaven” was also a name for a pagan be- ing worshipped during the ’s lifetime (Jeremiah 44:17-19.) Titles in use vary among Anglicans, Lutherans, Catholics, Orthodox, Protestants, Mormons, and other Christians. The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox are Theotokos (Greek: Θεοτόκος, lit. 'God-bearer' or loosely “Mother of God”), Aeiparthenos (Greek: ἀειπαρθὲνος, lit. 'Ever-virgin') as confirmed in the Second Council of in 553, and (Greek: Παναγία, lit. 'All-holy').[17] Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions. For example, the title has inspired such masterpieces as Michelangelo's Pietà.[18] The title Theotokos was recognized at the Council of Eph- esus in 431. The direct equivalents of title in Latin are Deipara and Dei Genetrix, although the phrase is more often loosely translated into Latin as Mater Dei (Mother of God), with similar patterns for other languages used in the . However, this same phrase in Greek (Μήτηρ Θεοῦ), in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ, is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine . The Council stated that the “did The Annunciation by Eustache Le Sueur, an example of 17th- not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of century Marian art. The Angel Gabriel announces to Mary her God”.[19][20][21] pregnancy with Jesus and offers her White Lilies. Some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For in- stance, the title “Queen Mother” has been given to Mary • The mentions Mary the most often, since she was the mother of Jesus, who was sometimes identifying her by name twelve times, all of these referred to as the “King of Kings” due to his ancestral in the infancy narrative (1:27,30,34,38,39,41,46,56; descent from King . The scriptural basis for the 2:5,16,19,34). term “Queen” can be seen in Luke 1:32 and the 9:6. “Queen Mother” can be found in 1 Kings 2:19-20 • The Gospel of Matthew mentions her by name six and Jeremiah 13:18-19.[22] Other titles have arisen from times, five of these (1:16,18,20; 2:11) in the infancy reported miracles, special appeals or occasions for call- narrative and only once (13:55) outside the infancy ing on Mary. To give a few examples, Our Lady of Good narrative. Counsel, Our Lady of Navigators and Our Lady Undoer • of Knots fit this description.[23][24][25][26] The Gospel of Mark names her once (6:3) and men- tions her as Jesus’ mother without naming her in 3:31 and 3:32.

1.2 In Islam • The refers to her twice but never mentions her by name. Described as Jesus’ mother, Main article: she makes two appearances. She is first seen at the wedding at Cana. [Jn 2:1-12] The second reference, In Islam, she is known as Maryam (Arabic: ᐵᐙఆ௷ , translit. listed only in this gospel, has her standing near the 2.3 Birth of Jesus 3

cross of Jesus together with , (or Cleophas), and her own sister (pos- sibly the same as Mary of Clopas; the wording is semantically ambiguous), along with the " whom Jesus loved".[Jn 19:25-26] John 2:1-12 is the only text in the canonical gospels in which the adult Jesus has a conversation with Mary. He does not address her as “Mother” but as “Woman”. In (the language that John’s Gospel was composed in), calling one’s mother “Woman” was not disrespect- ful, and could even be tender.[30] Accordingly, some versions of the translate it as "Dear woman”. (John 2:4 NLT; NCV; AMP). • In the Acts of the Apostles, Mary and the are mentioned in the company of the Eleven (apostles) who are gathered in the upper room after the .[Acts 1:14] • In the Revelation to John,[12:1,5-6] Mary is never ex- plicitly identified as the "woman clothed with the sun". Jean-Pierre Ruiz makes that connection in an article in New Review[31] but the belief is quite ancient.

2.1 Genealogy

The New Testament tells little of Mary’s early history. The Virgin’s first seven steps, from , c. 12th John 19:25 states that Mary had a sister; semantically century it is unclear if this sister is the same as Mary the wife of Clopas or if she is left unnamed. identi- fies Mary of Cleopas as the sister of Mary, mother of trothal — the first stage of a Jewish marriage — the angel Jesus.[32] According to the early second-century histo- Gabriel announced to her that she was to be the mother rian Hegesippus, Mary of Clopas was likely Mary’s sister- of the promised by conceiving him through the in-law, understanding Clopas (Cleophas) to have been Holy Spirit, and, after initially expressing incredulity at Joseph’s brother.[33] the announcement, she responded, “I am the handmaid of the Lord. Let it be done unto me according to your According to the writer of Luke, Mary was a relative of word.”[37] Joseph planned to quietly divorce her, but was Elizabeth, wife of the Zechariah of the priestly di- told her conception was by the Holy Spirit in a dream by vision of Abijah, who was herself part of the lineage of “an angel of the Lord"; the angel told him to not hesitate and so of the tribe of Levi.[Luke 1:5;1:36] Some of to take her as his wife, which Joseph did, thereby formally those who consider that the relationship with Elizabeth completing the wedding rites.[38][Mt 1:18-25] was on the maternal side, consider that Mary, like Joseph, to whom she was betrothed, was of the House of David Since the angel Gabriel had told Mary (according to Luke and so of the Tribe of Judah, and that the genealogy of Je- 1:36) that Elizabeth—having previously been barren— sus presented in Luke 3 from Nathan, third son of David was then miraculously pregnant, Mary hurried to see Eliz- and , is in fact the genealogy of Mary, while the abeth, who was living with her husband Zechariah in genealogy from given in Matthew 1 is that of "Hebron, in the hill country of Judah”.[39] Mary arrived Joseph.[34][35][36] (Aaron’s wife Elisheba was of the tribe at the house and greeted Elizabeth who called Mary “the of Judah, so all their descendants are from both Levi and mother of my Lord”, and Mary spoke the words of praise Judah.)[Num.1:7 & Ex.6:23] that later became known as the Magnificat from her first word in the Latin version.[Luke 1:46-55] After about three months, Mary returned to her own house.[Lk 1:56-57] 2.2 Annunciation

Main article: Annunciation 2.3 Birth of Jesus

Mary resided in “her own house”[Lk.1:56] in Nazareth in Main article: Galilee, possibly with her parents, and during her be- 4 2 NEW TESTAMENT

A nativity scene in France. Santons featuring .

According to the Gospel of Luke, a decree of the Roman Emperor Augustus required that Joseph return to his hometown of Bethlehem to register for a Roman census. While he was there with Mary, she gave birth to Jesus; but because there was no place for them in the inn, she used a manger as a cradle.[40]:p.14 [2:1ff] After eight days, he was circumcised according to Jewish law, and named "Jesus" translit. Yeshua ), which means "Yahweh , ישוע :Hebrew) is salvation”.[41] After Mary continued in the "blood of her purifying" another 33 days for a total of 40 days, she brought her burnt offering and sin offering to the Temple in Jerusalem,[Luke 2:22] so the priest could make atonement for her sins, being cleansed from her blood.[Leviticus 12:1-8] They also presented Jesus – “As it is written in the law in the Valle Romita Polyptych by Gentile da Fabri- ano, c. 1410-1412 of the Lord, Every male that openeth the womb shall be called holy to the Lord” (Luke 2:23other verses). After the prophecies of and the prophetess Anna in Luke 2:25-38 concluded, Joseph and Mary water into wine.[Jn 2:1-11] Subsequently there are events took Jesus and “returned into Galilee, to their own city [Luke 2:39] when Mary is present along with James, Joseph, Simon, Nazareth”. and Judas, called Jesus’ brothers, and unnamed sisters.[43] According to the author of the gospel according to Following Jerome, the Church Fathers interpreted the Matthew, the Magi arrived at Bethlehem where Jesus and words translated as “brother” and “sister” as referring to his family were living. Joseph was warned in a dream that close relatives.[44][45] King Herod wanted to murder the infant, and the Holy The hagiography of Mary and the can be Family fled by night to and stayed there for some contrasted with other material in the Gospels. These ref- time. After Herod’s death in 4 BC, they returned to the erences include an incident which can be interpreted as land of . Because Herod’s son Archelaus was ruler Jesus rejecting his family in the New Testament: “And of Judaea, they did not return to Bethlehem, but took up [Mat.2] his mother and his brothers arrived, and standing outside, residence in Nazareth in Galilee instead. they sent in a message asking for him ... And looking at those who sat in a circle around him, Jesus said, 'These are my mother and my brothers. Whoever does the will 2.4 In the life of Jesus of God is my brother, and sister, and mother'.”[46][3:31-35] Other verses suggest a conflict between Jesus and his fam- Mary is involved in the only event in Jesus’ adolescent ily, including an attempt to have Jesus restrained because life that is recorded in the New Testament. At the age of “he is out of his mind”,[47] and the famous quote: “A twelve, Jesus, having become separated from his parents prophet is not without honor except in his own town, on their return journey from the celebration in among his relatives and in his own home.”[48] A lead- Jerusalem, was found in the Temple among the religious [42]:p.210 [Lk 2:41-52] ing Biblical scholar commented: “there are clear signs teachers. not only that Jesus’s family rejected his message dur- Mary was present when, at her suggestion, Jesus worked ing his public ministry but that he in turn spurned them his first miracle during a wedding at Cana by turning publicly”.[49] 5

Mary is also depicted as being present among the women According to the apocryphal , Mary was at the crucifixion during the crucifixion standing near “the the daughter of Saint and . Before disciple whom Jesus loved” along with Mary of Clopas Mary’s conception, Anne had been barren and was far and Mary Magdalene,[Jn 19:25-26] to which list Matthew advanced in years. Mary was given to service as a con- 27:56 adds “the mother of the sons of Zebedee”, pre- secrated virgin in the Temple in Jerusalem when she was sumably the mentioned in Mark 15:40. This three years old, much like took to the representation is called a Stabat Mater.[50][51] While not Tabernacle as recorded in the .[55] recorded in the Gospel accounts, Mary cradling the dead Some apocryphal accounts state that at the time of her be- body of her son is a common motif in art, called a "pietà" trothal to Joseph, Mary was 12–14 years old, and he was or “pity”. ninety years old, but such accounts are unreliable.[56] Ac- cording to ancient Jewish custom, Mary could have been betrothed at about 12.[57] Hyppolitus of Thebes claims 2.5 After the Ascension of Jesus that Mary lived for 11 years after the death of her son Jesus, dying in 41 AD.[58] In Acts 1:26, especially v. 14, Mary is the only one other than the eleven apostles to be mentioned by name who The earliest extant biographical writing on Mary is Life abode in the upper room, when they returned from Mount of the Virgin attributed to the 7th-century saint, Maximus Olivet. Some speculate that the “elect lady” mentioned the Confessor, which portrays her as a key element of the [59][60][61] in 2 John 1:1 may be Mary. From this time, she dis- early Christian Church after the death of Jesus. appears from the biblical accounts, although it is held In the 19th century, a house near in by Catholics that she is again portrayed as the heavenly was found, based on the visions of Anne Catherine Em- [Rev 12:1] woman of Revelation. merich, an Augustinian nun in Germany.[62][63] It has Her death is not recorded in the scriptures, but Catholic since been visited as the by and Orthodox tradition and doctrine have her assumed Roman Catholic pilgrims who consider it the place where [64][65][66][67] (taken bodily) into Heaven. Belief in the corporeal as- Mary lived until her assumption. The Gospel sumption of Mary is a of the , of John states that Mary went to live with the Disciple [Jn 19:27] in the Latin and Eastern Catholic Churches alike, and is whom Jesus loved, identified as John the Evan- believed as well by the ,[52][53] gelist. and Eusebius of Caesarea wrote in their the Coptic Orthodox Church, and parts of the Anglican histories that John later went to Ephesus, which may pro- Communion and Continuing Anglican movement.[54] vide the basis for the early belief that Mary also lived in Ephesus with John.[68][69]

2.6 Later Christian writings and tradi- tions 3 Perspectives on Mary

3.1 Christian

See also: , Theotokos, and to Mary

Christian Marian perspectives include a great deal of diversity. While some Christians such as Catholics and Eastern Orthodox have well established Marian traditions, Protestants at large pay scant attention to Mariological themes. Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutherans venerate the Virgin Mary. This especially takes the form of prayer for intercession with her Son, Jesus . Additionally it includes composing poems and songs in Mary’s honor, painting icons or carving statues of her, and conferring titles on Mary that reflect her position among the .[16][17][18][70]

3.1.1 Catholic

The Dormition: ivory plaque, late 10th-early 11th century Main articles: Roman and (Musée de Cluny) Veneration of Mary in Roman Catholicism 6 3 PERSPECTIVES ON MARY

In the Catholic Church, Mary is accorded the title “Blessed” (Latin: beata, Greek: μακάρια, translit. makaria) in recognition of her assumption to Heaven and her capacity to intercede on behalf of those who pray to her. There is a difference between the usage of the term “blessed” as pertaining to Mary and its usage as pertain- ing as pertaining to a beatified person. “Blessed” as a Marian title refers to her exalted state as being the great- est among the saints; for a person who has been declared beatified, on the other hand, “blessed” simply indicates that they may be venerated despite not being officially canonized. Catholic teachings make clear that Mary is not The chapel based on the claimed House of Mary in Ephesus considered divine and prayers to her are not answered by her, but rather by God through her intercession.[71] The four Catholic dogmas regarding Mary are: her status as needs”.[75][85][86][87][88] Key Marian prayers include: Ave Theotokos, or Mother of God; her perpetual virginity; her Maria, Alma , Sub Tuum Praesidum, ; and her bodily Assumption into , Regina Coeli, Ave Regina Coelorum heaven.[72][73][74] and the Magnificat.[89] The Blessed Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus has a Mary’s participation in the processes of salvation and re- more central role in Roman Catholic teachings and be- demption has also been emphasized in the Catholic tra- liefs than in any other major Christian group. Not only dition, but they are not doctrines.[90][91][92][93] John do Roman Catholics have more theological doctrines and Paul II's 1987 Redemptoris Mater began with teachings that relate to Mary, but they have more festi- the sentence: “The Mother of the Redeemer has a pre- vals, prayers, devotional, and venerative practices than cise place in the plan of salvation.”[94] [18] any other group. The Catechism of the Catholic Church In the 20th century both John Paul II and Benedict states: “The Church’s devotion to the Blessed Virgin is XVI have emphasized the Marian focus of the Church. [75] intrinsic to Christian .” Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) For centuries, Catholics have performed acts of wrote: consecration and entrustment to Mary at personal, soci- etal and regional levels. These acts may be directed to It is necessary to go back to Mary if the Virgin herself, to the and we want to return to that “truth about Jesus to the Immaculate Conception. In Catholic teachings, Christ,” “truth about the Church” and “truth consecration to Mary does not diminish or substitute about man.”[95] the love of God, but enhances it, for all consecration is ultimately made to God.[76][77] when he suggested a redirection of the whole Church to- Following the growth of in the 16th wards the program of Pope John Paul II in order to ensure century, Catholic saints wrote books such as Glories an authentic approach to via a return to the of Mary and that emphasized “whole truth about Mary”.[95] Marian veneration and taught that “the path to Jesus is through Mary”.[78] Marian devotions are at times linked to Christocentric devotions (e.g. the Alliance of the 3.1.2 Eastern Orthodox Hearts of Jesus and Mary).[79] Key Marian devotions include: Seven Sorrows of Mary, and , and Reparations to Mary.[80][81] The months of May and October are tradi- tionally “Marian months” for Roman Catholics, e.g., the daily Rosary is encouraged in October and in May Mar- ian devotions take place in many regions.[82][83][84] Popes have issued a number of Marian and Apos- tolic Letters to encourage devotions to and the veneration of the Virgin Mary.

Catholics place high emphasis on Mary’s roles as pro- A mosaic from the of Constantinople (modern Is- tector and intercessor and the Catechism refers to Mary tanbul), depicting Mary with Jesus, flanked by John II Komnenos as “honored with the title 'Mother of God,' to whose (left) and his wife Irene of Hungary (right), c. 1118 AD protection the faithful fly in all their dangers and 3.1 Christian 7

The Protoevangelium of James, an extra-canonical book, has been the source of many Orthodox beliefs on Mary. The account of Mary’s life presented includes her con- secration as a virgin at the temple at age three. The High Priest Zachariah blessed Mary and informed her that God had magnified her name among many gener- ations. Zachariah placed Mary on the third step of the altar, whereby God gave her grace. While in the tem- ple, Mary was miraculously fed by an angel, until she was twelve years old. At that point an angel told Zachariah to betroth Mary to a widower in Israel, who would be indi- cated. This story provides the theme of many hymns for the Feast of , and icons of the feast depict the story.[101] The Orthodox believe that Mary was instrumental in the growth of Christianity during the life of Jesus, and after his Crucifixion, and Orthodox The- ologian Sergei Bulgakov wrote: “The Virgin Mary is the center, invisible, but real, of the Apostolic Church.” Theologians from the Orthodox tradition have made prominent contributions to the development of Marian thought and devotion. John Damascene (c. 650─c. 750) was one of the greatest Orthodox theologians. Among other Marian writings, he proclaimed the essential na- 15th-century icon of the Theotokos (God-bearer) ture of Mary’s heavenly Assumption or Dormition and her mediative role.

Eastern Orthodox Christianity includes a large num- It was necessary that the body of the one ber of traditions regarding the Ever Virgin Mary, the who preserved her virginity intact in giving Theotokos.[96] The Orthodox believe that she was and re- birth should also be kept incorrupt after death. mained a virgin before and after Christ’s birth.[17] The It was necessary that she, who carried the Cre- Theotokia (i.e., hymns to the Theotokos) are an essen- ator in her womb when he was a baby, should tial part of the Divine Services in the Eastern Church and dwell among the tabernacles of heaven.[102] their positioning within the liturgical sequence effectively places the Theotokos in the most prominent place after [97] From her we have harvested the grape of Christ. Within the Orthodox tradition, the order of life; from her we have cultivated the seed of the saints begins with: The Theotokos, Angels, Prophets, immortality. For our sake she became Media- Apostles, Fathers, Martyrs, etc. giving the Virgin Mary trix of all blessings; in her God became man, precedence over the angels. She is also proclaimed as the and man became God.[103] “Lady of the Angels”.[97]

The views of the Church Fathers still play an impor- More recently, Sergei Bulgakov expressed the Orthodox tant role in the shaping of Orthodox Marian perspec- sentiments towards Mary as follows:[100] tive. However, the Orthodox views on Mary are mostly doxological, rather than academic: they are expressed in hymns, praise, liturgical poetry and the veneration Mary is not merely the instrument, but the of icons. One of the most loved Orthodox direct positive condition of the Incarnation, its (i.e. standing hymns) is devoted to Mary and it is often human aspect. Christ could not have been in- simply called the .[98] Five of the twelve carnate by some mechanical process, violating Great Feasts in Orthodoxy are dedicated to Mary.[17] The human nature. It was necessary for that na- Sunday of Orthodoxy directly links the Virgin Mary’s ture itself to say for itself, by the mouth of identity as Mother of God with icon veneration.[99] A the most pure human being: “Behold the hand- number of Orthodox feasts are connected with the mirac- maid of the Lord, be it unto me according to ulous icons of the Theotokos.[97] Thy word.” The Orthodox view Mary as “superior to all created be- ings”, although not divine.[100] The Orthodox does not 3.1.3 Protestant venerate Mary as conceived immaculate. The Orthodox celebrate the Dormition of the Theotokos, rather than Further information: Protestant views on Mary Assumption.[17] 8 3 PERSPECTIVES ON MARY

Protestants in general reject the veneration and invoca- ferent views on Marian doctrines and venerative practices tion of the Saints.[13]:1174 Protestants typically hold the given that there is no single church with universal author- view that Mary was the mother of Jesus, but unlike ity within the Communion and that the mother church Catholics, they believe that she was an ordinary woman (the ) understands itself to be both who was also devoted to God. Therefore, there is virtu- “catholic” and "Reformed".[111] Thus unlike the Protes- ally no Marian veneration, Marian feasts, Marian pilgrim- tant churches at large, the (which ages, Marian art, Marian music or Marian spirituality in includes the Episcopal Church in the United States) in- today’s Protestant communities. Within these views, Ro- cludes segments which still retain some veneration of man Catholic beliefs and practices are at times rejected, Mary.[70] e.g., theologian Karl Barth wrote that “the heresy of the Mary’s special position within God’s purpose of salvation Catholic Church is its Mariology".[104] as “God-bearer” (Theotokos) is recognised in a number Some early Protestants venerated and honored Mary. of ways by some Anglican Christians.[112] All the mem- wrote that: “Mary is full of grace, pro- ber churches of the Anglican Communion affirm in the claimed to be entirely without sin. God’s grace fills historic that Jesus was born of the Virgin Mary, her with everything good and makes her devoid of all and celebrates the feast days of the Presentation of Christ evil.”[105] However, as of 1532 Luther stopped celebrat- in the Temple. This feast is called in older prayer books ing the feast of the and also discon- the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary on February tinued his support of the Immaculate Conception.[106] 2. The Annunciation of our Lord to the Blessed Virgin John Calvin said, “It cannot be denied that God in choos- on March 25 was from before the time of until the ing and destining Mary to be the Mother of his Son, 18th century ’s Day in England. The Annuncia- granted her the highest honor.”[107] However, Calvin tion is called the “Annunciation of our Lady” in the 1662 firmly rejected the notion that anyone but Christ can in- . Anglicans also celebrate in tercede for man.[108] the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin on 31 May, though in some provinces the traditional date of July 2 is kept. The Although Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli honored Mary as feast of the St. Mary the Virgin is observed on the tra- the Mother of God in the 16th century, they did so less ditional day of the Assumption, August 15. The Nativity than Martin Luther.[109] Thus the idea of respect and high of the Blessed Virgin is kept on 8.[70] honor for Mary was not rejected by the first Protestants; The Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary is kept in but, they came to criticize the Roman Catholics for ven- erating Mary. Following the in the 16th the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, on December 8. In century, as Marian veneration became associated with certain Anglo-Catholic parishes this feast is called the Catholics, Protestant interest in Mary decreased. Dur- Immaculate Conception. Again, the Assumption of Mary ing the Age of the Enlightenment any residual interest is believed in by most Anglo-Catholics, but is consid- in Mary within Protestant churches almost disappeared, ered a pious opinion by moderate Anglicans. Protes- tant minded Anglicans reject the celebration of these although Anglicans and Lutherans continued to honor [70] her.[13] feasts. Protestants acknowledge that Mary is “blessed among Prayers and venerative practices vary a great deal. For women”[Luke 1:42] but they do not agree that Mary is to be instance, as of the 19th century, following the Oxford venerated, as worship of any person or thing other than Movement, Anglo-Catholics frequently pray the Rosary, God could be construed as (Exodus 20:3). She the , , and other and an- thems of Our Lady that are reminiscent of Catholic is considered to be an outstanding example of a life ded- [113] icated to God.[110] practices. On the other hand, Low-church Anglicans rarely invoke the Blessed Virgin except in certain hymns, In the 20th century, Protestants reacted in opposition to such as the second stanza of Ye Watchers and Ye Holy the Catholic dogma of the Assumption of Mary. The con- Ones.[112][114] servative tone of the began to mend the ecumenical differences, and Protestants began The Anglican Society of Mary was formed in 1931 to show interest in Marian themes. In 1997 and 1998 ec- and maintains chapters in many countries. The pur- pose of the society is to foster devotion to Mary among umenical dialogs between Catholics and Protestants took [70][115] place, but to date the majority of Protestants pay scant Anglicans. The high-church Anglicans espouse attention to Marian issues and often view them as a chal- doctrines that are closer to Roman Catholics, and retain lenge to the authority of Scripture.[13] veneration for Mary, e.g., official Anglican pilgrimages to have taken place since 1963, and pilgrimages to have gone on for hundreds of years.[116] Anglican Main article: Anglican Marian theology Historically, there has been enough common ground be- tween Roman Catholics and Anglicans on Marian issues The multiple churches that form the Anglican Commu- that in 2005 a joint statement called Mary: grace and nion and the Continuing Anglican movement have dif- 3.1 Christian 9

hope in Christ was produced through ecumenical meet- Mary was a perpetual virgin and Mother of God.[118][119] ings of Anglicans and Roman Catholic theologians. This Special attention is given to the assertion that Luther, document, informally known as the “Seattle Statement”, some three-hundred years before the dogmatization of is not formally endorsed by either the Catholic Church or the Immaculate Conception by Pope Pius IX in 1854, the Anglican Communion, but is viewed by its authors as was a firm adherent of that view. Others maintain that the beginning of a joint understanding of Mary.[70][117] Luther in later years changed his position on the Immac- ulate Conception, which, at that time was undefined in the Church, maintaining however the Lutheran Main article: Luther’s Marian theology throughout her life.[120][121] For Luther, early in his life, Despite Martin Luther's harsh polemics against his Ro- the Assumption of Mary was an understood fact, although he later stated that the Bible did not say anything about it and stopped celebrating its feast. Important to him was the belief that Mary and the saints do live on af- ter death.[122][123][124] “Throughout his career as a priest- professor-reformer, Luther preached, taught, and argued about the veneration of Mary with a verbosity that ranged from childlike piety to sophisticated polemics. His views are intimately linked to his Christocentric theology and its consequences for liturgy and piety.”[125] Luther, while revering Mary, came to criticize the “Papists” for blurring the line, between high admiration of the grace of God wherever it is seen in a human being, and religious ser- vice given to another creature. He considered the Roman Catholic practice of celebrating saints' days and mak- ing intercessory requests addressed especially to Mary and other departed saints to be idolatry.[126][127] His fi- nal thoughts on Marian devotion and veneration are pre- served in a preached at Wittenberg only a month before his death:

Therefore, when we preach faith, that we should worship nothing but , the Fa- ther of our Lord Jesus Christ, as we say in the : 'I believe in God the Father almighty and in Jesus Christ,' then we are remaining in the temple at Jerusalem. Again,'This is my beloved Son; listen to him.' 'You will find him in a manger'. He alone does it. But reason says the opposite: What, us? Are we to worship only Christ? In- deed, shouldn’t we also honor the holy mother of Christ? She is the woman who bruised the head of the serpent. Hear us, Mary, for thy Son so honors thee that he can refuse thee noth- ing. Here Bernard went too far in his Homilies on the Gospel: Missus est Angelus.[128] God has commanded that we should honor the parents; therefore I will call upon Mary. She will in- tercede for me with the Son, and the Son with the Father, who will listen to the Son. So you have the picture of God as angry and Christ of Jesus leaving his mother in a Lutheran Church, as judge; Mary shows to Christ her breast and South Carolina. Christ shows his wounds to the wrathful Fa- ther. That’s the kind of thing this comely man Catholic opponents over issues concerning Mary and bride, the wisdom of reason cooks up: Mary the saints, theologians appear to agree that Luther ad- is the mother of Christ, surely Christ will lis- hered to the Marian decrees of the ecumenical councils ten to her; Christ is a stern judge, therefore and dogmas of the church. He held fast to the belief that I will call upon St. George and St. Christo- 10 3 PERSPECTIVES ON MARY

pher. No, we have been by God’s command is now far too late to include authentic remembrances baptized in the name of the Father, the Son, of Jesus.[146] The Blackwell Companion to Jesus states and the Holy Spirit, just as the were that the Toledot Yeshu has no historical facts as such and circumcised.[129][130] was perhaps created as a tool for warding off conver- sions to Christianity.[147] The name Panthera may be a Certain Lutheran churches such as the Anglo-Lutheran distortion of the term parthenos (virgin) and Raymond Catholic Church however, continue to venerate Mary and E. Brown considers the story of Panthera a fanciful ex- the saints in the same manner that Roman Catholics do, planation of the birth of Jesus that includes very little [148] and hold all Marian dogmas as part of their faith.[131] historical evidence. Robert Van Voorst states that be- cause Toledot Yeshu is a medieval document with its lack of a fixed form and orientation towards a popular au- Methodist Further information: Saints in dience, it is “most unlikely” to have reliable historical § Virgin Mary information.[149]

Methodists do not have any additional teachings on the 3.3 Islamic Virgin Mary except from what is mentioned in Scrip- ture and the ecumenical Creeds. As such, Methodists Main article: Mary in Islam accept the doctrine of the Virgin Birth, but reject the doc- The Virgin Mary holds a singularly exalted place in Islam trine of the Immaculate Conception.[132] John Wesley, the principal founder of the Methodist movement within the Church of England, believed that Mary “continued a pure and unspotted virgin", thus upholding the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary.[133][134] Contempo- rary Methodism does hold that Mary was a virgin before, during, and immediately after the birth of Christ.[135][136] In addition, some Methodists also hold the doctrine of the Assumption of Mary as a pious opinion.[137]

3.1.4 Nontrinitarian

Nontrinitarians, such as Unitarians, Christadelphians, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and Latter Day Saints[138] also acknowledge Mary as the biological mother of Jesus Christ, but reject any immaculate conception and do not recognize Marian titles such as “Mother of God” as these groups mostly reject Christ’s divinity. The Latter Day Saint movement’s view affirms the [139] and Christ’s divinity but only as a separate be- ing than God the Father. The Book of Mormon, refers to Mary by name in prophecies and describes her as “most beautiful and fair above all other virgins”[140] and as a “precious and chosen vessel.”[141] Since most Non-trinitarian groups are typically also Christian mortalists, Mary is not seen as an intercessor of Mary and Jesus between humankind and Jesus, whom mortalists would consider “asleep”, awaiting resurrection.[142][143] and she is considered by the Qur'an to have been the greatest woman in the history of humankind. The Islamic 3.2 Jewish scripture recounts the Divine Promise given to Mary as being: “Mary! God has chosen thee, and purified thee; The issue of the parentage of af- He hath chosen thee above all the women of creation” fects also the view of his mother. However, the Talmud (3:42). does not mention Mary by name and is considerate rather Moreover, Mary is the only woman named in the Qur'an than only polemic.[144][145] The story about Panthera is and she is mentioned or referred to in the scripture a total also found in the Toledot Yeshu, the literary origins of of fifty times.[150] Mary holds a singularly distinguished which can not be traced with any certainty, and given and honored position among women in the Qur'an.A that it is unlikely to go before the 4th century, the time Sura (chapter) in the Qur'an is titled "Maryam" (Mary), 3.4 Baha'i 11

which is the only Sura in the Qur'an named after a of Jesus is provided in Suras 3 and 19 of the Qur'an, woman, in which the story of Mary (Maryam) and Je- where it is written that God sent an angel to announce sus (Isa) is recounted according to the view of Jesus in that she could shortly expect to bear a son, despite being Islam.[151] a virgin.[167] Mary is often referred to by by the honorific title “sayedetina” (our lady). She is mentioned in the Qur'an 3.4 Baha'i as the daughter of Imran.[152] She is the only woman directly named in the Qur'an; de- The Bahá'í Faith venerates Mary as the mother of Je- clared (uniquely along with Jesus) to be a “Sign of God” sus. The Kitáb-i-Íqán, the primary theological work of to humanity;[153] as one who “guarded her chastity";[154] the Baha'i religion, describes Mary as “that most beau- an “obedient one";[154] “chosen of her mother” and ded- teous countenance,” and “that veiled and immortal Coun- icated to whilst still in the womb;[155] uniquely tenance.” It claims that Jesus was “conceived of the Holy (amongst women) “Accepted into service by God";[156] Ghost.”[168] cared for by (one of the prophets as per Islam) Zakariya (Zacharias);[156] that in her childhood she resided in the Temple and uniquely had access to Al- (under- 3.5 Others stood to be the Holy of Holies), and was provided with heavenly “provisions” by God.[156][152] 3.5.1 Biblical scholars [157] Mary is also called a “Chosen One"; a “Purified The statement that Joseph “knew her not till she brought [157] [158] One"; a “Truthful one"; her child conceived forth her first born son” (Matthew 1:25 DouayRheims) [159] through “a Word from God"; and “exalted above all has been debated among scholars, with some saying that women of The Worlds/Universes (the material and heav- she did not remain a virgin and some saying that she was [157] enly worlds)". a perpetual virgin.[169] Other scholars contend that the The Qur'an relates detailed narrative accounts of Maryam Greek word heos (i.e., until) denotes a state up to a point, (Mary) in two places, Qur'an 3:35–47 and 19:16–34. but does not mean that the state ended after that point, These state beliefs in both the Immaculate Conception of and that Matthew 1:25 does not confirm or deny the vir- Mary and the Virgin birth of Jesus.[160][161][162] The ac- ginity of Mary after the birth of Jesus.[170][171][172] Ac- count given in Sura 19 is nearly identical with that in the cording to Biblical scholar Bart Ehrman the Hebrew word Gospel according to Luke, and both of these (Luke, Sura almah, meaning young woman of childbearing age, was 19) begin with an account of the visitation of an angel translated into Greek as parthenos, which only means vir- upon Zakariya (Zecharias) and “Good News of the birth gin, in Isaiah 7:14, which is commonly believed by Chris- of Yahya (John)", followed by the account of the annun- tians to be the prophecy of the Virgin Mary referred to in ciation. It mentions how Mary was informed by an angel Matthew 1:23.[173] While Matthew and Luke give differ- that she would become the mother of Jesus through the ing versions of the virgin birth, John quotes the uniniti- actions of God alone.[163] ated Philip and the disbelieving Jews gathered at Galilee referring to Joseph as Jesus’s father.[174][175][176][177] In the Islamic tradition, Mary and Jesus were the only children who could not be touched by at the mo- Other biblical verses have also been debated, e.g., that ment of their birth, for God imposed a veil between them the reference by Paul that Jesus was made “of the seed and Satan.[164] According to author Shabbir Akhtar, the of David according to the flesh” (Romans 1:3) may be Islamic perspective on Mary’s Immaculate Conception is interpreted as Joseph being the father of Jesus.[178] How- compatible with the Catholic doctrine of the same topic. ever, most scholars reject this interpretation in the con- “O ! Do not go beyond the bounds text of virgin birth given that Paul used the Greek word in your religion, and do not say anything of Allah but the genomenos (i.e., becoming) rather than the word gennetos truth. The Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, was but a Mes- (i.e., that is born, born)[179] and the reference to “seed of senger of God, and a Word of His (Power) which He con- David” is likely to Mary’s lineage.[180][181][182] veyed to Mary, and a spirit from Him. So believe in Allah (as the One, Unique God), and His Messengers (includ- 3.5.2 Pre-Christian ing Jesus, as Messenger); and do not say: (Allah is one of) a . Give up (this assertion) – (it is) for your own From the early stages of Christianity, belief in the vir- good (to do so). Allah is but One Allah ; All-Glorified ginity of Mary and the virgin conception of Jesus, as He is in that He is absolutely above having a son. To Him stated in the gospels, holy and supernatural, was used belongs whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on the by detractors, both political and religious, as a topic earth. And Allah suffices as the One to be relied on, to for discussions, debates and writings, specifically aimed Whom affairs should be referred.” Quran 4/171[165][166] to challenge the divinity of Jesus and thus Christians The Qur'an says that Jesus was the result of a virgin birth. and Christianity alike.[183] In the 2nd century, as part The most detailed account of the annunciation and birth of the earliest anti-Christian polemics, Celsus suggested 12 4 CHRISTIAN DEVOTION

that Jesus was the illegitimate son of a Roman soldier They made bread offerings to the Virgin Mary. The named Panthera.[184] The views of Celsus drew responses group was condemned as heretical by the Roman Catholic from Origen, the Church Father in Alexandria, Egypt, Church and was preached against by Epiphanius of who considered it a fabricated story.[185] How far Celsus Salamis, who wrote about the group in his writings titled sourced his view from Jewish sources remains a subject Panarion.[196] [186] of discussion. The adoption of the mother of Jesus as a virtual goddess may represent a reintroduction of aspects of the worship of Isis. According to Sabrina Higgins, “When looking at 4 Christian devotion images of the Egyptian goddess Isis and those of the Vir- gin Mary, one may initially observe iconographic simi- Main article: Marian devotions larities. These parallels have led many scholars to sug- gest that there is a distinct iconographic relationship be- tween Isis and Mary. In fact, some scholars have gone even further, and have suggested, on the basis of this re- lationship, a direct link between the cult of Mary and that of Isis.”[197] Conversely, Carl Olson and Sandra Miesel dispute the idea that Christianity copied elements of Isis’s , saying that the symbol of a mother and her child is part of the universal human experience.[198]

4.1.2 Byzantium

Ephesus is a cultic centre of Mary, the site of the first Church dedicated to her and the rumoured place of her death. Ephesus was previously a centre for worship of Artemis a virgin goddess. The Temple of Artemis at Icon with a Madonna and Child depiction, surrounded by key Ephesus being regarded as one of the Seven Wonders events in Mary’s life. Trsat, Croatia (c. 12th century) of the Ancient World The cult of Mary was furthered by Queen Theodora in the 6th Century.[199][200] Accord- ing to William E. Phipps, in the book Survivals of Ro- 4.1 2nd to 5th centuries man Religion[201] “Gordon Laing argues convincingly that the worship of Artemis as both virgin and mother at the Christian devotion to Mary goes back to the 2nd century grand Ephesian temple contributed to the veneration of [202] and predates the emergence of a specific Marian liturgical Mary.” system in the 5th century, following the First in 431. The Council itself was held at a church in Ephesus which had been dedicated to Mary about a 4.2 hundred years before.[187][188][189] In Egypt the venera- tion of Mary had started in the 3rd century and the term The Middle Ages saw many legends about Mary, and also [203] Theotokos was used by Origen, the Alexandrian Father her parents and even grandparents. of the Church.[190] The Virgin’s popularity increased dramatically starting [204] The earliest known Marian prayer (the Sub tuum praesid- in the 12th century. This rise in popularity was ium, or Beneath Thy Protection) is from the 3rd century linked to the Vatican’s designation of Mary as the [205][206] (perhaps 270), and its text was rediscovered in 1917 on a . papyrus in Egypt.[191][192] Following the Edict of Milan in 313, by the 5th century artistic images of Mary began to 4.2.1 Depiction in art appear in public and larger churches were being dedicated to Mary, e.g., S. Maria Maggiore in Rome.[193][194][195] In paintings, Mary is traditionally portrayed in blue. This tradition can trace its origin to the , 4.1.1 4th-century Arabia from c.500 AD, where blue was “the colour of an em- press”. A more practical explanation for the use of this According to the 4th-century heresiologist Epiphanius of colour is that in Medieval and Renaissance Europe, the Salamis the Virgin Mary was worshipped as a mother blue pigment was derived from the rock lapis lazuli, a goddess in the Christian sect of Collyridianism, which stone imported from Afghanistan of greater value than was found throughout Arabia sometime during the 300s gold. Beyond a painter’s retainer, patrons were expected AD. Collyridianism had women performing priestly acts. to purchase any gold or lapis lazuli to be used in the paint- 4.4 Marian feasts 13

sion”. However, she is not considered a “substitute for the One Mediator” who is Christ.[100] “Let Mary be in honor, but let worship be given to the Lord”, he wrote.[209] Sim- ilarly, Catholics do not worship Mary as a divine being, but rather “hyper-venerate” her. In Roman Catholic the- ology, the term hyperdulia is reserved for Marian ven- eration, for the worship of God, and dulia for the veneration of other saints and angels.[210] The definition of the three level hierarchy of latria, hyperdulia and dulia goes back to the in 787.[211] Devotions to artistic depictions of Mary vary among Christian traditions. There is a long tradition of Roman Catholic Marian art and no image permeates as does the image of Madonna and Child.[212] The icon of the Virgin Theotokos with Christ is without doubt the most venerated icon in the Orthodox Church.[213] Both Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians venerate im- ages and icons of Mary, given that the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 permitted their veneration with the under- standing that those who venerate the image are venerat- ing the reality of the person it represents,[214] and the 842 Synod of Constantinople confirming the same.[215] Ac- cording to Orthodox piety and traditional practice, how- ever, believers ought to pray before and venerate only flat, two-dimensional icons, and not three-dimensional statues.[216] Madonna of by , c. 1430. A traditional depiction of Mary wearing blue clothes. The Anglican position towards Mary is in general more conciliatory than that of Protestants at large and in a book he wrote about praying with the icons of Mary, Rowan ing. Hence, it was an expression of devotion and glorifi- Williams, former , said: “It is cation to swathe the Virgin in gowns of blue. Transfor- not only that we cannot understand Mary without seeing mations in visual depictions of the Virgin from the 13th her as pointing to Christ; we cannot understand Christ to 15th centuries mirror her “social” standing within the without seeing his attention to Mary.”[70][217] Church as well as in society.[207] On September 4, 1781, 11 families of pobladores arrived from the Gulf of California and established a city in the 4.3 Since the name of King Carlos III. The small town was named El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles de la Porciúncula (after our Lady of the Angels), a city that today is known Over the centuries, devotion and veneration to Mary has simply as Los Angeles. varied greatly among Christian traditions. For instance, while Protestants show scant attention to Marian prayers or devotions, of all the saints whom the Orthodox vener- ate, the most honored is Mary, who is considered “more 4.4 Marian feasts honorable than the Cherubim and more glorious than the Seraphim".[17] Main article: Orthodox theologian Sergei Bulgakov wrote: “Love and veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary is the soul of Or- The earliest feasts that relate to Mary grew out of the cycle thodox piety. A faith in Christ which does not include his of feasts that celebrated the Nativity of Jesus. Given that mother is another faith, another Christianity from that of according to the Gospel of Luke (Luke 2:22-40), forty the Orthodox church.”[100] days after the birth of Jesus, along with the Presentation Although the Catholics and the Orthodox may honor and of Jesus at the Temple Mary was purified according to venerate Mary, they do not view her as divine, nor do they Jewish customs, the Feast of the Purification began to be celebrated by the 5th century, and became the “Feast of worship her. Roman Catholics view Mary as subordinate [218] to Christ, but uniquely so, in that she is seen as above Simeon" in Byzantium. all other creatures.[208] Similarly Theologian Sergei Bul- In the 7th and 8th centuries four more Marian feasts were gakov wrote that the Orthodox view Mary as “superior to established in Eastern Christianity. In the West, a feast all created beings” and “ceaselessly pray for her interces- dedicated to Mary, just before was celebrated 14 5 CATHOLIC MARIOLOGY

Village decorations during the Feast of the Assumption in Għaxaq, in the Churches of Milan and Ravenna in in the 7th Mary with an inscription referencing Luke1:46-47 in St.Jürgen century. The four Roman Marian feasts of Purification, church in Gettorf (Schleswig-Holstein) Annunciation, Assumption and were gradually and sporadically introduced into England by the 11th century.[218] • Mother of God: Mary, as the mother of Jesus, is the Theotokos (God-bearer), or Mother of God. Over time, the number and nature of feasts (and the associated Titles of Mary) and the venerative practices • Virgin birth of Jesus: Mary conceived Jesus by ac- that accompany them have varied a great deal among di- tion of the Holy Spirit while remaining a virgin. verse Christian traditions. Overall, there are significantly • more titles, feasts and venerative Marian practices among Perpetual Virginity: Mary remained a virgin all her Roman Catholics than any other Christians traditions.[18] life, even after the act of giving birth to Jesus. Some such feasts relate to specific events, e.g., the Feast • Dormition: commemorates Mary’s “falling asleep” of Our Lady of Victory was based on the 1571 victory of or natural death shortly before her Assumption. the in the .[219][220] • Assumption: Mary was taken bodily into Heaven ei- Differences in feasts may also originate from doctrinal ther at, or before, her death. issues—the Feast of the Assumption is such an example. Given that there is no agreement among all Christians on The acceptance of these Marian doctrines by Roman the circumstances of the death, Dormition or Assumption [13][222][223] of Mary, the feast of assumption is celebrated among Catholics can be summarized as follows: some denominations and not others. [16][221] While the The title “Mother of God” (Theotokos) for Mary was con- Catholic Church celebrates the Feast of the Assumption firmed by the First Council of Ephesus, held at the Church on August 15, some Eastern Catholics celebrate it as of Mary in 431. The Council decreed that Mary is the Dormition of the Theotokos, and may do so on August Mother of God because her son Jesus is one person who 28, if they follow the . The Eastern Ortho- is both God and man, divine and human.[19] This doctrine dox also celebrate it as the Dormition of the Theotokos, is widely accepted by Christians in general, and the term one of their 12 Great Feasts. Protestants do not celebrate Mother of God had already been used within the oldest this, or any other Marian feasts.[16] known prayer to Mary, the which dates to around 250 AD.[224] The Virgin birth of Jesus was an almost universally held 5 Catholic Mariology belief among Christians from the 2nd until the 19th century.[225] It is included in the two most widely used Main articles: Mariology and Roman Catholic Mariology Christian creeds, which state that Jesus “was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary” (the in what is now its familiar form)[226] and the Apostles’ There is significant diversity in the Marian doctrines at- Creed. The Gospel of Matthew describes Mary as a vir- tributed to her primarily by the Roman Catholic Church. gin who fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah 7:14, mistrans- The key Marian doctrines held primarily in Catholicism lating the Hebrew word alma (“young woman”) in Isa- can be briefly outlined as follows: iah 7:14 as “virgin”, though. The authors of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke consider Jesus’ conception not the • Immaculate Conception: Mary was conceived with- result of intercourse and assert that Mary had “no rela- out . tions with man” before Jesus’ birth.[Mt 1:18] [Mt 1:25] [Lk 1:34] 15

This alludes to the belief that Mary conceived Jesus • The Miracle (1959 film; a loose remake of the 1912 through the action of God the Holy Spirit, and not through film Das Mirakel) intercourse with Joseph or anyone else.[227] • King of Kings (1961 film) The doctrines of the Assumption or Dormition of Mary • relate to her death and bodily assumption to Heaven. The The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965 film) Roman Catholic Church has dogmaically defined the doc- • Jesus of Nazareth (1977 two-part television minis- trine of the Assumption, which was done in 1950 by Pope eries) Pius XII in Munificentissimus Deus. Whether the Virgin Mary died or not is not defined dogmatically, however, al- • The Last Temptation of Christ (1988 film) though a reference to the death of Mary are made in Mu- • Mary, Mother of Jesus (1999 television film) nificentissimus Deus. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Assumption of the Virgin Mary is believed, and cel- • Saint Mary (2002 film) ebrated with her Dormition, where they believe she died. • The Passion of the Christ (2004 film) Roman Catholics believe in the Immaculate Conception • Imperium: (2005 television film) of Mary, as proclaimed ex cathedra by Pope Pius IX in 1854, namely that she was filled with grace from the very • Color of the Cross (2006 film) moment of her conception in her mother’s womb and pre- • served from the stain of original sin. The Latin Church The Nativity Story (2006 film) has a liturgical feast by that name, kept on December • The Passion (2008 television miniseries)[231][232] 8.[228] Orthodox Christians reject the Immaculate Con- • ception dogma principally because their understanding of The Nativity (2010 four-part miniseries) ancestral sin (the Greek term corresponding to the Latin • “original sin”) differs from the Augustinian interpretation (2014 film) and that of the Catholic Church.[229] The Perpetual Virginity of Mary asserts Mary’s real and 7 Image gallery perpetual virginity even in the act of giving birth to the Son of God made Man. The term Ever-Virgin (Greek ἀειπάρθενος) is applied in this case, stating that Mary See also: remained a virgin for the remainder of her life, mak- For a larger gallery, see Commons:Madonna structured ing Jesus her biological and only son, whose conception gallery. and birth are held to be miraculous.[72][227][230] While the Orthodox Churches hold the position articulated in the Protoevangelium of James that Jesus’ brothers and sisters are older children of Joseph the Betrothed, step-siblings from an earlier marriage that left him widowed, Roman Catholic teaching follows the Latin father Jerome in con- sidering them Jesus’ cousins.

6 Cinematic portrayals • Mary nursing the Infant Mary has been portrayed in various films and on televi- Jesus. Early image from the , sion, including: Rome, c. 2nd century.

• The Miracle (1912 color silent film of the play The Miracle (as a statue which comes to life))

• Das Mirakel (1912) silent film; a German version of the play The Miracle

• The Song of Bernadette (1943 film)

• The Living Christ Series (1951 non-theatrical, non- television film twelve-part series) • • The Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima (1952 film) The Blessed Mother Mary by Sosos of Pergamon • Ben-Hur (1959 film) 16 7 IMAGE GALLERY

• Theotokos Panachranta, • Our Lady of Vladimir, a from the 11th century Gertrude Psalter Byzantine representation of the Theotokos

• • by Michelangelo's Pietà c. 1304 in St. Peter’s , Vatican City

• Visitation, from the St • Lamentation by Vaast by Jacques Daret, 1434–1435 Pietro Lorenzetti, Basilica, c. 1310–1329

• Our Lady of La Naval de • The Annunciation, Mary Manila statue in Quezon City, the , c. enthroned under a green canopy, c. 1390-1400 1593 17

• : Magnificat (1723, rev. 1733)

• Franz Schubert: (1835)

• Charles Gounod: Ave Maria (1859)

9 See also • , • to the Virgin Mary Rubens, 1634 • Anglican Roman Catholic International Commis- sion

• Christian mythology

• Fleur de lys

• History of Roman Catholic Mariology

• Holy Name of Mary

• Hortus conclusus • Our Lady of the Assumption • of the Blessed Virgin Mary statue in Ghaxaq, Malta, 1808 •

• Madonna (art)

• Marian and Holy Trinity columns

• May crowning

•

• New Testament people named Mary

• to the Virgin Mary • and Child, Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion, Axum, • Society of Mary (Marianists)

10 References

[1] Pevehouse, James (2010). Spiritual Truths (1st ed.). Pittsburgh: Dorrance Publishing Company. p. 110. ISBN 9781434903044.

[2] Mary in the New Testament, Raymond Edward Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, Karl Paul Donfried, A Collaborative statement by Protestant, Anglican and Roman Catholic scholars, (NJ 1978), page 140 • Inside of the Tomb of Mary, on the foothills of Mount of [3] Matthew 1:16; 18-25 , Jerusalem [4] Luke 1:26-56; 2:1-7

[5] Matthew 1:23 uses Greek parthénos virgin, whereas only the Hebrew of Isaiah 7:14, from which the New Testa- 8 Music ment ostensibly quotes, as Almah young maiden. See ar- ticle on parthénos in Bauercc/(Arndt)/Gingrich/Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other • Claudio Monteverdi: Vespro della Beata Vergine Early Christian Literature, Second Edition, University of (1610) Chicago Press, 1979, p. 627. 18 10 REFERENCES

[6] Browning, W. R. F. A dictionary of the Bible. 2004 ISBN [27] Glassé, Cyril (2008). “Mary”. The New Encyclopedia 0-19-860890-X page 246 of Islam (3rd ed.). Plymouth, United Kingdom: Row- man & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. pp. 340–341. ISBN [7] Ruiz, Jean-Pierre. “Between the Crèche and the Cross: 9780742562967. Retrieved 2 June 2016. Another Look at the Mother of Jesus in the New Testa- ment.” New Theology Review; Aug2010, Vol. 23 Issue 3, [28] Quran 5:73–75 pp3-4 [29] Quran 66:12 [8] Munificentissimus Deus: Dogma of the Assumption by Pius XII, 1950, 17 [30] William Temple, Readings in St John’s Gospel. London: MacMillan, 1961. p. 35,36 [9] Holweck, Frederick (1907), The Feast of the Assump- tion,(The Catholic Encyclopedia), 2, New York: Robert [31] Ruiz, Jean-Pierre. “Between the Crèche and the Cross: Appleton Company, access date April 18, 2015 Another Look at the Mother of Jesus in the New Testa- ment.” New Theology Review. Aug 2010, Vol. 23 Issue 3, [10] Burke, Raymond L.; et al. (2008). Mariology: A Guide pp. 5-15 for , Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Per- sons ISBN 978-1-57918-355-4 page 178 [32] “CHURCH FATHERS: The Perpetual Virginity of Mary (Jerome)". www.newadvent.org. [11] Mary for evangelicals by Tim S. Perry, William J. Abra- ham 2006 ISBN 0-8308-2569-X page 142 [33] The Blessed Virgin Mary – Catholic Encyclopedia – Catholic Online [12] “Mary, the mother of Jesus.” The New Dictionary of Cul- tural Literacy, Houghton Mifflin. Boston: Houghton Mif- [34] Douglas; Hillyer; Bruce (1990). New Bible Dictionary. flin, 2002. Reference. Web. September 28, 2010. Inter-varsity Press. p. 746. ISBN 0-85110-630-7.

[13] Encyclopedia of Protestantism, Volume 3 2003 by Hans [35] “New Genealogy of Christ”. Newadvent.org. Joachim Hillerbrand ISBN 0-415-92472-3 p. 1174 September 1, 1909. Retrieved September 30, 2013.

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[17] Eastern Orthodoxy through Western eyes by Donald Fair- [39] Compare Luke 1:39-40 with 21:11 The Treasury bairn 2002 ISBN 0-664-22497-0 page 99-101 of Scripture Knowledge says, “This was most probably He- bron, a city of the priests, and situated in the hill country [18] Flinn, Frank K., J. Gordon MeltonEncyclopedia of of Judea, (Jos 11:21; 21:11, 13,) about 25 miles south of Catholicism. 2007 ISBN 0-8160-5455-X pages 443–444 Jerusalem, and nearly 100 from Nazareth.”

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[63] Emmerich, Anna Catherine: The Dolorous Passion of Our [85] A Beginner’s Book of Prayer: An Introduction to Tradi- Lord Jesus Christ ISBN 978-0-89555-210-5 page viii tional Catholic Prayers by William G. Storey 2009 ISBN 0-8294-2792-9 page 99 [64] Frommer’s Turkey by Lynn A. Levine 2010 ISBN 0470593660 pages 254-255 [86] Ann Ball, 2003 Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices ISBN 0-87973-910-X page 365 [65] Home of the Assumption: Reconstructing Mary’s Life in Ephesus by V. Antony John Alaharasan 2006 ISBN [87] Our Sunday Visitor’s Catholic Almanac by Matthew Bun- 1929039387 page 38 son 2009 ISBN 1-59276-441-X page 122

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[130] Dr. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe, 51, the centuries the Virgin Mary has played a central role in Weimar, 1883, p. 128 Christian piety. Unlike so many aspects of Christianity, veneration of the ...” [131] More FAQ | The Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church archiveaccessdate=September 11, 2014 [145] Peter Schäfer Mirror of His beauty: feminine images of God from the Bible to the ..2002 Page 233 “On the one [132] “What does The United Methodist Church teach about hand, it mockingly disapproves of the idea of the mother the Immaculate Conception and the Virgin Birth?". of God; on the other hand, it treats Mary considerately Archives.umc.org. November 6, 2006. Retrieved and by no means only polemically. The talmudic and post- September 30, 2013. talmudic discussions about the Virgin Mary are classic ...”

[133] Wesley’s Letters, The Wesley Center Online, 1749, [146] Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testa- archived from the original on November 5, 2011 ment: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence WmB Eerd- [134] “Mary’s Perpetual Virginity”. Davidmacd.com. Archived mans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-4368-9 pp. 122 and 127 from the original on August 25, 2012. Retrieved Septem- [147] Michael J. Cook Jewish Perspectives on Jesus Chapter 14 ber 30, 2013. in the “The Blackwell Companion to Jesus” edited by Del- [135] “What does The United Methodist Church teach about the bert Burkett 2011 ISBN 978-1-4443-2794-6 Virgin Mary?". Archives.umc.org. November 6, 2006. [148] Mary in the New Testament by Raymond Edward Brown, Retrieved September 30, 2013. et al. 1978 ISBN 0-8091-2168-9 page 262

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[137] Stepp, Todd (December 23, 2009). “Theotokos; Mary, [150] See the following verses: 5:114, 5:116, 7:158, 9:31, Mother of God”. Wesleyan/Anglican Society. We Protes- 17:57, 17:104, 18:102, 19:16, 19:17, 19:18, 19:20, 19:22, tants (for the most part) tend to say something to the affect 19:24, 19:27, 19:28, 19:29, 19:34, 21:26, 21:91, 21:101, [sic] that, if it is not found in Scripture it is not held to be 23:50, 25:17, 33:7, 39:45, 43:57, 43:61, 57:27, 61:6, required as an article of faith. Thus, the assumption of 61:14, 66:12. Mary would not be held as an article of faith (i.e., as a required doctrine). However, in as much as the Scripture [151] Jestice, Phyllis G. Holy people of the world: a cross- does not say that Mary was not assumed into heaven, and, cultural encyclopedia, Volume 3. 2004 ISBN 1-57607- in as much as we do have other instances of some sort of 355-6 page 558 Sayyidana Maryam “assumption” in Scripture (e.g., , as mentioned, be- fore), there seems to be nothing that would require that a [152] The new encyclopedia of Islam by Cyril Glassé, Huston Protestant Christian could not have a private “opinion” (in Smith 2003 ISBN 0-7591-0190-6 page 296 sayyidatuna the Wesleyan sense of the term) that agrees with Rome or [153] Quran 23:50 Constantinople (at least regarding Mary’s assumption). [154] Quran 66:12 [138] Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America 2006 Page 73 Eugene V. Gallagher, W. Michael Ashcraft [155] Quran 3:36 “Jehovah’s Witnesses pray to God in the name of Jesus, but insist that the Bible never identifies Christ as an eter- [156] Quran 3:37 nal ... Jehovah God caused an ovum, or egg cell, in Mary’s [157] Quran 3:42 womb to become fertile, accomplishing this by the trans- feral of " [158] Quran 5:75

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[186] John Patrick The Apology of Origen in Reply to Celsus [205] Warner, Marina (1976). Alone of All her Sex: The Myth 1892 reprint 2009 ISBN 1-110-13388-X pages 22–24 and the Cult of the Virgin Mary. 23

[206] Pelikan, Jaroslav (1996). Mary Through the Centuries: [227] Miravalle, Mark Introduction to Mary, 1993, ISBN 978- Her Place in the History of Culture. Yale University Press. 1-882972-06-7, pages 56–64

[207] Kugeares, Sophia Manoulian. Images Of The Annuncia- [228] “Catholic Encyclopedia: Immaculate Conception”. tion Of The Virgin Mary Of The 13Th, 14Th And 15Th Newadvent.org. Retrieved March 2, 2010. Century. n.p.: 1991., 1991. University of South Florida [229] Ware, Timothy. The Orthodox Church (Penguin Books, Libraries Catalog. Web. April 8, 2016. 1963, ISBN 0-14-020592-6), pp. 263–4. [208] Miravalle, Mark. Introduction to Mary'’. 1993 Queenship [230] "CCC, 499”. Vatican.va. . Publishing ISBN 978-1-882972-06-7 pages 92–93 [231] TV airing for Islam’s story of Christ – Media – [209] The Orthodox word, Volumes 12–13, 1976 page 73 The Guardian featured in ITV documentary Retrieved September 11, 2014 [210] Trigilio, John and Brighenti, Kenneth The Catholicism An- swer Book 2007 ISBN 1-4022-0806-5 page 58 [232] “The Muslim Jesus, ITV─Unreality Primetime”. Prime- time.unrealitytv.co.uk. August 18, 2007. Archived from [211] The History of the Christian Church by Philip Smith 2009 the original on October 16, 2009. Retrieved March 2, ISBN 1-150-72245-2 page 288 2010. [212] The Celebration of Faith: The Virgin Mary by Alexander Schmemann 2001 ISBN 0-88141-141-8 p. 11 • Kugeares, Sophia Manoulian. Images Of The An- nunciation Of The Virgin Mary Of The 13Th, 14Th [213] De Sherbinin, Julie Chekhov and Russian religious culture: And 15Th Century. n.p.: 1991., 1991. University the poetics of the Marian paradigm 1997 ISBN 0-8101- of South Florida Libraries Catalog. Web. April 8, 1404-6 p. 15 2016. [214] “Pope John Paul II, General Audience, 1997”. Vatican.va. October 29, 1997. Retrieved September 30, 2013. 11 Further reading [215] Kilmartin Edward The in the West 1998 ISBN 0-8146-6204-8 page 80 • Brown, Raymond,E.,Donfried, Karl, P., Fitzmyer, [216] Ciaravino, Helene How to Pray 2001 ISBN 0-7570-0012- Joseph A., & Reumann, John, (eds.),Mary in the 6 page 118 New Testament, Fortress/Paulist Press, 1978, ISBN 0-8006-1345-7 [217] Williams, Rowan Ponder these things: praying with icons of the Virgin 2002 ISBN 1-85311-362-X page 7 • Hahn, Scott, Hail, Holy Queen: The Mother of God [218] Clayton, Mary. The Cult of the Virgin Mary in Anglo- in the Word of God, Doubleday, 2001, ISBN 0-385- Saxon England. 2003 ISBN 0-521-53115-2 pages 26–37 50168-4 • [219] EWTN on Battle of Lepanto (1571) Our Lady and Islam: Pelikan, Jaroslav. Mary Through the Centuries: Her Heaven’s Peace Plan - EWTN Place in the History of Culture, Yale University Press, 1998, hardcover, 240 pages ISBN [220] by Butler, Alban, Peter Doyle. Butler’s Lives of the Saints. 1999 ISBN 0-86012-253-0 page 222 • Tumanov, Vladimir. "Mary versus : Paternal Uncertainty and the Christian View of Women.” [221] Jackson, Gregory Lee, Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a Neophilologus 95 (2011) 4: 507-521. doctrinal comparison. 1993 ISBN 978-0-615-16635-3 page 254

[222] Jackson, Gregory Lee.Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a 12 External links doctrinal comparison. 1993 ISBN 978-0-615-16635-3 page 254 • Chapter Mary in the Quran [223] Miravalle, Mark. Introduction to Mary'’. 1993 Queenship • Marilogical Society of America Publishing ISBN 978-1-882972-06-7 page 51 • University of Dayton—The Mary Page [224] Miravalle, Mark Introduction to Mary, 1993, ISBN 978- 1-882972-06-7, pages 44–46 • Works by or about Mary, mother of Jesus in libraries (WorldCat catalog) [225] "Virgin Birth" britannica.com'.' Retrieved October 22, 2007. • Church Fathers on the Sinless Nature of Mary

[226] Translation by the ecumenical English Language Litur- • Church Fathers on the Perpetual Virginity of Mary gical Consultation, given on page 17 of Praying To- • gether, a literal translation of the original, "σαρκωθέντα Mary (Biblical perspective) ἐκ Πνεύματος Ἁγίου καὶ Μαρίας τῆς Παρθένου" • archiveaccessdate September 11, 2014 24 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text

• Mary, mother of Jesus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%2C_mother_of_Jesus?oldid=767621824 Contributors: Magnus Manske, The Cunctator, Vicki Rosenzweig, Wesley, Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels, Rdewhurst, Rmhermen, PierreAbbat, Nate Silva, William Avery, SimonP, Zoe, Rcingham, Isis~enwiki, Montrealais, Modemac, Hephaestos, Olivier, Someone else, Pdfox, Leandrod, Mkm- cconn, Drseudo, Stevertigo, Ubiquity, Patrick, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Bewildebeast, Fred Bauder, Aezram, Gdarin, Menchi, Tannin, Ixfd64, Tgeorgescu, IZAK, Ihcoyc, Mkweise, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Elano, TUF-KAT, Angela, Andrewa, Александър, Ineuw, Lukobe, Raven in Orbit, Vargenau, RodC, Charles Matthews, EmphasisMine, Dcoetzee, Bemoeial, Harris7, Tb, WhisperToMe, Wik, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Dogface, Thue, Joy, Jecar, Jeanmichel~enwiki, Fvw, Raul654, Wetman, Carr, Pollinator, Owen, Dimadick, Robbot, Rossnixon, Pfortuny, Josh Cherry, Astronautics~enwiki, Goethean, Sam Spade, Mirv, Pingveno, Henrygb, Desmay, Hadal, Wereon, Puffy jacket, Ianml, Mandel, Walloon, Alan Liefting, Snobot, Johnjosephbachir, Crculver, Jtg, Nunh-huh, Tom harrison, Zigger, 0x6D667061, Bradeos Graphon, P.T. 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Steven J. 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13.2 Images

• File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark • File:Angelico,_madonna_col_bambino,_pinacoteca_sabauda.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/ Angelico%2C_madonna_col_bambino%2C_pinacoteca_sabauda.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.aiwaz.net Original artist: Fra Angelico (circa 1395–1455) • File:Coat_of_arms_Holy_See.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Coat_of_arms_Holy_See.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: • Bernhard Heim, in the Catholic Church: Its Origin, Customs and Laws (Van Duren 1978 ISBN 9780391008731), p. 54; Original artist: F l a n k e r • File:Coat_of_arms_of_Greece.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Coat_of_arms_of_Greece.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Law 48, ΦΕΚ 108Α, 7 June 1975, [1] and [2]

Article 2 Original artist: File: of (Ministries).svg: Tonyjeff, based on national symbol. • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? • File:Crèche_-_bergers.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Cr%C3%A8che_-_bergers.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: This photo was taken by Eusebius (Guillaume Piolle).

• File:DARET_Jacques_Visitation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/DARET_Jacques_Visitation.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Quadell using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader was Retired username at English Wikipedia • File:Dormition_de_la_Vierge.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Dormition_de_la_Vierge.JPG Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Clio20 • File:Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE. svg License: Public domain Contributors: • File:Coat of arms .svg Original artist: Cronholm144 created this image using a file by User:Hautala - File:Emblem of Vatican City State.svg, who had created his file using PD art from Open Clip Art Library and uploaded on 13 July 2006. User talk:F l a n k e r uploaded this version on 19 January 2007. • File:Encaustic_Virgin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Encaustic_Virgin.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: Saint Catherine’s Monastery Original artist: Anonymous • File:Ethiopia-Axum_Cathedral-fresco-Black_Madonna.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/ Ethiopia-Axum_Cathedral-fresco-Black_Madonna.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Miko Stavrev • File:Eustache_Le_Sueur.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Eustache_Le_Sueur.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original uploader was Lamré at sv.wikipedia Original artist: Eustache Le Sueur • File:Fatima_0389_(19697629611).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Fatima_0389_ %2819697629611%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Fatima 0389 Original artist: János Korom Dr. from Wien, Austria • File:Flight_into_Egypt_-_Capella_dei_Scrovegni_-_Padua_2016.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/ d4/Flight_into_Egypt_-_Capella_dei_Scrovegni_-_Padua_2016.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: José Luiz • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Gentile,_polittico_di_valle_romita,_crocefissione,_brera,_milano.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/0/06/Gentile%2C_polittico_di_valle_romita%2C_crocefissione%2C_brera%2C_milano.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.fabrianostorica.it/gentile/opere.htm Original artist: Gentile da Fabriano • File:Gerard_van_Honthorst_-_Adoration_of_the_Shepherds_(1622).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/0/05/Gerard_van_Honthorst_-_Adoration_of_the_Shepherds_%281622%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Google Art Project Original artist: Gerard van Honthorst • File:Gettorf_Altar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Gettorf_Altar.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Agnete • File:Gloriole_blur.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Gloriole_blur.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Eubulides • File:Gospa_Trsatska.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Gospa_Trsatska.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Donatus (Darko Tepert) • File:House_of_the_Virgin_Mary.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/House_of_the_Virgin_Mary.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Mfryc assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Llanbeblig_Hours_(f._2r.)_The_Annunciation,_The_Virgin_Mary_enthroned_under_a_green_canopy..jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Llanbeblig_Hours_%28f._2r.%29_The_Annunciation%2C_The_Virgin_Mary_ enthroned_under_a_green_canopy..jpg License: CC0 Contributors: This digital image can be seen in its original context here 13.2 Images 27

Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718 • File:Madonna_catacomb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Madonna_catacomb.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: adapted from the quoted page. Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718 • File:Mary-header.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Mary-header.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Jayarathina • File:MaryattheTomb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/MaryattheTomb.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cadetgray • File:Michelangelo’{}s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/ Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Edited version of (cloned object out of background) Image:Michelangelo’{}s Pieta 5450 cropncleaned.jpg) Original artist: Stanislav Traykov • File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project • File:Our_Lady_of_La_Naval_de_Manila.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Our_Lady_of_La_ Naval_de_Manila.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Interaksyon • File:P_christianity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/P_christianity.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Panachranta.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Panachranta.jpg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: English Wikipedia Original artist: Alipij • File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Peter_Paul_Rubens_009.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Dis- tributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Peter Paul Rubens • File:Pietro_lorenzetti,_compianto_(dettaglio)_basilica_inferiore_di_assisi_(1310-1329).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/3/34/Pietro_lorenzetti%2C_compianto_%28dettaglio%29_basilica_inferiore_di_assisi_%281310-1329%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Pjazzasantamarijaghaxaqmalta.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/ Pjazzasantamarijaghaxaqmalta.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vertistar • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Saintmaryghaxaq.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Saintmaryghaxaq.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vertistar • File:Santa_Sofia_-_Mosaic_de_Joan_II_Comnè_i_la_seva_esposa,_Irene.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/8/84/Santa_Sofia_-_Mosaic_de_Joan_II_Comn%C3%A8_i_la_seva_esposa%2C_Irene.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contrib- utors: Own work Original artist: Josep Renalias • File:Sassoferrato_-_Jungfrun_i_bön.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Sassoferrato_-_Jungfrun_ i_b%C3%B6n.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: Inkscape.svg Image Information icon.svg Info about artwork Original artist: Giovanni Battista Salvi da Sassoferrato • File:Tomb_of_the_Virgin_Mary._Altar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Tomb_of_the_Virgin_ Mary._Altar.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/womeos/3271312215/ Original artist: http://www. flickr.com/photos/womeos/ WomEOS • File:Tuam_Cathedral_of_the_Assumption_Sacred_Heart_Detail_2009_09_14.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/1/10/Tuam_Cathedral_of_the_Assumption_Sacred_Heart_Detail_2009_09_14.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: Self-photographed Original artist: Andreas F. Borchert • File:Virgin’{}s_first_seven_steps.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Virgin%27s_first_seven_steps. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: José Luiz • File:Virgin_Mary.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Virgin_Mary.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contribu- tors: http://vasileadam.info.md/gallery Original artist: Vasile Adam • File:Virgin_Mary_and_Jesus_(old_Persian_miniature).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Virgin_ Mary_and_Jesus_%28old_Persian_miniature%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.eslam.de/begriffe/m/maria.htm Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718

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13.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0