SOS II: FISH IN HOT WATER Status, threats and solutions for California salmon, steelhead, and trout.

CENTER FOR Based on a report by Dr. Peter B. Moyle, Dr. Rob Lusardi and Patrick Samuel commissioned by California Trout. WATERSHED SCIENCES State of the Salmonids II: Fish in Hot Water Status, threats and solutions for California salmon, steelhead, and trout.

Based on a report by Dr. Peter B. Moyle, Dr. Rob Lusardi and Patrick Samuel commissioned by California Trout.

The foundation of State of the Salmonids II: Fish in Hot Water is based on 32 rigorously researched, peer-reviewed biological and ecological species accounts prepared by Dr. Peter B. Moyle, Patrick J. Samuel, and Dr. Robert A. Lusardi. Each account has been externally reviewed and will be published as Salmon, Steelhead, and Trout in California: Status of Emblematic Fishes, Second Edition, which can be viewed and downloaded from California Trout’s website, www.caltrout.org, and the University of California, Davis Center for Watershed Sciences The mission of California Trout is to ensure resilient, wild fish thriving in healthy waters for a better California. website, www.watershed.ucdavis.edu.

© 2017 California Trout, Inc., San Francisco. All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole, or in part, without permission, is prohibited. SPECIES COMMON NAME Species Scientific Name Species State and Federal STATUS LEVEL OF Listing Status SCORE CONCERN

Salmon California Coast Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Federally threatened 2.9 HIGH Central Valley Fall-run Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Federal Species of Special Concern 2.7 HIGH Central Valley Late Fall-run Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha State and Federal Species of Special Concern 2.1 HIGH

Central Valley Spring-run Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha State and Federally threatened 1.7 CRITICAL Sacramento River Winter-run Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha State and Federally endangered 1.3 CRITICAL Southern Oregon/Northern California Coast Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Federal Sensitive Species 3.1 MODERATE Upper Klamath–Trinity Rivers Fall-run Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Federal Sensitive Species 3.1 MODERATE Upper Klamath–Trinity Rivers Spring-run Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha State Species of Special Concern, 1.6 CRITICAL Federal Sensitive Species

Central California Coast Coho Salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch State and Federally endangered 1.3 CRITICAL Southern Oregon/Northern California Coast Coho Salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch State and Federally threatened 1.7 CRITICAL Chum Salmon Oncorhynchus keta TABLE 1. SPECIES ENDANGERMENT SUMMARY 1.6 CRITICAL Pink Salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha 1.6 CRITICAL Common and scientific names, species status (state and federal listings), and Level of Concern for all 32 of California’s native salmon, Steelhead Central California Coast Steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Federally threatened 2.0 HIGH steelhead, and trout. Central Valley Steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Federally threatened 3.1 MODERATE Klamath Mountains Province Summer Steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus State Species of Special Concern 1.9 CRITICAL Klamath Mountains Province Winter Steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Federal Sensitive Species 3.3 MODERATE “If knowledge is power, then this information Northern California Summer Steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Federally threatened 1.9 CRITICAL should be critical in reversing the trend toward Northern California Winter Steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Federally threatened 3.3 MODERATE a continued decline of our special fishes, South-Central California Coast Steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Federally threatened 1.9 CRITICAL with California Trout at the Southern Steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Federally endangered 1.9 CRITICAL forefront of aquatic conservation.” Trout Bull Trout* Salvelinus confluentus Extinct 0.0 EXTINCT California Golden Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss aguabonita State Species of Special Concern Dr. Peter Moyle 1.9 CRITICAL Coastal Cutthroat Trout Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii State Species of Special Concern 2.7 HIGH Coastal Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss 4.7 LOW Eagle Lake Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss aquilarum State Species of Special Concern, 2.3 HIGH Federal Sensitive Species

Goose Lake Redband Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss newberrii State Species of Special Concern 3.1 MODERATE Kern River Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss gilbertii State and Federal Species of Special Concern 1.4 CRITICAL Lahontan Cutthroat Trout Oncorhynchus clarkii henshawi State and Federally threatened 2.0 HIGH Little Kern Golden Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss whitei Federally threatened 2.0 HIGH McCloud River Redband Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss stonei State Species of Special Concern 1.4 CRITICAL Paiute Cutthroat Trout Oncorhynchus clarkii selenirus Federally threatened 2.1 HIGH Whitefish Mountain Whitefish Prosopium williamsoni State Species of Special Concern 3.4 MODERATE

*Bull trout are not trout, but actually a member of the char family.

I SOS II: Fish in Hot Water II FOREWORD

ABOUT THE AUTHORS “What we Californians do to enhance the resilience of our native fishes is likely to Peter Moyle is the Distinguished Professor Emeritus set examples for the rest of the world.” in the Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology and Associate Director of the Center for Watershed Sciences, at UC Davis. He is author or Dr. Peter Moyle co-author of more than 240 publications, including the definitive Inland Fishes of California (2002). He is co-author of the 2017 book, Floodplains: A WORD FROM DR. PETER MOYLE Processes and Management for Ecosystem Services. His research interests include conservation of aquatic I have a long history working with salmon and trout. My first This brings us to the present State of the Salmonids Frankly, I also thought that only California Trout It is raining outside as I write this and as we finish a species, habitats, and ecosystems, including salmon; ecology of fishes of the San Francisco Estuary; DR. PETER B. MOYLE publication on California’s amazing fish fauna was a short note report. This second edition is a much improved version was likely to be bold enough to sponsor the task of record wet-water year. We can only hope that our ecology of California stream fishes; impact of Center for Watershed Sciences, on juvenile Chinook salmon in the Kings River in 1970, where I of the report that Josh Israel, Sabra Purdy, and I put comprehensive evaluation. salmonid fishes will respond positively to this dramatic introduced aquatic organisms; and use of UC Davis captured them on a field trip with a fish biology class. Only later together in 2008 for California Trout. turn-around in flows in our rivers. But we do have to floodplains by fish. did I discover salmon had spawned in the river after an absence The gap between the 2008 and 2017 reports is 10 years,3 recognize that record drought followed by record of 28 years! The resilience of salmon, steelhead, and other native This report had its genesis in the 1976 and 2002 a very short period to detect change. But we felt that the precipitation is likely to characterize the future in Patrick Samuel is the Conservation Program fishes has continued to impress me ever since. versions of my Inland Fishes of California1 and in the Fish time was ripe for it because the 2012-16 drought stressed California; global climate change is causing increased Coordinator for California Trout, a position he has 2 reports, which virtually all salmonid populations in the state, a major variability in the place that already has the most held for almost two years, where he coordinates Species of Special Concern in California special research projects for California Trout, Unfortunately, my career has been spent documenting their teams from my laboratory generated for the California test of their resilience. variable climate in the United States. including the State of the Salmonids report. decline in California, starting with the extirpation of Bull trout. Department of Fish and Wildlife. Prior to joining CalTrout, he worked with the But I have also long realized that California’s unique fishes, We regarded the drought as harbinger of the effects At the same time, I consider myself fortunate to live Fisheries Leadership & Sustainability Forum, a non-profit that supports the eight federal regional especially its salmonids, are worth fighting for. Not only are they The authors of this present report undertook the of global warming/climate change. The 10-year period and work in a state that often exercises leadership in fishery management councils around the country. resilient, but they are beautiful, with astonishingly diverse life task of re-evaluating the status of California was also one in which much new information appeared conservation. Therefore, what we Californians do to Patrick got his start in fisheries as an undergraduate histories and habitats. Saving these fishes means saving special salmonids because: on the salmonids, especially on species listed under enhance the resilience of our native fishes is likely to intern with NOAA Fisheries Protected Resources Division in Sacramento, and in his first field job as a PATRICK J. SAMUEL waters: the cold streams that flow through redwoods, rivers in the state and federal endangered species acts. As we set examples for the rest of the world. crew member of the California Department of Fish California Trout urban southern California, unique lakes such as Eagle Lake, and • We really like these fishes (!); began drafting the 2017 report, we realized that the new & Wildlife’s Wild and Heritage Trout Program. complex estuaries. But saving these fishes also means living with information and increasingly obvious impacts of climate This is a big responsibility, but I am happy to be part • We wanted to provide more comprehensive change. Even as human-induced changes on the landscape have change required us to rethink the metrics used in the of making it happen with California Trout. information than was present in other Robert Lusardi is the California Trout/UC Davis continued to intensify, it is the resilience of salmon and trout that 2008 report to evaluate status. In 2017, we added a new sources, under one cover; Wild and Coldwater Fish Researcher focused on keeps them with us. metric and improved the calculation of three others. establishing the basis for long-term science specific • We wanted to further develop and us to California Trout’s wild and coldwater fish initiatives. Unfortunately, these improvements meant we could not His work bridges the widening gap between academic But this adaptability only takes them so far; their existence now a method for assessing the status directly compare the status scores of each species from science and applied conservation policy, ensuring depends on what we do. I am proud to say that I have been a of each species in quantitative manner that 2008 with those from 2017, as had been planned. that rapidly developing science informs conservation is repeatable and allows comparisons projects throughout California. Dr. Lusardi resides member of California Trout almost since its beginning, when it at the UC Davis Center for Watershed Sciences and was pretty much Dick May, the organization’s founder. From its among species; and We were able, however, to compare the verbal judgments works closely with Dr. Peter Moyle on numerous inception, California Trout has been as much about keeping • We wanted to discuss the many controversial of status, based on the score ranges. The verbal ‘scores’ Dr. Peter B. Moyle projects to help inform California Trout conservation streams and lakes wild, as it has about fishing. That attitude still still revealed that California salmonids were markedly policy. His recent research interests include Coho ideas about how to improve management of DR. ROBERT LUSARDI salmon on the Shasta River, the ecology of volcanic makes me happy to work with California Trout, even if it is to California salmonids to reverse their downhill worse off than they were 10 years ago. While drought Center for Watershed Sciences, spring-fed rivers, inland trout conservation and document the continued decline of our special fishes, as in slide, and add some ideas of our own. was certainly a major contributing factor, each species management, and policy implications of trap and UC Davis this report. If knowledge is power, then this information should has its own story to tell of unique factors causing haul programs for anadromous fishes in California. be critical in reversing the trend, with California Trout at the continued decline. forefront of aquatic conservation.

1 Moyle, P. B. 2002. Inland Fishes of California. Revised and expanded. 2 Moyle, P., R. Quiñones, J. Katz, and J. Weaver. 2015. Fish Species of 3 The information in the first report only goes through 2007, while in the Berkeley: University of California Press. 502 pp. Special Concern in California. 3rd edition. Sacramento: California second report it goes through 2016, mostly. Department of Fish and Wildlife. III SOS II: Fish in Hot Water IV “One cannot be pessimistic about the West. This is the native home of hope. When it fully learns that cooperation, not rugged individualism, is the quality that most characterizes and preserves it, then it will have achieved itself and outlived TABLE OF CONTENTS its origins. Then it has a chance to create a society to match its scenery.” ii TABLE 1: SPECIES ENDANGERMENT SUMMARY CURTIS KNIGHT III Foreword Executive Director Wallace Stegner California Trout 2 Introduction

6 State of the S almonids II Summary and Findings LETTER FROM CALIFORNIA TROUT’S EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR 8 MAJOR Threats TO CALIFORNIA SALMONIDS

The story the fish tells us is clear. If we don’t act, we Are we up to the challenge? In 50 years, what will California be? What legacy will 10 Call to A ction: Return to Resilience face losing our native salmon, steelhead and trout we leave? Will we still be the leaders, the innovators, species. This would be tragic, not just because we This report tells the story of the fish. Its findings lay out the food producers? Will we still have 31 kinds of trout, 12 Species A ccounts would lose these iconic species, their beauty, their a clear set of actions and a path forward. The science, steelhead and salmon, or will we lose others on our mystery, but as importantly, we would lose what they findings and actions can be a guide not just for watch? At CalTrout, we believe the health of these fish 88 Methodology signify – cold, clean water, healthy rivers, a better CalTrout but for all organizations, agencies, regulators is an indicator of the health of our water and of our California. As a proud Californian, I take this personally. and funders who care about California’s fish and beautiful state. 91 Glossary I care about the legacy I leave to my daughters, and their waters. We encourage this report being used as to their children. the blueprint to work together to reverse the trend We can reverse the trend. Together, we can ensure 93 Acknowledgments toward extinction and return California’s native California has thriving populations of wild trout, California is a great state. We’re the innovators, the salmonids to resilience. steelhead and salmon. We can ensure our legacy for 94 About California Trout pioneers, one of the most important food producing future generations by passing on a California whose regions in the world, and the leaders in technology. The time to act is now. We have lost one species society matches its scenery. We have unmatched geographic diversity, from an epic already – the Bull trout – in 1975. Since that time, coastline to the magnificent Sierra, majestic redwoods California’s human population has almost doubled. to the open beauty of the desert. What would the loss The fact that we still have 31 different kinds of salmon, of our native fish mean for who we are? steelhead and trout underscores their inherent resilience. But the recent drought has reminded us I am reminded of one of my favorite quotes by Wallace how close we are to losing more of these species. Stegner, an orator of California who referred to the For example, the Sacramento River winter-run Chinook West as the ‘geography of hope’ and emphasized that was likely only one dry year away from disappearing. Curtis Knight, CalTrout Executive Director we have an opportunity to create ‘a society to match its scenery.’ Forever.

V SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 1 INTRODUCTION

A LIFE HISTORY INTERTWINED WITH OURS

Salmon, trout, and their relatives are the iconic fishes of the Northern Their behaviors, life histories and other characteristics have been Nowhere in the world is the diversity of salmonids and their Left: Figure 1. Current native salmonid Hemisphere. These salmonid fishes are characteristic of the region’s modified in response to hatchery environments and to match the problems more evident than in California (Figure 1). The state species richness in California. cold, productive oceans, rushing streams and rivers, and deep cold desires of hatchery managers. This has resulted in some varieties of not only marks the southern end of the range of all anadromous Areas in orange and brown indicate low lakes. They are adapted for life in dynamic landscapes created by trout and salmon that are true domestic animals, wonderful for meat species on the Pacific Coast, but its dynamic geology and climate salmonid richness, or a low total number glaciers, volcanoes, earthquakes, and climatic extremes. Salmonids thrive production but poor at surviving in the wild. For anadromous salmon has resulted in the evolution of many distinctive inland forms, of salmonid species in a watershed, while through their mobility, moving freely between ocean and river systems; and steelhead, hatchery operations were established to enhance wild such as three kinds of Golden trout in the southern Sierra Nevada. blue to green areas indicate watersheds they show an extraordinary ability to adapt in isolation to extreme local populations, mainly for fisheries, and to replace lost production due to The diversity of salmonids is also the result of California’s large with relatively higher numbers of salmonid conditions from deserts to rain forests. This has resulted in a handful the construction of dams. As a result, such operations have sought to size (411,000 km2), length (spanning 10° of latitude), and adjacent species. The areas with the highest of species producing hundreds of genetically distinct runs, races, and satisfy two rather contradictory goals: production of large numbers of location to the California Current of the Pacific Ocean, one of the salmonid diversity are near the mouth of subspecies, all with life histories superbly tuned to local habitats.4 5 fish, which requires producing fish adapted to artificial environments, most productive ocean regions of the world.8 All this has resulted the Klamath River in far northern California and production of fish that will survive and grow in the wild. Their mixed in the evolution of hundreds of genetically distinct populations, and the San Francisco Estuary. Not surprisingly, salmonids have a long history intertwined with that of success at satisfying the second goal is best indicated by the gradual although there are just eight recognized native species. diverse peoples. Salmon appear as images in Cro-Magnon cave art of decline in most fisheries that depend on hatcheries, rapid decline of 10,000 or more years ago and have been important food for indigenous many wild salmonid populations that interact with hatchery fish,6 and peoples wherever they occur. The importance of salmonids to humans the listing of many salmonids as species threatened with extinction stems from their accessibility and high nutritional content; salmon bring under the statutes of multiple countries. nutrients and calories from the rich northern oceans into streams, while trout and other inland forms concentrate scarce resources present in Despite their adaptability, ease of culture, and economic importance, cold water streams and lakes. In both situations they become available salmonid fishes are in severe decline in many of their native habitats; for human harvest. In the 17th century, at the beginning of the Industrial many populations have been extirpated.7 The reasons for this are Revolution, angling for trout developed in Europe as a source of complex and multiple, but boil down to a combination of human recreation (Walton 1653). This peculiar aesthetic led to trout, mainly competition for use of high quality water, alteration of the landscapes Brown trout and Rainbow trout, being introduced into streams and lakes through which rivers and streams flow, overfishing, use of production all over the world. The importance of salmon for food and sport also led hatcheries to maintain fisheries, and introductions of alien species as to the introduction of Chinook salmon, Atlantic salmon, and Rainbow predators or competitors. Concern for the loss of salmonid fisheries trout into the Southern Hemisphere to support fisheries and canneries. led to some of the earliest fish conservation efforts in Europe, but Today, Atlantic salmon and Rainbow trout are cultured worldwide. during the 20th century, the principal responses were to culture them in hatcheries and to limit take by fisheries. Habitat restoration, The natural ability of salmon and trout to rapidly adapt to changing especially restoration of flows to degraded rivers, has generally Redwood Highway, Salmon Fishing on the Klamath River, Requa, California. conditions is the characteristic that has made them relatively easy to culture. been a low priority. Photo: Humboldt County Historical Society. The mouth of the Klamath River. Photo: Thomas Dunklin.

4 Behnke, R. J. 2002. Trout and salmon of North America. 5 Moyle, P. B. 2002. 6 Levin, P. S., Zabel, R. W. and Williams, J. G. (2001). “The road to extinction is paved with 7 Montgomery, D. 2003. King of Fish: The Thousand-year Run of Salmon. 8 Moyle 2002. The Free Press, New York. good intentions: Negative association of fish hatcheries with threatened salmon.” Westview Press, Boston, MA. Proceedings of the Royal Society, London. Series B Biological Sciences 268, 1153–1158. 2 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 3 Right: Figure 2. Change in native salmonid species richness in California, historical to present. In this figure, areas in red and orange denote watersheds that have lost the most species of native salmonids since the turn of the century. Areas in blue denote watersheds that have had species stocked or introduced into new habitats where they CALIFORNIA’S SALMONIDS were not historically found.

Generally, the watersheds behind major We recognize 32 distinct salmonids in Many (15, 47%) of California’s salmonids Most importantly, our goal has been dams (Shasta Dam on the Sacramento BOX 1 California, 21 of them anadromous, 11 are already recognized as threatened, establishing baseline evaluations of status River, rim dams in the Sierra Nevada foothills, endangered, or extinct by state and federal that will enable repeatable, systematic and Klamath River dams) have lost the Evolutionary Significant Units of them non-anadromous (Table 1, page most native salmonids, while the historically governments (Table 1, page II), but the comparisons of species status over the An ESU is a cluster of populations II). Of these salmonids, 22 are endemic to fishless lakes of the Sierra Nevada have only focused overviews of all salmonids in years, in response to environmental changes, that had a common evolutionary generally gained the most species through California and only five are shared with the state have been those sponsored by climate change and other anthropogenic history and trajectory. While 9 10 extensive stocking over decades. neighboring states. These salmonids can all California Trout. factors affecting populations. this worked to protect purely anadromous fishes, such as be recognized as species for management We undertook these overviews to compile It has also been our perception (and still is) purposes under definitions in the federal salmon, it did not work for information for all ESA-listed and non-listed that current lists of threatened and anadromous rainbow trout, Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973. California salmonids because they: endangered species do not reflect the which often were one genetic true condition of all salmonids in California, population that included • are characteristic of most of California’s which have seen considerable changes on resident trout populations. However, they are a combination of species, inland and coastal waters, so they serve the landscape due in large part to myriad subspecies, Evolutionary Significant Units This necessitated a different as umbrella species for much broader human-caused threats, considerable habitat management unit, the Distinct (ESUs), and Distinct Population Segments aquatic conservation efforts restoration, and efforts to reintroduce Population Segment. species to their historical habitats (Figure 2). (DPSs, Box 1), as defined by National Marine • are exceptionally vulnerable to climate Fisheries Service (NMFS) and the U.S. Fish change, through rising temperatures & Wildlife Service (USFWS), the federal and changing streamflow patterns Distinct Population Segment management agencies with oversight for • are in a general state of decline NMFS and USFWS created the Distinct Population Segment

ESA endangered or threatened salmon, • are the state’s most valuable and (DPS) management concept steelhead, and trout species. charismatic groups of fishes in its for steelhead, in order to list inland waters anadromous forms of Rainbow • are not being monitored as closely trout under the Endangered as they should be, especially forms Species Act due to the sharp not listed under state and federal declines in abundance, while Endangered Species acts (ESAs). not listing resident forms, which were relatively more abundant Iron Gate Dam. Photo: Mike Wier. in most watersheds.

9 Moyle, P. et al. (2008). Salmon, Steelhead, and Trout in 10 Katz, J. et al. (2012). “Impending Extinction of Salmon, Steelhead, and Trout California. Status of an Emblematic Fauna. 316pp. (Salmonidae) in California.” Environmental Biology of Fishes 96:1169-1186.

4 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 5 SUMMARY AND FINDINGS

a global loss of diversity? SOS! STATE OF THE SALMONIDS

18 In this State of the Salmonids II report we explore Further, new information, especially available for most species has greatly At the current rate, California stands to lose 45% of its Anadromous Inland If present trends 16 the following questions: in the form of federal and state improved, as has our understanding remaining native salmonids, including 11 of 21 anadromous continue... agency reports, and genetic and of the threats they face and their species and 3 of 10 of its inland species, in the next 50 years 14 life history research that was not impacts on salmonid populations. As unless significant actions are taken to stem the decline. 12 What is the status of all California salmonids, available before have been published, a result, our current effort uses vastly (Figure 3). Under present conditions, 23 of the remaining 31 10 both individually and collectively? helping to paint a clearer picture improved metrics to portray what we species (74%) are likely to be extinct in the next 100 years. 8 of the true plight of California’s feel is a considerable improvement in There are three main reasons for changes in the Level of 6 What are major factors responsible for their present salmonid populations. While the quality of the status assessments Concern across nearly all salmonids since 2008 (Figure 4): 4 California’s climate, precipitation for each species. status, especially of declining species? Number of Species patterns, and trends in salmonids 2 1. the 2012-16 historic drought in California, How can California’s salmonids be saved has changed, monitoring efforts, This report will alert agencies, 0 2. improved information, and 0 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 from extinction? especially for species not listed stakeholders, and the public to the EXTINCT CRITICAL HIGH MODERATE LOW under the Endangered Species Act, potential extent of the problem with 3. increased understanding of climate change Score Range: Level of Concern remain insufficient. declining salmon, steelhead, trout and impacts on salmonids. This second edition is timely. During the writing their waters in order to encourage of the first edition of the State of the Salmonids In 2015, our partners at Trout strategic conservation, especially in The Level of Concern is increasing for California’s salmonids, Figure 3. Status of California salmonids; 21 anadromous Unlimited released the State of the the face of climate change. In fact, but especially for its anadromous species. In general, anadromous species and 11 inland species. report in 2008, the commercial salmon fishery Trout report,11 which provided a the decline of California salmonids species in California face a higher risk of extirpation from Anadromous species include all salmon, steelhead and was closed due to low adult returns. Each year broad overview of the status, trends, is a problem of national significance. their range than inland native trout because they depend on Coastal Cutthroat trout. Inland species include all trout since then, the fishery has been restricted or and threats facing the trout species Because of its complexity, California access to diverse, high quality habitat during various parts (with the exception of Coastal Cutthroat and Bull trout) constrained in some way. across the United States. While that produces conditions similar to of their life cycle, and are therefore exposed to numerous as well as Mountain Whitefish. report provided a general overview, conditions throughout the range of anthropogenic and environmental threats throughout their lives. this report dives more deeply into salmonids, but its southern location At the writing of this report, the commercial the status and trends facing all of and extreme development of water For most species, abundance generally declined due to 18 2008 salmon fishery is again closed for the 2017 season. California’s salmonids at the southern resources means the state’s problems reductions in suitable habitat stemming from drought 16 impacts. An improved understanding of genetics, abundance, 2017 The northern part of the state is emerging from edge of their range. presage those of other areas. Loss of 14 California’s salmonids means a global and species range information has also positively or historic drought (2012-2016), which saw significant 12 Status reviews are needed more loss of diversity. negatively impacted species status. For example, the Level 10 negative impacts on salmonid populations and frequently to alert managers and of Concern for Central Valley steelhead remained the same juvenile survival. others on changes in the trends of (Moderate) since 2008 due to a better understanding of 8 the salmonids across California. the nature of steelhead/resident Rainbow trout interactions 6 While considerable efforts were and genetics, despite recent low adult returns. Conversely, 4 Within Within Within made to compare the results of this the Central Valley fall-run Chinook salmon Level of Concern Number of Species 2 50 years 50 years 100 years second edition with the first edition increased significantly (from Low to High) since 2008 due 0 11 of 21 3 of 10 23 of 31 of the State of the Salmonids report to a better understanding of the limited abundance of wild EXTINCT CRITICAL HIGH MODERATE LOW (52%) of (30%) of (74%) of (2008), the level of information individuals without signs of hybridization with hatchery fish. Score Range: Level of Concern California’s California’s California’s Finally, the climate change scoring in this report has built anadromous inland remaining upon recent work12 and a better understanding of the specific Figure 4. Change in Level of Concern 2008 to 2017 species are species are species are impact climate change is likely to have on each species, likely to be likely to be likely to be 11 Trout Unlimited. (2015). State of the Trout: A Report on the Status and Trends 12 Moyle, P. et al. (2013). Climate Change Vulnerability of Native and Alien Freshwater extinct. extinct. extinct. of Native Trout in the United States. Trout Unlimited, Arlington, VA. Fishes of California: A Systematic Assessment Approach. PLoS ONE 8(5): e63883. which led to a score reduction of the climate change factor in nearly all cases. 6 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 7 OPEN HERE Major Threats TO SEE ANTHROPOGENIC THREATS TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS TO ANADROMOUS SPECIES

THE effects OF CLIMATE CHANGE on California Salmonids ANTHROPOGENIC (HUMAN-CAUSED) THREATS

Climate change was scored 1. Lack of cold water 4. Reduced habitat suitability ESTUARY MAJOR DAMS AGRICULTURE as a critical or high threat for Salmon, steelhead, and trout in California rely and survival The population of California is approaching 40 million people. ALTERATION on cold, clean water to survive. Climate change As temperatures increase and streamflow We live in a highly altered natural environment. As such, the 26 of 31 species (87%). human impact on the state’s salmonids were important to Estuary and lagoon habitat has Dozens of major and thousands California’s booming is likely to reduce availability and access to regimes change, habitats become less suitable been significantly reduced through of smaller dams block access to agricultural industry reduce cold water for salmonids in California through for native salmonids and invasive species include in the SOS II report because: conversion to support the state’s historical salmon and steelhead the survival and productivity growing population and myriad habitat. Dams also alter of all salmon runs in the state. It is the major, overarching increasing average air temperatures and tend to thrive. Alterations in the amount and land uses. Loss of these productive flow regimes by changing the Agricultural demands on water 1. California’s salmonids can adapt to natural anthropogenic threat decreasing precipitation. In general, dry areas timing of streamflows reduces the survival of rearing habitats statewide, but timing, magnitude, duration, reduces and alter the timing of are likely to become drier, while wet areas all juvenile salmonids. In the Pacific Ocean, environmental change, but that ability is limited when especially in the highly altered rate of change and frequency streamflows that degrade water affecting salmonids in Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, of historical streamflows. quality and habitat. are likely to get wetter. Particularly at higher sea surface temperatures are likely to increase, faced with these human-induced threats. California. Due to its high reduces survival for all salmonids. elevations in California, precipitation is likely making ocean habitats less suitable for growth 2. Human-caused threats limit the long-term viability of impact and importance to to fall as rain rather than snow, reducing and survival of salmon and steelhead in salmonid populations by decreasing their resilience overall snowpack and the critical snowmelt the future. the long term survival of all to change. Critical/High threat: Critical/High threat: Critical/High threat: that provides cold water year-round to salmonids in California, it is 3. Determining which threats have the greatest impact on 13 of 21 (62%) 13 of 21 (62%) 8 of 21 (38%) California’s salmonid species. 5. food web ALTERATION anadromous species anadromous species anadromous species highlighted below. species can help to target conservation and restoration In the Pacific Ocean, climate change is likely efforts, providing a roadmap for a return to resilience. 2. Low and variable streamflows to reduce the powerful upwelling of the Climate change was scored Earlier runoff during the spring is anticipated, California Current, which drives primary For each species, an analysis was conducted of 15 anthropogenic causing prolonged periods of low streamflows productivity and supports the entire food a critical or high threat for a factors (illustrated at left) which limit, or potentially limit, a during summer and early fall. Variability in web for all marine life, including anadromous TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS TO INLAND SPECIES majority of species, and was species’ viability. The threats were rated for each species by weather will also increase, causing more fishes. Increased ocean acidification is also considered a low threat to critical, high, medium, low, or not applicable (n/a). frequent, prolonged drought and high intensity likely to impact ocean productivity. only one species. storm events. Higher magnitude winter floods, The top three anthropogenic threats, after climate change, vary reductions in annual streamflow, and broad 6. Rising sea levels by anadromous and inland species as would be expected given declines in cold water habitat for fishes are Rising sea levels are likely to inundate and their different life histories. The top threats to anadromous already occurring, with increasing rates of degrade important estuarine and lagoon species are overwhelmingly estuary alteration, major dams, and ALIEN SPECIES FIRE HATCHERIES these changes anticipated. habitats, historically critical components of agriculture, while inland species face threats from alien species, Critical 61% the juvenile salmon and steelhead life cycle. fire, and hatcheries. Brown and Brook trout have Fires may potentially wipe out Hatchery-origin Rainbow trout High 26% 3. Constricted habitat been introduced extensively entire populations through strains have been widely stocked All salmonids require thermal refuge areas, The majority of salmonid species in California across California, and are direct mortality, sedimentation across California for over a Moderate 10% For more information on the impact of each anthropogenic sources of competition and siltation of habitat, and century. These fish hybridize diverse habitats, and broad ranges to persist is currently facing, or is likely to face, extinction Low 3% threat to California’s salmonids, see the illustration fold-out and predation for native trout. destruction of riparian habitat, with native Redband, Rainbow, from climate change if present trends continue. These non-native species are especially for species with very Golden, and Cutthroat trout, in the face of climate change. Species with at left. very limited ranges, such as Eagle Lake Salmon, steelhead, and trout have adapted to generally better able to survive limited ranges. Climate change is and their offspring replace in degraded habitats historically likely to increase the risk of more genetically pure populations Rainbow trout, and those that over summer a wide variety of climatic conditions in the For more details on how the anthropogenic threats were occupied by native species. frequent and intense fires in the limited habitats they past, and could likely survive substantial in freshwater waiting to spawn, such as ranked visit Methods at the back of this report. in California in the future. still occupy. Figure 5. Climate change threat spring-run Chinook salmon and summer changes to climate in the absence of other steelhead, are most susceptible to climate anthropogenic stressors. By taking actions to score (%) for California’s 31 Critical/High threat: Critical/High threat: Critical/High threat: remaining salmonids. change because they are least able to reduce anthropogenic threats identified in this 7 of 10 (70%) 2 of 10 (20%) 2 of 10 (20%) access these refuge areas, which are largely report, allowing salmonid species access to a inland species inland species inland species inaccessible behind dams, diversions, variety of high-quality habitats at appropriate and waterfalls. times, and increasing population abundance, species resilience to climate change can be improved.

8 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 9 ANTHROPOGENIC Threats

Anadromous Number of Salmonids Inland 0 5 10 15 20 25

maJOR DAMs

AGRICULTURE

GRAZING

RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT

URBANIZATION

INSTREAM MINING

MINING

TRANSPORTATION

LOGGING

FIRE

ESTUARY ALTERATIOn

RECREATION

HARVEST

HATCHERIES

ALIEN SPECIES

Figure 6. Number of anadromous and inland salmonids with critical, high and medium threat levels by anthropogenic threat.

FIRE LOGGING RECREATION INSTREAM HATCHERIES maJOR DAMS AGRICULTURE GRAZING MINING ESTUARY RESIDENTIAL URBANIZATION HARVEST ALIEN SPECIES TRANSPORTATION MINING ALTERATION DEVELOPMENT

Wildfires are a natural Many heavily logged Human use of streams, lakes, Widespread and often severe Hatcheries and releases of Dams block access Impacts from agriculture Improperly managed This factor refers to hard All anadromous salmonids As California’s population Development of towns and Harvest relates to legally Non-native species Transportation corridors component of California’s watersheds once supported and surrounding watersheds instream mining impacts hatchery reared salmonids to historical spawning include streams polluted by livestock grazing can rock mining, from which depend on estuaries for grows, rural development cities often negatively affects regulated commercial, tribal, (including fishes and other such as highways confine landscape. However, fire the highest species diversity for recreation has greatly occurred mid-19th to early into the wild can negatively and rearing habitats. agricultural return water or damage streambanks, contaminated tailings, mine rearing during a portion of increasingly encroaches nearby streams through and recreational fisheries, aquatic organisms) are stream channels and increase suppression, coupled with and abundance of fishes, increased with population 20th century due largely to impact wild populations Downstream, dams alter farm effluent; reduced flow limit riparian vegetation effluents, and toxic pollutants their lives. Most estuaries in along or near streams. alteration for flood prevention, as well as illegal harvest ubiquitous across many of sedimentation, pollution, and climate change, has made including anadromous salmon expansion. Boating, swimming, hydraulic mining. Many rivers through competition, predation, the timing, frequency, due to diversions which can and increase sedimentation. may have been dumped or the state are highly altered Resulting impacts include channelization, and water (poaching). Over-harvest can California’s watersheds; their habitat degradation from modern fires more frequent, and steelhead. Improperly angling, off-road vehicles, ski were excavated, dredged, disease, and loss of fitness duration, magnitude, and affect migratory patterns; and This can result in a loss of leached into streams, mostly from human activities, water diversions, groundwater diversion, and increased have substantial impacts on impacts on native species storm runoff and altered severe and catastrophic. managed logging increases resorts, golf courses and other and hydraulically mined for and genetic diversity. Hatchery rate of change of flows increased silt and pesticides habitat complexity, increased from abandoned mines. especially diking, draining, pumping, streambed pollution. The timing and fish populations, particularly through hybridization, streamflows. Culverts and The transition from relatively sediment in streams, increases activities or land uses can gold, causing dramatic stream influences are especially decreasing habitat quality in streams. Marijuana grow stream temperatures, and Mercury mining, used for and sandbar removal between alteration (to protect houses magnitude of flows are altered for those with already limited predation, competition, other passage or drainage frequent understory solar input which increases negatively impact salmonid degradation. Instream gravel apparent to for anadromous and survival. operations, legal and illegal, decreased spawning habitat processing gold in placer and the estuary and ocean. Land- from flooding, construct road by the increase in impervious abundance or distributions, increased disease modifications associated with fires to less frequent, but stream temperatures, and populations and their habitats. mining also removed riparian species where dams blocked were considered in this metric. conditions. Severe grazing in dredge mining, left a lasting uses surrounding estuaries crossings, etc.), and pollution surfaces such as pavement. those which are isolated or transmission, and habitat roads often block migration catastrophic, crown fires degrades riparian cover. The impacts are generally vegetation and spawning access to spawning habitat meadow streams can cause negative impact on wildlife. often involve extensive (especially from septic tanks Pollution from surface runoff, reside in discrete habitats alteration can be severe. and restrict fish movements, can have a severe impact Stream habitat is also minor; however, concentration gravels and degraded riparian and hatcheries were down cutting resulting in wetland reclamation, greatly and illegal waste dumping). sewage discharges, and storm making them easy to catch which can fragment on fish habitat and wipe out degraded by the extensive of multiple activities in one habitats. Such mining is now established as mitigation. meadows drying out and reducing ecological function drains can degrade water (e.g. summer steelhead), or populations. populations with narrow network of unpaved roads that region or time of year may largely banned, but lasting Inland trout can also be reductions in streamflow. and habitat complexity. quality and aquatic habitats. those that attain large adult habitat ranges. supports timber extraction. have cumulative impacts. impacts remain in many areas. impacted with stocking of size (e.g., Chinook salmon). hatchery fish for recreation.

Return to Resilience CALTROUT: PROTECTING CALIFORNIA’S FISH AND WATERS SINCE 1971

California Trout’s mission is to ensure resilient wild fish thriving in healthy waters for a better California. Our unique business model provides science-based solutions to complex resource issues while balancing the needs of wild fish and people. TheSOS II: Fish in SAVING CALIFORNIA’S The good news is that 31 of our 32 salmonid taxa PROTECTING AND RESTORING STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE Improve Genetic Management Hot Water Report informs our blueprint and ensures our work is focused on the right priorities. These are: SALMONIDS FROM still persist. We have an opportunity to reverse PLACES THAT MATTER MOST Broad changes to the way salmonid hatcheries this trajectory toward extinction, but the findings Adopt Reconciliation Ecology as the are operated throughout California need to be of this report underscore that we must act now. Protect Strongholds EXTINCTION Basis for Management: Wild Fish in instituted. Changes should include reducing We must take bold, scientifically informed, and Strongholds: Protect the Best There are still rivers in California that produce abundant wild Working Landscapes gene flow between hatchery and wild salmonids, innovative actions to improve resilience of our We must protect the best of what habitats are minimizing hatchery straying into non-natal steelhead and salmon – and we intend to keep them that way. Reconciliation Ecology recognizes that most The science behind this report has native salmon, steelhead, and trout and the waters left. Few fully functioning river ecosystems, with watersheds, and marking all hatchery fish with ecosystems are altered by human actions, with made it clear: many of salmon, upon which we all depend. relatively intact watersheds and high-quality an adipose fin clip so that they can be readily Restore Source Waters people as a key part of the ecosystem. Therefore, habitat, exist today in California, such as the Smith distinguished from wild fish, and using strict Source water areas are the life blood of the state – in particular steelhead, and trout are in poor highly managed ecosystems in working landscapes Improving resilience requires an improvement in River, Blue Creek, the Eel River and Butte Creek, mating protocols to discourage inbreeding and the Sierra headwaters and the volcanic spring aquifers of the Mt. condition with the last several years must play a major role in contributing to salmon salmonid life history diversity. Salmonids have among others. This is reason enough to make fitness reduction. Shasta area. of severe drought pushing several responded and adapted to environmental change managing systems like these in perpetuity the diversity and abundance. If the mechanisms species to the edge of extinction. for more than 50 million years due to variation highest priority, to protect salmonid diversity supporting salmonid growth and life history Wild Fish, Working Landscapes diversity can be restored or recreated in To reverse the extinction trend, in their life histories and behavior. Much of this and production. California’s rivers and landscapes have been highly altered and, variability is tied to differences in the timing of human-dominated ecosystems, these “working We call this plan a “Return to Resilience” as a result, wild fish populations have suffered. CalTrout is finding more Californians need to care. fresh water and ocean migrations. These timing Protect and Restore Source Waters landscapes” can be put to work to recover because both salmonids and their innovative ways to put nature back into the mix, bringing wild fish salmonids throughout California. Current work on differences contribute to life history diversity Protecting and restoring source waters including managers must be resilient in response back into California’s working landscapes. the Yolo Bypass in the Central Valley, for example, We must do a better job of making which, in turn, promotes species resilience to meadows, springs, and groundwater will allow shows that managing rice fields to mimic natural to change wrought by the ever-increasing change. Over the last century, life history and them to continue to provide refuges for salmonids the case that diverse and resilient floodplains creates substantial growth benefits for human demands on the planet. We are California-focused. behavioral diversity has been greatly diminished during stressful times and buffer the effects wild populations of trout, steelhead juvenile salmon. Our expert staff are rooted in due to changes in habitat, discontinuity between of climate change. Source headwaters are key local communities, hard at work and salmon matter not just to habitats, genetic homogenization, and interactions to hydrologic connectivity and are vital during Without this kind of plan, and Improve Habitat Connectivity and implementing over 30 large-scale, fish lovers, but to all Californians. with non-native species. The relatively recent periods of low streamflows and drought. Passage to Historical Spawning commitments to implement it, the main on-the-ground conservation reduction in salmonid life history and behavioral Resilient fish populations indicate projects in key geographical diversity means that salmonids are less able to and Rearing Habitat option is to accept the loss of healthy waters, important for Restore Productive and Diverse Habitats areas where wild fish influence adapt to a rapidly changing California. Access to Removing dams and fish passage barriers or most salmonid diversity in California, Restoring function to once-productive but now the community: North Coast, drinking water, agriculture, diverse and productive habitats, and reductions in providing volitional passage to historically highly altered habitats can greatly improve with a few populations maintained as Mount Shasta/Klamath, Sierra commerce, and the health of people interactions between hatchery and wild salmonids, important spawning and rearing habitats is key rearing conditions for juvenile salmonids, low-diversity “boutique” populations, Headwaters, Central California, are fundamental to restoring salmonid resilience for persistence of many anadromous salmonids. and the environments in which especially floodplains, coastal lagoons, estuaries, and Southern California. throughout California. Many of the historically Access to lost habitats will help boost population to remind us of our lost past and we live. Declining fish populations and spring-fed rivers, can greatly improve rearing 13 productive and diverse habitats used by salmonids bleak future. We lead innovative, science-based conditions for juvenile salmonids. These types abundance, improve life history diversity, and indicate degraded waters, which are either blocked behind dams and levees or solutions that work for the diverse of habitats are relatively scarce, yet are vital population resilience to environmental changes. threaten the health and economic are significantly altered and no longer function interests of fish, farms, commerce, nurseries for juvenile fishes and support robust For populations downstream of dams, there is a properly. Restoring such habitats and access to and community. Our successful well-being of all Californians. growth rates when compared with typical need to institute scientifically based environmental them is of paramount importance. proof-of-concept projects in-river conditions. Improved growth prior to streamflow regimes throughout California that establish precedent, empowering ocean migration and high life history diversity favor native species. Improving salmonid status throughout California partners and influencing increases the likelihood of marine survival and requires investing in productive and diverse statewide policy. adult returns to natal tributaries. habitats that promote salmonid diversity and This work would not happen resilience. Here is California Trout’s action plan to without the support of our return our rivers and salmon, steelhead, and trout partners and donors. Thank you to resilience. If fully implemented, many of the 13 Lackey, R., Lach, D., and S. Duncan. 2006. Salmon 2100: The Future of Wild Pacific Salmon. CalTrout’s “Nigiri Project” at Knaggs Ranch; for trusting CalTrout to protect species in this report will thrive. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD, i-vii, (2006). working with agricultural floodplains to regenerate salmon populations. Photo: Mike Wier. our state’s fish and waterways. 10 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 11 SPECIES ACCOUNTS

The following 74 pages describe APPROACH SCORES EXPLAINED MAPS EXPLAINED 32 species accounts: one for each The general approach taken in the analysis was to: kind of native salmon, steelhead, To graphically represent the Level of Concern Each species account includes a range map • Compile literature, administrative reports, survey data, interviews with species experts, for each salmonid in California, a scoring bar is generated from PISCES (Figure 7), which is a and trout. and other information for all 32 kinds of salmon, steelhead, and trout. used to represent categorizies from 0.0 to 5.0: software and data clearinghouse for the best- • Produce detailed accounts on the biology, threats, and status for all species. known ranges for native fishes of California, Each account has been distilled • Evaluate the status of each species using a set of standard criteria. 4.0 - 5.0 housed at the University of California, Davis Center for Watershed Sciences. The data used from comprehensive, peer-reviewed • Conduct an overall analysis of the status of California’s salmonids and of the factors affecting Level of Concern: Low 4.5 to generate maps are compiled from multiple their status based on information summarized in the species accounts. Regarded as being healthy, with large life history accounts and scoring sources and experts and is stored and exported populations that spawn in California, rubrics prepared by Dr. Peter B. as range and summary maps. The status of each extant species was determined scoring higher were regarded as reasonably a wide distribution inside the state, Moyle, Dr. Robert Lusardi, Patrick using seven criteria (area occupied, estimated secure for the immediate future. The research team and were stable and/or expanding The species range maps presented here Samuel, and will be published as adult abundance, environmental tolerance, recognized that information for determining outside their native range. show the watersheds in which each species genetic risk, dependence on human intervention, the status for some species was incomplete Salmon, Steelhead, and Trout in was historically found and where they can anthropogenic threats, and climate change and uneven, and developed a “reliability index” 3.0 - 3.9 California: Status of Emblematic be found today as a result of dam building, (Table 2). Each criteria was then scored on a to give a sense of the certainty associated with Level of Concern: Moderate stocking, reintroduction efforts, and other Fishes, Second Edition. Readers scale of 1.0 to 5.0, where 1.0 was the lowest the status scoring determination. A reliability Considered to be under no factors. Some species have been translocated, interested in learning more about possible score for an extant species and 5.0 was score of “one” indicated the status rating 3.5 immediate threat of extinction or captured, transported, and released into the diverse salmonid species in the highest score. The seven criteria were equally selected had low reliability because little peer- but were in long-term decline habitats where they were not historically found weighted and averaged to produce an overall reviewed information was available, whereas a California, report methods, science or had naturally small, to help increase their range or establish refuge score for each species. reliability score of “four” indicated the status isolated populations. populations for future reintroduction efforts. underlying the scoring in the rating selected was highly reliable, based on Species scoring an average of 1.0 to 2.9 accounts, and obtaining references numerous accounts in the published literature were regarded as being in serious danger of 2.0 - 2.9 Historical range and agency reports. for further reading can find the full extinction within the next century, while species Level of Concern: High report on California Trout’s website Historical range indicates a species range Considered to be under severe before human settlement of California. (www.caltrout.org) and UC Davis’ threat of extinction in 50-100 years. Current range indicates where a fish can be Metric Score Justification 2.5 Center for Watershed Sciences These species could easily slip found today and is shaded to differentiate Area occupied 1 Unhybridized California Golden trout are confined to a few small into the first category if direct observations, such as surveys or other website (www.watershed.ucdavis. tributaries in one watershed. current trends continue. edu). A glossary is provided at the confirmed sightings, and the expert opinion of Estimated adult abundance 3 Volcano Creek populations may be <1,000 but, if other populations with professional biologists familiar with the species. end of the report for reference. conservation value within native range are counted, the numbers would 1.0- 1.9 be much higher, perhaps 50,000. Level of Concern: Critical Translocated range Intervention dependence 2 Annual monitoring of barrier performance required; continued Regarded as being in serious implementation of Conservation Strategy is critical. Rescued Translocated range indicates a species range individuals from Volcano Creek will need to be re-introduced based danger of extinction in that has been expanded beyond its historical on genetic management strategy. their native range within the range through purposeful capture, transport, 1.5 next 50 years. Environmental tolerance 3 Generally tolerant of a wide range of conditions and habitats within and release and is shaded to differentiate their native range. between direct observations and expert opinion.

Genetic risk 1 Hybridization with rainbow trout is a constant high risk. 0 Note Figure 7. Example of a PISCES distribution map for California Golden trout. Right: Table 2. Example of California Climate change 1 Rated critically vulnerable in Moyle et al. (2013). Level of Concern: Extinct These scores (left) are for species status in Golden trout status scoring assessment. Every effort has been made to provide accurate species distribution maps, but Anthropogenic threats 2 1 High, 1 Medium threat. California only. A species like Chum salmon For the complete Methods used to assess that is on the verge of extinction in California, interested readers should consult the full report for detailed range descriptions. Average 1.9 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL the status of salmonids, readers should for example, has a low score even though it is consult the methods section at the end Certainty (1-4) 4 Well-documented. abundant in much of its range north of Oregon. of this report. 0 12 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 13 SPECIES AVERAGE AVERAGE LEVEL SALMON 2017 SCORE OF CONCERN Oncorhynchus Chinook (8 kinds) 2.3 HIGH California’s diverse geography and habitats have allowed four species of Coho (2 kinds) 1.5 CRITICAL salmon to live at the southern end of their ranges: Chinook, Coho, Pink, Chum (1 species) 1.6 CRITICAL and Chum. California Chinook occur as eight genetically distinct populations Pink (1 species) 1.6 CRITICAL (Evolutionary Significant Units or ESUs), seven of which are found only in California. Likewise, there are two ESUs of Coho salmon, one endemic to the state. California’s small runs of Pink and Chum salmon may actually be TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS TO SALMON maintained from strays from northern populations in Oregon or Washington, but more research is needed on the origins of these fish. Perhaps the most CHINOOK SALMON distinctive of these salmon is Sacramento River winter-run Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha having evolved to exploit the cold, spring-fed waters found year-round in tributaries of the upper Sacramento River.

Habitat AND BEHAVIOR AGRICULTURE ESTUARY MAJOR DAMS ALTERATION All salmon species are adapted to cold, clean, fresh water habitats but spend the majority of their lives at sea. They seek out natal streams Water diversions to support Estuary and lagoon habitat Dozens of major and countless using an acute sense of smell to spawn and complete their life cycles. California’s booming has been significantly reduced minor dams block access to agricultural industry reduce through conversion to support most historical salmon habitat in Female salmon select a site to dig a redd in loose gravel and cobbles, the survival and productivity state’s expanding population and California. Dams also alter flow with appropriate streamflow, depth, and temperature, and then deposit up of all salmon runs in the state. myriad land uses. Loss of these regimes by changing the timing, to several thousand pea-sized pink to orange eggs. Males defend females Agricultural demands on water productive feeding grounds magnitude, duration, rate of COHO SALMON reduce and alter the timing of statewide, but especially in the change and frequency of and fertilize the eggs. Once in fresh water, adult salmon do not eat, and die streamflows that degrade water highly altered Sacramento-San historical flows. shortly after spawning. Alevins emerge after several weeks to months in Oncorhynchus kisutch quality and habitat for salmon. Joaquin Delta, reduces survival gravel, and as they absorb their yolk sacs they become known as fry. for all salmonids. These young salmon slowly gain strength until they are able to seek out prey in faster waters. As they grow, the young salmon become known as parr, and feed aggressively in a variety of freshwater habitats, increasing their size before migrating to the Pacific Ocean. Depending upon the species and available habitat, juvenile salmon can spend from just a few weeks to multiple years growing in fresh water before migrating to the sea. As they migrate downstream, juveniles take on a silvery coloration and undergo changes to allow them tolerate salt water, and become known as smolts. Once at sea, most of California’s salmon spend two to five years feeding on small fishes, squid, crustaceans, and other invertebrates in the CHUM SALMON Oncorhynchus keta rich upwelling currents over the Continental Shelf. Some of these fish school with salmon from Oregon and Washington and migrate to feeding grounds in the North Pacific before returning to fresh water to spawn and complete their life cycles.

Depending on their geographic origin, genetics, and prevailing environmental conditions, salmon species migrate back into the streams in which they were born. In general, Chinook salmon return to spawn in the main channels of rivers and tributaries, while the smaller Coho, Pink, and Chum salmon tend to prefer to spawn in small, low gradient tributaries with slower streamflows closer to sea. After death, the marine-derived nutrients PINK SALMON in salmon bodies helps to fuel the food web that supports juvenile salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Salmon Circle. Photo: Mike Hupp. as well as providing sustenance for the entire watershed.

14 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 15 SPECIES 2017 LEVEL OF CHINOOK SALMON SCORE CONCERN Oncorhynchus tshawytscha California Coast Chinook Salmon 2.9 HIGH Central Valley Fall-run Chinook Salmon 2.7 HIGH Central Valley Late Fall-run Chinook Salmon 2.1 HIGH Central Valley Spring-run Chinook Salmon 1.7 CRITICAL Of the eight kinds of Chinook Sacramento River Winter-run Chinook Salmon 1.3 CRITICAL salmon in California, four Southern Oregon/Northern California Coast Chinook Salmon 3.1 MODERATE saw an increase in Level of Upper Klamath/Trinity Rivers Fall-run Chinook Salmon 3.1 MODERATE Concern since 2008. Upper Klamath/Trinity Rivers Spring-run Chinook Salmon 1.6 CRITICAL

CHINOOK SALMON TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS TO CHINOOK SALMON

Chinook, or “King” salmon, are the largest They prefer cold water temperatures of approximately of the Pacific salmon, reaching 36 kg (about 5°-13°C (41-55°F) for migrations. After arriving at 84 lbs.). Most Chinook in California average spawning grounds, each female selects a suitable around 9 kg (20 lbs.). California Chinook once spot with gravel of the right size, oxygenated water, ranged from the Smith River near the Oregon adequate streamflows, and velocity. The males develop MAJOR DAMS HATCHERIES AGRICULTURE border south to the Kings River (Tulare County). blotchy dark colored patches on their bodies, slightly humped backs, and a hooked jaw called a kype, for They historically supported vast commercial, Major dams alter the timing and Hatcheries in California are California’s lucrative agriculture recreational, and tribal fisheries; there were once fighting off other males and defending a female. The magnitude of streamflows, and used mostly to mitigate for industry has significantly altered canneries along San Francisco Bay, at the mouth of females excavate a large redd with their tails and then block access to the majority of the loss of salmon habitat and the way water is distributed, the Eel and Klamath rivers, and on the Sacramento lay their eggs directly in the gravel and cobbles. Males historical spawning habitat for abundance associated with dam reducing and degrading the Chinook salmon. construction and to support quantity and quality of cold water River. In 2008, the commercial Chinook salmon fishing then fertilize the eggs, which hatch in about two to fisheries. However, hatchery- available to Chinook salmon. Over season was closed due to low numbers of returning three months. Both adult males and females do not raised Chinook salmon have 95% of valuable floodplain habitat, adults, and has been curtailed every season since, eat after they enter fresh water, and so they die shortly led to increased competition, which historically served as crucial interbreeding, and an overall feeding and nursery habitat for including complete closure for the 2017 season. after spawning. The ocean nutrients in their bodies decline in wild salmon. juveniles, has been lost in the help replenish streams and the cycle starts anew. Central Valley due to agricultural conversion and other uses. Habitat AND BEHAVIOR California’s varied habitats have allowed Chinook There are eight genetically distinct populations, or salmon to develop a spectrum of life histories, enabling Evolutionary Significant Units (ESUs) of Chinook them to adapt to diverse conditions and watersheds. salmon in California. While salmon hatch in fresh water, Different traits between runs, such as run-timing, they spend the majority of their lives (one to five maturation timing, and juvenile migration patterns years) at sea feeding on shrimp, krill, squid, anchovies, allow maximum use of available habitat, because the rockfish, and other fishes. They feed in the rich, runs are segregated in the spawning habitats they nearshore upwelling currents from Monterey Bay to use and when they use them. Juvenile Chinook spend Southern Oregon, and some join other salmon further varying amounts of time in fresh water feeding before offshore in the North Pacific. Across California, adult migrating to sea as smolts. Floodplains, estuaries, Chinook return to fresh water during most months lagoons, and tidal marsh habitats historically provided of the year, and seek out natal streams using their rearing habitat for juveniles, enabling them to put on acute sense of smell. They generally spawn at two weight before migrating to the Pacific Ocean, which to six years of age, with three to four year-old adults greatly increases their chances of survival. accounting for the majority of the population. Drift Boat on South Fork Eel. Photo: Mike Wier.

16 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 17 CALIFORNIA COAST SUMMARY Metric Score Justification CHINOOK SALMON Low From 2012-2016, poor ocean Area occupied 3 CC Chinook salmon occupy 5 major watersheds. conditions, historic drought, record Estimated adult abundance 3 All populations have less than 1,000 spawners in most years, but there Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Moderate is some mixing among populations; there have been recent increases in high temperatures, and exploding the Eel River population, but reliable data are lacking. LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH 2.9 marijuana cultivation have had High Intervention dependence 3 Long-term declines indicate intervention needed, especially in improved significant negative impacts on CC flows and habitat in the Russian and Eel rivers. California Coastal Chinook salmon are vulnerable to Chinook salmon, so much so that NMFS extinction in the next 50-100 years if coastal stream Critical Environmental tolerance 3 Fall-run life history allows for moderate tolerance of environmental concluded that endangered status was conditions encountered. conditions continue to deteriorate. Extinct likely in the future for the DPS. Genetic risk 2 Major watersheds may have distinct populations, all threatened by small size and similar genetic issues. The loss of spring-run life history was a major loss of diversity within the ESU. CONSERVATION ACTIONS Climate change 2 Likely to accelerate declines, especially in reservoir-dominated systems with reduced flows and altered channels.

• Work with stakeholders to find a Anthropogenic threats 1 8 Medium threats.

water sharing balance, which has Average 2.9 LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH been disrupted by Scott and Van Certainty (1-4) 3 Fairly well studied. Arsdale dams on the Eel River and Coyote Valley Dam on the Russian River, to recover CC Chinook. CHARACTERISTICS Habitat AND BEHAVIOR • Mark all hatchery Chinook salmon CC Chinook salmon can be distinguished from CC Chinook are all fall–run salmon; the spring- in the ESU range and implement a other salmon species by heavy spotting on run life history has been lost throughout the Genetic Stock Identification program their tails and black coloration inside their lower ESU. CC Chinook typically return to their natal to determine the origins of jaw and at the base of their teeth. CC Chinook rivers after spending two or three years at sea harvested salmon. salmon are nearly identical in appearance between September and early November, often to other Chinook salmon, and are separated following large early winter storms. Spawning • Implement an extensive monitoring from other Chinook based on their geographic in the larger basins peaks between late October Spawning Chinook. Photo: Jim Inman. program for the Eel River to evaluate distribution and genetic differences. CC Chinook and December, and eggs hatch after 40-60 days. salmon in the Eel River average around 56 cm The majority of CC Chinook salmon juveniles restoration activities and adaptively (22 in.) in length. emerge from the gravel in the late winter or CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS assess salmonid recovery. IMPACT spring and migrate downstream within a few ABUNDANCE months. Smolts use food-rich tidal or flooded Climate change is likely to lead • Leverage partnerships with public and habitats with overhanging cover or undercut to increased temperatures private landowners, law enforcement, Abundance of CC Chinook salmon has likely banks to forage before migrating to sea. and reduced snowpack in the legal precedent, and voluntary efforts decreased by more than 90% from historical headwaters of the Eel River, numbers, though reliable estimates are lacking, which will make managing to reduce illegal water diversions and Genetics MAJOR DAMS LOGGING AGRICULTURE especially for the Eel River watershed. The Eel CALIFORNIA COAST CHINOOK SALMON the release of cold water from CC Chinook salmon in the Eel River are more dams and reservoirs to support secure streamflows for all salmonids. River once supported a cannery with catches DISTRIBUTION closely related to populations in northern salmonids even more difficult in Scott Dam, Coyote Valley Dam, Historical and current land use Many tributaries are facing over 500,000 Chinook and Coho combined per The CC Chinook ESU includes salmon that spawn in coastal watersheds watersheds than those on found along the the future. and Warm Springs Dam reduce practices related to logging and increasing frequency of water year in the late 19th century. In ‘good’ years, from Redwood Creek (Humboldt County) to the Russian River (Sonoma Mendocino Coast. Chinook salmon of unknown water quality and quantity its associated road construction, withdrawals and overdraft historic runs were on the order of 600,000 County). In general, small coastal streams within this range can support CC across the CC Chinook salmon such as erosion and removal due to increasing demands of origin occasionally migrate to coastal basins fish combined in the ESU, perhaps dropping to Chinook salmon as long as they have open estuaries during peak migration range. The timing of water of large woody debris habitat, irrigationto support expansion south of the Russian River (e.g., Lagunitas Creek, transfers from the upper Eel continue to increase the of vineyards and marijuana 30,000-50,000 in ‘bad’ years. Present numbers times (fall through spring). In the Eel River watershed, CC Chinook salmon Marin County), and are under consideration to River into the Russian River vulnerability of CC Chinook cultivation. total approximately 5,000-20,000 fish each year. could historically access habitat up to natural boulder roughs on the upper watershed at Pacific Gas & salmon. This is especially true be in included in the CC Chinook salmon ESU mainstem Eel River, but they are currently blocked from accessing this Electric’s Potter Valley Project in smaller watersheds. in the future based on their reported genetic reduces habitat suitability for Eel habitat by Scott Dam and Lake Pillsbury (Lake County). River salmonids. similarities.

18 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 19 CENTRAL VALLEY FALL-RUN SUMMARY Metric Score Justification CHINOOK SALMON Low Central Valley fall-run Chinook salmon Area occupied 2 Some indication of natural self-sustaining populations in the upper are largely supported by hatcheries, which Sacramento River watershed, Clear and Butte creeks. Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Moderate results in significant ecological and genetic Estimated adult abundance 4 Annual spawning returns generally exceed 100,000 fish. LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH impacts to the sustainability of the run. Intervention dependence 2 The majority of remaining spawning and rearing habitat is dependent on 2.7 High instream flow releases from major dams, gravel augmentation and other ongoing efforts; population appears largely dependent on hatchery Central Valley (CV) fall-run Chinook salmon abundance has augmentation. Critical CONSERVATION ACTIONS fluctuated widely in recent years, but the number of spawners Environmental tolerance 3 Moderate physiological tolerance, multiple age classes. typically exceeds 100,000 fish per year. However, this run is Extinct • Reconnect rivers with oxbows, side Genetic risk 2 High hatchery production has resulted in genetic homogenization of supported by significant production from several major federal channels, and floodplains (e.g., Sutter the run, reducing overall fitness. and state hatcheries, which has troubling impacts on the and Yolo bypasses), and set back levees Climate change 3 The ‘ocean’ life strategy makes them the least vulnerable of all CV productivity and survival of remaining wild Chinook. Chinook runs to extirpation; however, models suggest dramatic changes to increase valuable feeding habitat. to lower elevation CV rivers and streams. • Clip the adipose fin on all hatchery Anthropogenic threats 2 1 High and 8 Medium threat Chinook salmon and implant coded Average 2.7 LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH wire tags in a fraction of fish to improve Certainty (1-4) 4 Well studied although still much uncertainty about ocean stage. research and management.

• End trucking of hatchery Chinook ABUNDANCE Most juveniles enter salt water in late spring and to the San Francisco Estuary to limit The historical abundance of fall-run Chinook early summer, when upwelling currents provide straying to non-natal watersheds and salmon is difficult to estimate because abundant food. Immature fall-run Chinook reduce hybridization. populations declined significantly before good typically spend between two to five years in the records were kept. Best estimates suggest that Pacific Ocean from Point Sur (Monterey County) • Relocate hatcheries in estuaries to as many as one million fall-run Chinook salmon to Point Arena (Mendocino County) before minimize competition and gene flow once returned to spawn in the Central Valley returning to fresh water as adults to spawn. between hatchery and wild stocks, and each year. Gold mining, dam construction, and commercial fishery impacts caused stocks Genetics Photo: Patrick Jarrett. allowing hatchery fish to be harvested to plummet by the 1940s. Annual runs have Hatchery operations that increase straying of while freeing wild populations to recover averaged around 150,000 fish per year over fish to various rivers have produced a genetically CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS and adapt to local conditions. the past decade. Most returning adult fall-run homogenous population of fall-run Chinook Chinook salmon are from hatcheries today, with IMPACT • Close hatcheries where adverse salmon, and wild and hatchery fish are now only a few streams in the northern portion of indistinguishable from each other. This hatchery- Central Valley fall-run Chinook impacts outweigh benefits. Sacramento Valley sustaining wild runs. salmon are highly vulnerable mediated loss of genetic diversity is a major to climate change impacts. threat to the continued existence of Chinook As precipitation patterns CHARACTERISTICS Habitat AND BEHAVIOR salmon in California, which rely on genetic and CENTRAL VALLEY FALL-RUN CHINOOK SALMON change and warmer stream life history differentiation to adapt to changing HATCHERIES ESTUARY AGRICULTURE Central Valley fall-run Chinook are generally Adult CV fall-run Chinook salmon return to DISTRIBUTION temperatures become more environmental conditions over time. Decades common, managers will ALTERATION smaller than late fall-run Chinook, typically fresh water in late summer and early fall, of interbreeding between fall and spring-run Central Valley fall-run Chinook salmon historically spawned in all major struggle to maintain cold measuring 45-60 cm (18-24 in.) in length, and and spawn relatively quickly after reaching Hatchery production of fall-run Millions of juvenile fall-run State Water Project and Central Chinook salmon has produced hybrid fish that Central Valley rivers from the upper Sacramento, McCloud, and Pit rivers water releases from dams Chinook salmon meant to augment Chinook migrate into the San Valley Project pumps divert weighing 9-10 kg (20-22 lbs.). Fall-run Chinook spawning grounds in mainstem rivers. Spawning return to the Feather River in spring, but are (Siskiyou County) in the north to the Kings River (King County) in the during summer and fall wild stocks has instead replaced Francisco Estuary every year, about 40% of flows from the salmon make up the largest run in the Central peaks from October-November, but can months to sustain all Central populations with a homogenous, but very few of them survive Sacramento-San Joaquin nearly genetically identical to fall-run Chinook. south. Today, they are restricted to a small fraction of their historical Valley today, and once supported robust continue through December and into January Valley Chinook salmon. hatchery-dominated population. to return as adults due in large Delta for agriculture, which Despite differences in genetics, life histories, habitat by dams in every major river in the Central Valley. Passage into the High straying rates from trucking part to the extensive drainage causes poor water quality, commercial and recreational fisheries in the if stream conditions allow. Juveniles emerge Similarly, as temperatures in and run-timing, NMFS groups fall-run and late mainstem San Joaquin River, above the confluence with the Merced River, the Pacific Ocean increase juvenile salmon to the San and levee system constructed high predation rates, and traps Pacific Ocean and fresh water. Due to low adult from December through March, and spend Francisco Estuary reduce genetic on historical floodplain and juvenile salmonids in dead-end fall-run Chinook salmon into a single “special is intentionally blocked at Hills Ferry by a CDFW-operated weir. On the over time, growth and survival up to seven months feeding before migrating diversity. In addition, hatchery- salt marsh habitats that once canals. Levees limit access returns, the fishery has either been closed or Sacramento River, Keswick Dam near the town of Redding blocks of all salmonids at sea is likely downstream in spring. Fall-run juveniles are concern” ESU. produced Chinook salmon provided rich feeding grounds to off-channel habitats that restricted every year since 2008. upstream migration. to be reduced. increase competition, predation, for all anadromous Central provide food and protection younger and smaller than other Chinook and risk of disease for wild fish. Valley salmonids. from predators. juveniles during their downstream migrations.

20 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 21 CENTRAL VALLEY LATE SUMMARY Metric Score Justification FALL-RUN CHINOOK SALMON Low In the past 10 years, numbers of Area occupied 2 Only one primary population concentrated in the upper Sacramento Central Valley late fall-run Chinook River; some tributary spawning and rearing. Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Moderate Estimated adult abundance 3 Total escapement has averaged approximately 10,000 spawners in salmon have remained low but appear recent years, while contribution from Coleman National Fish Hatchery is LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH stable. Evidence of hybridization with, low (~10%). High and misidentification as, fall-run Intervention dependence 2 Primary population is dependent on Shasta Dam operation for flows and Central Valley (CV) late fall-run Chinook salmon are 2.1 Chinook salmon have complicated gravel injection for spawning habitat improvement. vulnerable to extinction in the next 50-100 years. They have Critical efforts to accurately assess the status Environmental tolerance 3 Moderate physiological tolerance, multiple age classes. been eliminated from the majority of their native spawning Extinct of this unique run. Genetic risk 2 Hybridization with other runs may occur as evidenced by significant habitat and for the most part are now dependent upon cold mixing of in-river spawners of natural and hatchery-origin on Battle water releases from reservoirs and gravel augmentation to Creek and potential hybridization with fall-run Chinook. maintain suitable habitat. CONSERVATION ACTIONS Climate change 1 Extremely vulnerable due to dependence on cold water releases from Shasta Reservoir, snowpack, and spring-fed flows.

• Include late fall-run Chinook salmon Anthropogenic threats 2 2 High and 4 Medium threats.

in a comprehensive research and Average 2.1 LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH monitoring plan for the Central Certainty (1-4) 2 Least studied of Central Valley Chinook runs Valley, to fill data gaps in abundance,

distribution, and spawning studies. 2002, less than 20,000 adults have returned to • Recognize late fall-run Chinook as the Sacramento River, while about a thousand an independent ESU for management adults have returned to Battle Creek. purposes based on their unique run Habitat AND BEHAVIOR timing, genetics, and life histories. The late fall-run life strategy is much less • Enhance late fall-run Chinook well-known than those of other CV Chinook populations in Battle Creek and the San runs because of its recent recognition as a discrete run, its tendency to migrate and spawn Joaquin Basin to increase the Photo: Patrick Jarrett. when the Sacramento River is high, cold, and geographic range, genetic diversity, turbid, and limited historic capacity for genetic and climate change resilience differentiation. Late fall-run Chinook adults CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS of the run. begin their spawning migrations in mid-October IMPACT to November, and spawn quickly after reaching Late fall-run Chinook salmon spawning grounds in December to January. are critically vulnerable to CHARACTERISTICS Unlike other Central Valley Chinook salmon, extinction from the effects of Central Valley late fall-run Chinook salmon were most late fall-run fish are four years old when climate change because of not recognized as a unique run until 1966, so they return to spawn. Fry emerge from the the run’s dependence on cold little is known about their historical habitats spawning gravel from April to June, and over- CENTRAL VALLEY LATE FALL-RUN CHINOOK SALMON water released from dams, MAJOR DAMS AGRICULTURE ESTUARY their low abundance, and their ALTERATION or habits. They appear similar to other Central summer in the Sacramento River for 7-13 months DISTRIBUTION Valley Chinook salmon, but tend to be larger, before migrating out to sea. Juvenile migration limited range due to dam Keswick and Shasta dams on the Diversions and pumps to supply Loss of once-diverse, productive Central Valley late fall-run Chinook salmon most likely historically spawned construction. Sacramento River, and numerous water for agriculture negatively feeding and nursery habitats in reaching 75-100 cm (30-39 in.) and weighing to the ocean peaks in October; tagged juvenile in the upper Sacramento and McCloud rivers, which are now blocked by hydropower and diversion dams impact all Central Valley the San Francisco Estuary and 9-10 kg (20-22 lbs.) or more. late fall-run Chinook salmon moved downstream Shasta Dam, as well as in portions of major Sacramento and San Joaquin on Battle Creek block access Chinook salmon by reducing Sacramento-San Joaquin rivers to the San Francisco Estuary from 14 to 23 km to the majority of historical streamflows, entraining Delta has changed the way River tributaries with adequate cold water in summer. Today, most late fall- spawning habitat for late fall-run juveniles, and increasing juvenile Chinook salmon migrate ABUNDANCE (about 9 to 14 mi.) per day. run Chinook spawn in the mainstem Sacramento River between Red Bluff Chinook salmon. predation risk. to the ocean and eliminated Historical abundance estimates are not available Diversion Dam and Keswick Dam, and in Battle Creek (Tehama County). aspects of life strategy diversity. for Central Valley late fall-run Chinook salmon. Genetics While numbers have varied over time, the Currently, late fall-run and fall-run are considered population in the Sacramento River and Battle by NMFS to be two separate “races” under a Creek appears small but stable. Each year since single ESU. Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta. Photo: Unknown. 22 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 23 CENTRAL VALLEY SPRING-RUN SUMMARY Metric Score Justification Low Populations of Central Valley spring-run Area occupied 2 Self-sustaining populations are in Deer, Mill, and Butte creeks, with CHINOOK SALMON potential for populations in Battle and Clear creeks, as the result of Chinook plummeted during the drought restoration. Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Moderate (2012-2016), primarily as a result of high Estimated adult abundance 2 Total numbers have periodically dropped below 5,000 fish even when LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL pre-spawn mortality of over-summering Feather River Hatchery (FRH) fish are counted. When FRH fish are not High adults and eggs associated with reduced counted, most of the remaining fish are in Butte Creek. Central Valley (CV) spring-run Chinook are vulnerable streamflows and high water temperatures. Intervention dependence 2 If not for significant restoration, especially in Butte Creek, spring-run to extinction in the next 50 years or less if present trends 1.7 Critical Chinook would likely already be extinct in the Central Valley. Straying of salmon from the Feather River continue. Small, self-sustaining populations remain in Environmental tolerance 2 Narrow physiological tolerances in summer for both adults and juveniles. Extinct Fish Hatchery to other watersheds, and only a few watersheds. Genetic risk 2 Butte Creek and Deer-Mill creeks populations appear to be distinct, hybridization with other populations, but effect of hybridization with FRH fish unknown.

reducing the resilience of remaining Climate change 1 Extremely vulnerable given small population sizes and range, and the natural-origin populations. already high summer temperatures in streams they inhabit. Anthropogenic threats 2 Four High threats.

CONSERVATION ACTIONS Average 1.7 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL • Restore spring-run to the San Joaquin Certainty (1-4) 4 Well-studied. River watershed, where they can exploit the snowpack predicted to persist in the high southern Sierra. • Explore removal of diversion dams or allow adults to access higher elevation, smaller other passage obstructions throughout tributaries in April through June that are • Protect and enhance cold water habitat generally inaccessible to salmon at other times in Deer, Mill, and Butte creeks through the DPS range, but especially in Battle of the year. Adults seek out deep, cool pools in water acquisition or forbearance, Creek or the Yuba River. tributary streams less than 21°C (70°F) where conjunctive use of groundwater wells, these big fish hold over the summer before CHARACTERISTICS spawning in the fall. They prefer pools with water use efficiency improvements, All California Chinook salmon are similar in plenty of cover, such as rock ledges, bubble Photo: Dana Lee. and shifting land use practices appearance, with some slight differences in size, curtains, and woody debris. Most spring-run and management. shape, and coloration. Central Valley spring-run Chinook adults in the Central Valley are four Chinook salmon are separated by their run years old and average 78.5cm (31 in.). Juvenile CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS • Remove passage barriers to spring-run timing, spawning areas, and late maturation in spring-run Chinook spend varying amounts of IMPACT Chinook salmon throughout fresh water. time in freshwater before migrating to sea: 1) a Central Valley spring-run their range, especially in Battle matter of weeks after hatching, 2) a few months Chinook salmon are critically after hatching, or 3) an entire year or more in vulnerable to climate change Creek and the Yuba River. ABUNDANCE fresh water. due to their reliance on cold 19th century spring-run Chinook salmon were spring water and snowmelt to • Restore floodplains that serve as once as abundant as fall-run Chinook in the CENTRAL VALLEY SPRING-RUN CHINOOK SALMON sustain them through warm MAJOR DAMS HATCHERIES AGRICULTURE Genetics important nursery and feeding Central Valley, numbering approximately one summer months in holding The delayed maturation strategy in spring-run DISTRIBUTION habitat for all juvenile Central million returning adults per year. Over the pools. Only spawning areas in Mill Past interbreeding of spring Water diversions from the salmon arose as a single evolutionary event in a Central Valley spring-run Chinook salmon historically ranged throughout past forty years, annual abundance has varied and Deer creeks are not and fall-run Chinook salmon has Sacramento River to support Valley salmonids. Chinook population and spread throughout the all major snowmelt tributaries of both the Sacramento and San Joaquin impacted by major dams, but reduced the genetic integrity agriculture reduce the quantity considerably, from highs around 30,000 fish to species’ range, primarily through straying of fish rivers, including the Pit River (Modoc County) and the headwaters of the small dams divert water for of the Feather River spring-run and quality of water for • Amend hatchery practices to eliminate lows of about 3,000 fish. Since 2012, population agricultural and urban usage. Chinook population. Feather spring-run Chinook. Dams and to other watersheds. There are only two distinct San Joaquin River in the south (Fresno County). Today, only the mainstem estimates have plummeted. The Butte Creek population is River Fish Hatchery strays diversions with obsolete fish interactions between Feather River self-sustaining populations of Central Valley Sacramento River and Butte (Butte County), Mill, and Deer creeks (Tehama dependent on continued human hybridize with populations in screens, dams, poor fish ladders, Fish Hatchery Chinook and spring-run Chinook salmon: one in Deer and County) maintain wild spring-run Chinook. In most years, some adults return intervention and relies on water other watersheds, reducing and levees that are part of the Habitat AND BEHAVIOR transferred from the Feather their fitness and increasing the State Water Project and Central wild populations. Mill creeks and one in Butte Creek. to Antelope, Big Chico, Little Chico, Beegum, Battle, and Clear creeks, but River via a series of canals and extinction risk of the last Valley Project reduce juvenile Spring-run Chinook salmon migrate upstream these populations are not considered self-sustaining. Recent surveys have hydroelectric powerhouses. wild populations. and adult survival. during high runoff events starting in January or documented very few spring-run Chinook in the Stanislaus, Tuolumne, and February. High flows, especially from snowmelt, Merced rivers. 24 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 25 SACRAMENTO RIVER SUMMARY Metric Score Justification WINTER-RUN CHINOOK SALMON Low Multiple critically dry years (2012-2016) Area occupied 1 A single population in a reach below dams; extirpated from their in a row during the drought reduced historical range. Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Moderate Estimated adult abundance 2 The recent (2007-16) assessments indicate an average of <3,000 the amount of cold water available for returning spawners annually. In recent years, the number of adults LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL release from Shasta Reservoir. Warm dipped below 2,000 on several occasions. High water releases drastically reduced winter- Intervention dependence 1 A captive broodstock program has been initiated to augment the Sacramento River winter-run Chinook salmon (winter-run) run egg and juvenile survival and have conservation hatchery program at Livingston Stone Fish Hatchery. face immediate risk of extinction. The ESU has been extirpated Critical The naturally spawning population depends entirely on cold water 1.3 likely devastated the population. releases from Shasta Dam. from its native spawning range by dams and has been Extinct Environmental tolerance 1 Winter-run Chinook spawn in the most thermally challenging times of reduced to a single small spawning population, which is the year and are particularly at risk to high temperatures and low wholly dependent on artificially-created spawning habitat CONSERVATION ACTIONS dissolved oxygen levels. and cold water releases from Shasta Reservoir. Genetic risk 2 Considerable genetic drift resulting from consolidation of winter-run • Create volitional passage to spawning populations into a single population is likely exacerbated by the large habitat in Battle Creek. influence of hatchery broodstock. Climate change 1 Extremely vulnerable because of reliance on cold water habitat and • Increase juvenile survival by restoring releases from Shasta Reservoir.

floodplain habitats along lower Battle Anthropogenic threats 1 1 Critical, 2 High, 5 Medium factors. Creek, the mainstem Sacramento River, Average 1.3 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL and the Yolo and Sutter bypasses. Certainty (1-4) 4 Well-studied population. • The proposed trap and haul programs to truck both adult and juvenile winter

run Chinook around Keswick, Shasta, In 2015, about 3,500 winter-run Chinook adults night to avoid predators. Historically, juveniles and McCloud dams should be viewed returned to spawn, but warm water releases would spend up to several months feeding and as a last resort extinction prevention from Shasta Reservoir significantly reduced egg growing in off-channel habitats in the lower river effort which should only be and juvenile survival and will likely lead to low and Delta. Juvenile winter-run Chinook feed implemented after all other restoration adult returns for the next two to three years. for longer periods in fresh water compared to Photo: Ed Homich. other Chinook, growing to relatively large sizes measures have been exhausted. Habitat AND BEHAVIOR without having to over-summer in fresh water when conditions are most stressful. CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS Sacramento River winter-run Chinook salmon CHARACTERISTICS IMPACT evolved in stable, cold, spring-fed streams in While there are no obvious physical differences high elevation headwaters that are now blocked Genetics Sacramento River winter-run between Sacramento River winter-run Chinook by large dams on the upper Sacramento River, While the four Central Valley Chinook salmon Chinook salmon are critically McCloud River, and Battle Creek. Adults enter runs are each genetically distinct, they are more vulnerable to climate change salmon and other Chinook in the Central Valley, due to their highly restricted they tend to be smaller than fish of other runs. fresh water as sexually immature fish from closely related to each other than they are to range, dependence on cold January to May, with a peak in mid-March. Chinook salmon in other regions.Historically, SACRAMENTO RIVER WINTER-RUN CHINOOK water releases from Shasta MAJOR DAMS HATCHERIES AGRICULTURE ABUNDANCE Historically, they would hold in spring-fed there were four separate populations of winter- Dam, and low tolerance for streams to mature before spawning from April run Chinook salmon that spawned in headwater SALMON DISTRIBUTION Historically, winter-run Chinook salmon runs high stream temperatures. Shasta and Keswick dams Hatchery-raised winter-run Agricultural diversions along through August, with eggs incubating during reaches of the upper Sacramento, McCloud, and Historically, Sacramento River winter-run Chinook salmon migrated to the Their migration and egg likely numbered around 200,000 spawning prevent access to all historical Chinook salmon account for the Sacramento River can trap the hot summer months. Winter-run juveniles Pit rivers and Battle Creek. headwaters of the Sacramento, Pit, and McCloud rivers, as well as Battle hatching timing during the spawning and most juvenile nearly a third of the spawning or delay fish in canals and adults per year. They have been in serious appear to occupy fresh water year-round, and Creek (Tehama County). All historical spawning habitat is now upstream of warmest months of the nursery areas for Sacramento population and are likely irrigation ditches. Federal and decline over the last decade, with an estimated River winter-run Chinook. accelerating the decline of state pumps in the southern generally prefer temperatures between 10- major dams. Today, the one remaining population spawns in the mainstem year make them particularly 827 adults returning to spawn in 2011. Accurate vulnerable to increasing stream Ironically, this run is entirely wild Chinook salmon. NMFS Delta alter flows and reduce 16°C (50-61°F). Fry emerge from redds from Sacramento River immediately downstream of Keswick Dam near Redding. abundance data has been difficult to collect, temperatures. Climate change is reliant on water releases from considers the winter-run survival of juveniles. Levees have Shasta and Keswick dams. Chinook salmon population at a cut off rivers from over 95% of July to mid-October and juveniles feed for five also likely to make maintaining because fish assumed to be winter-run Chinook moderate risk of extinction from critical floodplain habitats in the to 10 months before migrating downstream a cold water pool in Shasta were later discovered to be either spring- or late “excessive hatchery influence.” Central Valley. in January through April during the first high Reservoir more difficult. fall-run fish using better genetic techniques. flows of the rainy season, moving mostly at

26 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 27 SOUTHERN OREGON/ SUMMARY Metric Score Justification NORTHERN CALIFORNIA COAST Low Southern Oregon/Northern Area occupied 4 Blue Creek and Smith River are the principal populations, along with California Coastal Chinook salmon smaller populations in tributaries. CHINOOK SALMON Moderate populations in California remain Estimated adult abundance 3 Between 5,000 and 50,000 spawners in the Smith in most years; in 3.1 2011-2012, adult spawners were estimated at 20,000. <1,500 spawners in relatively small but stable. Klamath tributaries in most years. Oncorhynchus tshawytscha High Intervention dependence 4 California populations are largely self-sustaining but some LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE supplementation by hatcheries is likely. Critical CONSERVATION ACTIONS Environmental tolerance 3 Multiple juvenile life histories and spawner age diversity demonstrate Southern Oregon/Northern California Coastal (SONCC) • Re-evaluate operation of the Rowdy physiological tolerances. Extinct Chinook salmon in California are limited to only a few Creek Fish Hatchery program to Genetic risk 3 Limited hatchery operations in California, but some concern for watersheds, but populations remain stable. They may be hybridization with hatchery ‘strays’ from Rowdy Creek Fish minimize competition and Hatchery and other ESUs. vulnerable to natural events such as fires, earthquakes, hybridization with wild Chinook. or floods due to their small population size and limited range. Climate change 2 Fall-run is least vulnerable to climate change as they spawn later and • Increase salmonid monitoring in scouring of redds is less likely to influence juveniles; sea level rise may negatively affect rearing in estuaries; Smith River likely the lower Smith and Klamath rivers to to retain runs under worst-case scenarios through end of the century. Vulnerable to increasing temperatures, changes in flow regimes in determine trends in abundance, tributaries, and variable ocean conditions.

harvest rates, and genetic relationships Anthropogenic threats 3 Multiple threats rated as “Medium.” between spring- and fall-run Average 3.1 LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE Chinook salmon. Certainty (1-4) 2 Least studied of Klamath River Chinook runs. • Preserve and promote the Smith River as a Wild and Scenic salmon “stronghold” that produces wild Habitat AND BEHAVIOR Genetics fish abundance. SONCC Chinook generally migrate upstream SONCC Chinook salmon from the Smith River to natal rivers in fall months (September- and lower Klamath River tributaries share December) in the Klamath River and late-fall genetic similarities. Lower Klamath River Left: Juvenile Chinook, Mill Creek. Photo: Glenn Kubacki. Right: Spawning Chinook salmon. Photo: Patrick Jarrett. CHARACTERISTICS (November-December) in the Smith River to Chinook are genetically distinct from those spawn. Depending on season and location, in Klamath River tributaries upstream of the SONCC Chinook are similar in appearance to the majority of Chinook returning to spawn Trinity River confluence. In Blue Creek, there is Chinook from other basins in California, but are CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS are three years old, though in some years four a discrete late fall-run of Chinook, which seems generally more rounded in shape and heavier. IMPACT year old fish are the most abundant. Spawning to be segregated from other fish but requires The Smith River regularly produces the largest SONCC Chinook are typically peaks in December. Chinook use larger more study. Very small numbers of spring-run Chinook salmon in the state, up to 36 kg (about vulnerable to increasing cobbles to build their redds than other salmon Chinook salmon return to the Smith River in 84 lbs.), though most average 10 kg (22 lbs.). stream temperatures, species. After 40-60 days, eggs hatch and fry most years, but the relationship between these changes in streamflows in emerge about a month later. Juvenile SONCC fish and the fall-run SONCC Chinook is not well tributaries, and variable ABUNDANCE Chinook often spend at least a few months understood at this time. SOUTHERN OREGON/NORTHERN CALIFORNIA COAST ocean conditions associated LOGGING ESTUARY AGRICULTURE with climate change. ALTERATION SONCC Chinook abundance has varied widely in fresh water feeding and growing before CHINOOK SALMON DISTRIBUTION Historical logging throughout Levees, dikes, tide gates, In the Smith River Estuary, over time. The lower Klamath river tributaries undertaking taxing ocean migrations. They Southern Oregon/Northern California Coastal Chinook range from the Elk the Smith and Klamath and rip-rap have been used construction of dikes and likely supported a few thousand spawning emerge from the lower Klamath tributaries River, Oregon to the Klamath River’s confluence with the Trinity River. The basins fueled the expansion extensively in estuaries to reclamation of lands for adults each year. On the Smith River, historical starting in February and migrate downstream majority of SONCC Chinook are found in Oregon streams. In California, of improperly built stream control flooding, improve agriculture and grazing have through July on their journey to the sea. crossings (culverts, bridges, bank stability, and promote reduced the amount of juvenile run sizes are not known, but current numbers they are found in the Smith River, Wilson Creek, and a few tributaries of the cattle crossings, and other agriculture but have rearing habitat by more likely represent only a fraction of what they once lower Klamath River such as Blue Creek. Unlike other Chinook salmon in structures) that create fish disconnected the estuary from than 40%, and diversions for were. Recent abundance estimates for SONCC California, SONCC Chinook tend to migrate and feed at sea north of Cape passage barriers and represent important nursery habitats such flower bulb cultivation, alfalfa a major source of habitat loss in as sloughs and tidal wetlands. production, pasture irrigation, Chinook in the Smith River are between 15,000 Blanco, Oregon. SONCC Chinook streams. and other purposes may affect and 20,000 returning adults per year and the salmon outmigration and reduce population is assumed to be stable. water quality.

28 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 29 UPPER KLAMATH-TRINITY RIVERS SUMMARY Metric Score Justification FALL-RUN CHINOOK SALMON Low Upper Klamath-Trinity Rivers fall-run Area occupied 5 Widely distributed in Klamath and Trinity basins. Chinook salmon abundance has Estimated adult abundance 4 Abundant, with several large populations, but hatchery-origin fish are a Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Moderate problem for wild runs. 3.1 varied widely throughout the Klamath LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE Basin over the last decade, though the Intervention dependence 3 Major intervention is required to maintain fisheries, primarily through High hatchery propagation and flow regulations. proportion of wild adults in the Trinity Upper Klamath-Trinity Rivers (UKTR) fall-run Chinook Environmental tolerance 3 Moderate physiological tolerance. Critical River has increased over that time. are not in immediate danger of extinction, although their Genetic risk 3 Genetically diverse population but heavily influenced by hatcheries. numbers have declined in recent decades. There appears to Extinct Climate change 2 Vulnerable to increasing temperatures in mainstem rivers, changes in be an increasing reliance on hatcheries to maintain fisheries, CONSERVATION ACTIONS flow regimes in tributaries, and variable ocean conditions. and returns of hatchery-origin fish may be masking a decline • Remove the four lowermost Klamath Anthropogenic threats 1 1 “High” and 8 “Medium.” A highly managed population. of wild production in the Klamath-Trinity Basin. dams to allow fall-run Chinook salmon Average 3.1 LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE to access historical spawning Certainty (1-4) 4 Most studied of Klamath River Chinook runs. habitat upstream.

• Adaptively manage streamflows and CHARACTERISTICS September, and slowly migrate upstream habitat restoration as part of the Trinity UKTR fall-run Chinook are sexually mature from mid-July to October as temperatures River Restoration Program to increase fish that enter the Klamath Estuary during decrease. In the Trinity River, fall-run Chinook abundance of UKTR fall-run Chinook late summer to early fall and spawn shortly salmon migration occurs between September and December. Spawning can occur over salmon and their habitat. after reaching their natal spawning grounds. In general, UKTR Chinook spawning adults several months depending on the tributary, • Update hatchery practices at Trinity are smaller, more rounded, and heavier in but generally peak between November and December, which is one to four weeks later than River Hatchery to reduce competition, proportion to their length compared to Central Valley Chinook due to their shorter migrations. occurred historically. UKTR Chinook salmon predation, loss of genetic diversity, and Today, UKTR fall-run Chinook salmon are part have larger and fewer eggs than those from the life history diversity in wild salmonids. a component of commercial, recreational, and Central Valley. While most UKTR fall-run Chinook tribal subsistence fisheries. are three years old when they spawn, in some Photo: Patrick Jarrett. • Limit harvest to only adipose fin years, two year-old small male salmon, called clipped hatchery Chinook to determine grilse, can make up a large proportion of the run. ABUNDANCE Juvenile UKTR Chinook salmon exhibit one of CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS hatchery impacts on wild fish and The Upper Klamath-Trinity rivers historically three life strategies: (1) rapidly migrating to the IMPACT inform Chinook re-colonization efforts produced several hundred thousand fall-run ocean; (2) spending summer months in cool Warm water temperatures in the upper Klamath River Basin after Chinook annually before gold mining severely tributaries until migrating out to sea in the fall; in fall months are already a dams are removed. impacted the watersheds toward the end of the and (3) spending over a year in fresh water substantial threat to salmon nineteenth century. Hatchery operations have feeding before migrating to sea. A very rare in the lower Klamath River, • Improve habitat and flow conditions supplemented UKTR fall-run Chinook returns and are likely to continue to fourth strategy has been documented in the UPPER KLAMATH-TRINITY RIVERS FALL-RUN rise and exacerbate problems MAJOR DAMS MINING HATCHERIES in the Shasta and Scott rivers, which since the completion of Iron Gate Hatchery on spring-fed Shasta River, where male parr salmon with disease outbreaks and provide reliable cold water habitat. the Klamath River and Trinity Hatchery on the mature entirely in fresh water and may spawn CHINOOK SALMON DISTRIBUTION die-offs. Climate change will Lewiston and Iron Gate dams Mining was a principal cause of Hatchery salmon are likely Trinity River in the 1960s. Since 2010, returns multiple times throughout their lives. UKTR Chinook salmon are found in all major tributaries of the Klamath River reduce reliability of cold water negatively affect UKTR fall- decline of UKTR Chinook in the replacing natural escapement of of fall-run Chinook in the UKTR basin varied Life history strategies depend on food upstream of the Klamath-Trinity rivers confluence. pool behind the Klamath run Chinook populations by Scott, Salmon, and Trinity rivers, at least some wild populations averaged approximately 150,000 fish; however, availability, streamflows, water temperature, dams, which must be removed prohibiting access to historical and historical mining impacts of UKTR fall-run Chinook. Large in 2012, over 300,000 fish were recorded, the to promote migration of upstream spawning, rearing, and still limit the fall-run Chinook numbers of hatchery fish in the and other factors. salmon, steelhead, and trout migration habitats and altering population. Legacy mining has Klamath-Trinity system may most on record since accurate record keeping and allow them to access cold seasonal flows and temperatures disconnected and constricted negatively impact natural-origin began in 1978. in remaining downstream juvenile salmon habitat, filled in Chinook salmon and reduce Genetics water habitat upstream. habitat. adult holding habitat, degraded fitness through competition, UKTR fall-run Chinook are more similar to UKTR spawning grounds, and altered hybridization, predation, and/or Habitat AND BEHAVIOR streamflows. disease transmission. spring-run Chinook than they are to other fall- Adult UKTR fall-run Chinook salmon enter run Chinook in lower Klamath River tributaries. the Klamath Estuary from early July through 30 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 31 UPPER KLAMATH-TRINITY RIVERS SUMMARY Metric Score Justification SPRING-RUN CHINOOK SALMON Low Recent returns of Upper Klamath-Trinity Area occupied 2 Only Salmon River and South Fork Trinity River support wild, rivers (UKTR) spring-run Chinook self-sustaining populations. Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Moderate Estimated adult abundance 2 A few hundred natural spawners support the population, with attendant salmon to the South Fork Trinity impacts of small populations and hatchery influence. LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL and Salmon rivers represent a small High Intervention dependence 2 Hatchery stocks maintain the mainstem Trinity run; Klamath dam fraction (< 3%) of historical numbers. removal in Klamath is needed to restore access to historical range. Chinook salmon exhibiting spring run timing in the Drought from 2012-2016 significantly Klamath Basin are likely to disappear in the next 50 years. 1.6 Critical Environmental tolerance 2 Narrow temperature tolerance (< 20ºC) during migrations; temperatures reduced cold water during critical and other factors limiting in summer holding areas. Small, self-sustaining populations remain primarily in Extinct over-summering periods for spring-run Genetic risk 1 Hybridization with fall-run and/or hatchery spring-run is occurring in the Salmon and South Fork Trinity rivers, where they are Trinity River; fitness reduction may result from hybridization. Chinook, contributing to their decline. highly vulnerable to climate change, hybridization with Climate change 1 Increased temperatures, density of adults and juveniles and disease hatchery-origin fish, and other stressors. outbreaks, and reduction in suitable habitats will limit populations. CONSERVATION ACTIONS Anthropogenic threats 1 3 High, 7 Medium factors. • Remove the four lowermost Klamath Average 1.6 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL dams to restore access to historical cold Certainty (1-4) 3 Fairly well-studied. water habitat, and undertake long-term restoration and monitoring in newly accessible habitat. CHARACTERISTICS Historically, there was minimal spawning overlap between fall- and spring-run Chinook • Prioritize restoration activities in the UKTR spring-run Chinook salmon enter fresh water as silvery, immature fish. They lack the due to differences in run-timing and access to Salmon, New, and South Fork Trinity breeding colors or kype of fall-run males. a wide variety of spawning habitat throughout rivers that still hold wild UKTR spring Spring-run Chinook salmon once made up the Klamath Basin. Adults require deep, cool run Chinook. the most abundant run in the Klamath Basin. holding pools to over-summer, such as the These fish are an indicator of ecosystem health mouths of tributaries and areas with subsurface • Reduce the impacts of sedimentation due to their reliance on cold water during the flow from springs or groundwater seeps. Eggs from roads, logging, and other activities warmest months of the year when streamflows hatch in 40-60 days, usually in January to late Chinook in Bubbles. Photo: USFWS. Right: Leaping Chinook. Photo: Unknown. May, and absorb their yolk sacs for another 4-6 into UKTR watersheds. are reduced and temperatures approach their upper tolerance. weeks. The vast majority of juvenile spring-run • Reduce water diversions and Chinook begin migrating downstream from CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS February through mid-June to feed and grow IMPACT groundwater pumping for agricultural ABUNDANCE in the ocean before returning to spawn at age Climate change is likely the and other uses, especially in summer, Historical runs of UKTR spring-run Chinook three or four. greatest threat to the long- to keep cold water in streams during likely totaled more than 100,000 fish annually. term persistence of UKTR stressful summer and fall months. Over the last decade, average annual estimates Genetics spring-run Chinook salmon have averaged less than 2,000 adults. due to anticipated increases in The latest genetic studies indicate that UPPER KLAMATH-TRINITY RIVERS SPRING-RUN summer water temperatures MAJOR DAMS HATCHERIES LOGGING • Improve habitat and flow conditions fall- and spring-run Chinook salmon in the CHINOOK SALMON DISTRIBUTION and decreases in availability of in the Shasta and Scott rivers. Habitat AND BEHAVIOR Upper Klamath-Trinity rivers are more closely cold water refuges for holding Iron Gate (Klamath), Dwinnell, Hybridization of wild and Legacy and ongoing impacts Adult UKTR spring-run Chinook salmon enter related to one another than each is to fall- or UKTR spring-run Chinook salmon were once widely disbursed throughout adults in summer. Removal (Shasta), and Lewiston (Trinity) hatchery-origin Chinook from from timber operations in the the Klamath Estuary from March through July, tributaries of the Klamath River upstream of the Trinity River confluence, of Iron Gate, Copco 1, Copco spring-run Chinook from adjacent basins. It is dams block access to a majority Trinity River Hatchery, as well as Klamath-Trinity region degrade including the Sprague, Wood, and Williamson rivers (Oregon), and the 2 and J.C. Boyle dams on the (970 km or about 600 mi) of interbreeding with spring- and spawning areas, fill essential with a peak in late May or early June. Spring- hypothesized that the spring-run life history Klamath River is critical to historical spawning habitat for fall-run fish in the Trinity River, holding pools, increase summer run Chinook salmon can migrate up to 3.7 km first evolved in Chinook salmon populations in Shasta, Salmon, and Trinity rivers in California. The construction of dams allow spring-run fish back spring-run Chinook. may reduce fitness of wild stream temperatures due to (about 2.2 mi.) a day, and reach the Trinity California, and then spread more recently into on the Klamath (Iron Gate), Shasta (Dwinnell), and Trinity (Lewiston) rivers into cold headwaters of the spring-run Chinook salmon. reduced riparian vegetation, and block access to their historical spawning grounds. While small numbers of remove trees and large wood River from May through August. They hold in northern populations. Klamath basin. that serve as important habitat cold water streams from 10-16°C (50-61°F) for adults return to a handful of streams each year, only the South Fork for all salmonids. 2-4 months before beginning to spawn in early Trinity and Salmon rivers support self-sustaining populations with little September, about 4-6 weeks earlier than their hatchery influence. fall-run counterparts. 32 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 33 SPECIES 2017 LEVEL OF COHO SALMON SCORE CONCERN Oncorhynchus kisutch Central California Coast Coho Salmon 1.3 CRITICAL Southern Oregon/Northern California Coast Coho Salmon 1.7 CRITICAL

TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS TO COHO SALMON Of the two kinds of Coho salmon in California, both saw an increase in Level of Concern since 2008. ESTUARY AGRICULTURE LOGGING COHO SALMON ALTERATION Estuaries and/or lagoons at Many Coho salmon watersheds Logging is much more river mouths are perhaps the have been heavily logged regulated now than in the past, Coho salmon range widely across the northeast Pacific Ocean before returning to their natal streams most crucial habitat for juvenile and converted to agricultural but historical practices have salmonids, including Coho lands to support vineyards, deprived Coho of large woody Pacific Ocean, but the southern extent of their range between September and mid-January to spawn. salmon. Unfortunately, most row crops, and marijuana debris that provides cover, lies near Santa Cruz. Today, Coho salmon in California Some fraction of returning male Coho salmon spend of the estuaries and lagoons cultivation. Multiple diversions shade, and holding habitat. have been reduced to less than 5% of their historical only one year at sea and are called “jacks,” while of Coho-bearing watersheds have reduced streamflows and Associated road building have been diked and drained many watersheds are no longer increases sedimentation into numbers. Spawning adult Coho salmon are 55-80 virtually all females return after two years at sea. to support roadways, provide capable of supporting juvenile streams, burying spawning cm (approximately 22-31 in.) long and weigh 3-6 kg Adult Coho salmon use low-gradient streams that flow pasture for grazing livestock, Coho salmon that require cold habitat and filling pools. (approximately 7-13 lbs.). While at sea, Coho are silvery directly into the ocean or in tributaries of large rivers and curtail flooding on water year-round for rearing, with white to cream bellies, giving them their nickname to spawn, usually by March of each year. Females agricultural lands. feeding and nursery habitat. “silver salmon.” In fresh water, they are dark green on are capable of laying up to 7,000 eggs each and, the head and back, maroon on the sides, and grey while both the males and females die after spawning, to black on the belly. Spawning males have a kype, females may survive to guard their redds for up to bright red stripe on their sides, and slightly humped two weeks. back. Anglers can differentiate Coho and their grey to white gums with the black mouths and black gums of Eggs hatch after 8-12 weeks in the gravel, and the Chinook salmon. alevins absorb their yolk sacs for another 4-10 weeks until they can search for food on their own. Most Habitat AND BEHA VIOR juvenile Coho salmon utilize slow, off-channel habitats, such as floodplains, sloughs, ponds, and backwater Coho salmon in California are separated into two ESUs eddies for at least one, but up to two years as refuge for management. Southern Oregon/Northern California from high floods and as feeding and nursery habitats. Coast Coho salmon (SONCC Coho) range from the In general, juvenile Coho salmon prefer to feed and Oregon border south to the Mattole River (Mendocino grow in streams with abundant shade, large woody County), inclusive, while California Central Coastal debris, and slow currents before emigrating to sea. Coho salmon (CCC Coho) range from the Mattole Estuaries and lagoons with plentiful food provide River south to Santa Cruz County. They can only critical habitat for juvenile Coho salmon, helping them be distinguished from one another through genetic acclimate to saltwater and improving their chances analysis. Despite decades of stocking Coho along of marine survival. California’s coast to help boost populations, wild fish rarely spawn with hatchery-raised Coho. Coho salmon use some part of their spawning streams on a year-

round basis for migration, nursery areas, and foraging. Drift Boat on South Fork Eel by Mike Wier In California, Coho spend 6-18 months feeding in the Shasta Meadow. Photo: Val Atkinson.

34 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 35 CENTRAL CALIFORNIA COAST SUMMARY Metric Score Justification COHO SALMON Low Central California Coast (CCC) Area occupied 2 Most populations not self-sustaining in long run. Coho salmon populations continue Estimated adult abundance 2 All populations are small, isolated, and may function independently. Oncorhynchus kisutch Moderate to deteriorate at the southern end Most are < 100 adults in most years. LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL of their range. Intervention dependence 1 All populations require intervention to persist and most have intensive High management in place or proposed.

Most or all Central California Coast Coho salmon Environmental tolerance 1 Coho are generally among the most sensitive salmonids to populations in small coastal streams will become 1.3 Critical CONSERVATION ACTIONS environmental conditions. extinct in the next 50 years without significantly Genetic risk 1 Populations small and isolated. Extinct • Protect source waters in remaining increased intervention and protection of watersheds. Climate change 1 At southern end of range so exceptionally vulnerable. CCC Coho salmon watersheds Anthropogenic threats 1 8 Medium threats. including the Garcia, Noyo, and Gualala rivers and Lagunitas, Scott, Average 1.3 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL and Waddell creeks. Certainty (1-4) 4 Well documented. • Develop and maintain restoration hatcheries to be used in conjunction with habitat improvement and watersheds due largely to the heroic efforts of managers, concerned citizens, and conservation evaluation measures to boost hatcheries. populations and increase genetic diversity of CCC Coho. Habitat AND BEHA VIOR • Increase inter-agency cooperation, Habitat requirements of CCC Coho salmon are similar to SONCC Coho salmon. Timing of private landowner partnerships, streamflows is critically important to CCC Coho mobilization of public opinion, and salmon, which need cold water at specific times development of an extensive to support successful spawning and juvenile survival. Severe high flow events that occur early Left: Juvenile Coho, Mill Creek. Photo: Glenn Kubacki. Right: Adult male Coho salmon. Photo: Mike Sparkman. monitoring program to maintain CCC Coho salmon. in winter (December, January) can scour holding pools, move large wood cover, open lagoon CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREAT S mouths for migration, and generally improve IMPACT CHARACTERISTICS Coho habitat, while similar flood events later in the season (February, March) can wash away Climate change could push CCC Coho salmon are identical in appearance redds and eggs or flush juvenile CCC Coho out CCC Coho to extinction in and habits to Southern Oregon Northern California. Climate change is of over-wintering habitat such as pools, side California Coast (SONCC) Coho to the north. predicted to increase stream channels, or estuaries. temperatures, create variability They can only be distinguished by differences in AGRICULTURE URBANIZATION ESTUARY geographic range and genetics. CENTRAL CALIFORNIA CO AST COHO S ALMON in streamflow (including Genetics greatly reduced summer ALTERATION DISTRIBUTION flows), and change ocean CCC Coho salmon are most similar to Coho in Irrigation diversions for Urbanization has eliminated all Agricultural and other land uses ABUNDANCE CCC Coho salmon historically ranged in coastal streams from Punta Gorda conditions that dictate CCC agriculture, especially vineyards, Coho populations in the San pollute lagoons with suburban neighboring watersheds than they are to Coho in (Humboldt County) to the San Lorenzo River and (likely) Soquel and Aptos Coho salmon growth in many CCC Coho streams Francisco Bay region, and is waste, runoff, and pollution. Almost all of the remaining streams containing Northern California or Southern Oregon. creeks (Santa Cruz County). While some populations of CCC Coho have and survival. reduce streamflows, while illegal increasingly contributing to Lagoons are often opened CCC Coho salmon have populations less than and unregulated marijuana the loss of CCC Coho habitat in artificially to prevent flooding been lost from streams ranging from Santa Cruz to Marin counties over the cultivation further reduces streams in Marin and Sonoma of agricultural fields or houses, 100 spawning adults per year, unless enhanced past several decades, there has also been some dispersal through stocking, suitable habitat for growing counties through encroachment which may carry juvenile Coho through hatcheries. Most CCC Coho populations such as the movement of Coho from Scott Creek to Waddell and Gazos juveniles in tributaries, especially of homes and development. out to sea before they are ready, are threatened with extinction in the near future, during summers coinciding reducing their survival creeks (Santa Cruz County). with drought. to adulthood. with the exception of populations in Lagunitas Creek (Marin County), the Russian River

(Sonoma County), and Santa Cruz County Coho salmon preparing to spawn. Photo: Mike Wier.

36 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 37 SOUTHERN OREGON/ SUMMARY Metric Score Justification NORTHERN CALIFORNIA COAST Low Southern Oregon/Northern California Area occupied 4 Populations in Eel, Klamath, Mattole, and other watersheds. Coast (SONCC) Coho salmon populations Estimated adult abundance 2 Most populations are isolated and function independently and are < 100 COHO SALMON Moderate have likely declined 95% from their fish. Less than 5,000 wild adults return to spawn each year. historical abundance. There are general Intervention dependence 2 All populations require continuous intervention to persist. Oncorhynchus kisutch High indications of continued long-term decline Environmental tolerance 1 Coho are among the most sensitive of salmonids to changing LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL environmental conditions. 1.7 Critical and/or high variability in numbers from Genetic risk 1 See Bucklin et al. (2007). Southern Oregon/Northern California Coast Coho are critically larger streams. Climate change 1 Rated critically vulnerable in Moyle et al. (2013). vulnerable to extinction as wild fish within the next 50-100 years. Extinct There has likely been 95% or more decline in numbers since CONSERVATION ACTIONS Anthropogenic threats 1 1 Critical, 3 High factors. the 1960s in California due to dam construction and habitat • Remove the four lowermost Klamath Average 1.7 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL degradation from various land use practices. dams to restore access to historical Certainty (1-4) 4 Well-studied populations. cold water habitat.

• Halt all production hatchery programs ABUNDANCE warmer waters of 18°-20°C (66°-68°F) because for Coho salmon to allow wild stocks About 75 years ago, between 100,000 to 300,000 food is abundant and habitat conditions are to recover. SONCC Coho returned to spawn in freshwater favorable. Juveniles generally feed and grow in each year. Currently, populations are less than slow-moving, off-channel habitats, small, clear • Use emergency rearing facilities that 5% of historical abundance, or less than a tributaries, and estuaries before undertaking mimic natural conditions to increase generous estimate of 5,000 wild individuals. ocean migrations in the spring. They generally juvenile SONCC Coho survival during The number of streams capable of supporting express three life history strategies: 1) juveniles up to one year of age feed and grow in their drought or significant watershed Coho salmon runs have declined 40-50%. Accurate abundance estimates covering a natal streams and migrate to sea in the spring; restoration. large timespan are uncommon, which makes 2) juveniles up to two years old feed and grow population trend analysis difficult. in estuaries and off-channel habitat during • Protect spawning, rearing, and feeding winter and spring before migrating to sea during habitats, and connectivity between the first major fall rainstorm; and 3) yearling Left: Adult female Coho salmon. Photo: Mike Sparkman. Right: Juvenile Coho salmon, Smith River. Photo: Justin Garwood. Habitat AND BEHA VIOR them, to allow Coho salmon to express juveniles move downstream to other streams or Virtually all female and most male SONCC Coho estuaries in spring and grow in the main channels their diverse life histories on a salmon in California are three years old when CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREAT S broad scale. during summer and fall before migrating in the IMPACT they spawn, with some males returning as two winter. Once at sea, Coho from different regions year-old “jacks.” Spawning migrations begin in school together as they migrate to the North Climate change will lead • Use voluntary water forbearance September through late-December in Northern to increased stream Pacific to feed on small fish, shrimp, crabs, and programs, reduce illegal water California, with a peak in October-November, temperatures, more frequent invertebrates before returning to spawn after and prolonged drought, and diversions, and expand use of while spawning occurs mostly in November and 6-18 months. reduced streamflows that will December. In some years, spawning can occur as water storage tanks to maintain cold SOUTHERN OREGON/NORTHERN CALIFORNIA CO AST negatively impact survival of HATCHERIES ESTUARY AGRICULTURE late as March in some watersheds, especially if Genetics SONCC Coho in the future. ALTERATION streamflows during all seasons. stream flows are low or access is limited because COHO S ALMON DIS TRIBUTION Hatchery-origin Coho salmon Most estuaries throughout Irrigation diversions in many • Enhance habitat and improve flow of drought. Females deposit 1,400-7,000 eggs. In California, Punta Gorda (Humboldt County) SONCC Coho salmon are distributed widely across the North Pacific, from are having a negative effect on the SONCC Coho range are streams reduce flows during Eggs hatch in early spring, and alevins slowly separates California’s two Evolutionary northern Japan to California. SONCC Coho are found in the Rogue River wild Coho salmon by competing highly altered, which reduces critical juvenile growth and conditions in the Shasta and Scott Significant Units (ESUs) of Coho salmon: SONCC (Oregon) to the Mattole River (Mendocino County). Historically, SONCC with them for resources during important nursery areas and feeding periods in the summer absorb their yolk sac before seeking out prey. all life stages and through connectivity among habitats months, especially from illegal rivers to support Coho salmon. Unlike most other salmonids, juvenile SONCC Coho and Central California Coast (CCC) Coho Coho occupied numerous coastal basins with high quality habitat in the hybridization. In the Trinity used by all Coho life stages. marijuana cultivation. Coho salmon use parts of their spawning streams salmon. Coho have strong homing instincts lower portions of watersheds. River, it appears that wild to their natal rivers, and so populations from SONCC Coho salmon have CHARACTERISTICS and estuary habitats throughout the year. These young salmon require very cold, clean water neighboring streams are closely related to one been completely replaced by SONCC Coho salmon are identical in appearance hatchery fish from the Trinity between 10-15.5°C (50-60°F) to grow. In the another. Historical widespread stocking of non- to Central California Coast Coho, and are River Hatchery. spring-fed Shasta River in Northern California, CCC Coho salmon has not appeared to reduce distinguishable only by genetic differences. juvenile SONCC Coho salmon can flourish in the genetic integrity of remaining wild fish. 38 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 39 CHUM SALMON SUMMARY Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus keta Low Recent observations of small, but reliable Area occupied 2 If Chum salmon are still maintaining populations in California, there returns of Chum salmon in Mill Creek are only 2-3 in the Smith, Klamath, and Trinity rivers. LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL Moderate Estimated adult abundance 1 There is little evidence that any population is more than a handful of (Smith River, Del Norte County) and spawners, perhaps in the range of 6-20 adults in most years. the South Fork Trinity River (Trinity High Intervention dependence 2 No effort is currently being made to specifically protect Chum County) have drawn attention to the few salmon runs; it is unlikely for the species to persist in California without intervention. 1.6 Critical remaining watersheds where they spawn, and highlighted the need for targeted Environmental tolerance 2 Southern populations have fairly narrow spawning habitat requirements; juvenile Chums require functioning estuarine habitats Extinct surveys to document their occurrence. for feeding and growth.

While the Level of Concern has increased Genetic risk 1 California populations, if not already extirpated, are extremely small and slightly since 2008, Chum salmon are vulnerable to inbreeding depression and other genetic problems. Genetic studies are needed on California populations. vulnerable to anthropogenic threats. Climate change 1 Small changes in flows or temperatures and/or small changes in ocean conditions could eliminate the populations. CONSERVATION ACTIONS Anthropogenic threats 1 2 High threats; severity of most threats unknown. • Restore the Eel and other large coastal Average 1.6 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL estuaries along the North Coast to Certainty (1-4) 1 Information is very limited. benefit all salmonids. The status of Chum salmon in California is poorly • Conduct genetic and spawning studies understood. It appears as if they have already ceased on Chums in California to determine CHARACTERISTICS Habitat AND BEHA VIOR to exist as a self-sustaining species in California, or if they represent a distinct, self Chum salmon are one of the smaller species of Chum salmon live to two to seven years of their populations are too small to be detected. sustaining population or are strays salmon; they may grow to over 1 m in length, age, though most spawn between the ages from northern populations. but most in California are less than 65 cm (26 of three and five. Most Chums spawn within in.). They are best known for their slight hump, 200 km (approximately 124 mi.) of the Pacific • Maintain suitable streamflows, water hooked snout, and protruding canine-like Ocean due to their poor swimming ability, and Photo: USFWS. quality, and habitat in lower teeth during spawning. They are dark olive on some populations even spawn in the intertidal the back and dark maroon on the sides, with reaches of streams. In California, they enter watersheds through partnerships, irregular greenish vertical bars on the sides and streams from August through January on CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREAT S regulations, and other mechanisms IMPACT no spots on the back or tail. their spawning run. Unlike Chinook or Coho that benefit all salmonids. salmon, juvenile Chum salmon quickly migrate Poor ocean conditions such downstream to spend several months feeding as increased sea surface ABUNDANCE on abundant copepods and amphipods in temperatures, reduced Chum salmon have likely always been estuaries rather than rearing in freshwater. As upwelling currents, and low food uncommon in California, and more common availability is likely to reduce a result, their survival is more closely tied to in Oregon and Washington. Chum salmon CHUM S ALMON DIS TRIBUTION survival of Chums in the ocean ESTUARY AGRICULTURE LOGGING ocean productivity than freshwater conditions. and limit connections to more ALTERATION may spawn sporadically in California streams Chum salmon have the widest natural distribution of any Pacific salmon, northern populations over time. from San Francisco Bay north to the Oregon The significant alteration of Low gradient sections of Land uses, such as logging, have Genetics spanning Japan to California. In California, Chum salmon range from the estuaries in California streams, rivers and surrounding habitat increased sedimentation and border, but the rivers with the most reliable Smith River to the San Lorenzo River (Santa Cruz County), though they where young Chums spawn have generally been highly Chum salmon are closely related to sockeye siltation in known Chum salmon spawning populations are the Smith, Klamath, are somewhat regularly observed only in the Smith and Trinity rivers in far and rear, likely has the greatest altered to provide pasture for spawning streams, and reduced and South Fork Trinity rivers. Most occurrences and pink salmon. No genetic studies on livestock. Agricultural diversions northern California. negative impact on Chum large woody debris, which California populations are available, but the salmon populations. have degraded watersheds provides cover for juveniles. of spawning Chum in California today are likely throughout the Chum salmon strays from the Pacific Northwest from both fish are considered to be part of the loose historical range. natural and hatchery production. Pacific Coast ESU.

40 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 41 PINK SALMON SUMMARY Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus keta Low Pink salmon in California are considered Area occupied 1 Only confirmed from Garcia River and Redwood Creek. by many to be strays from more northern Estimated adult abundance 2 Numbers very uncertain, so this is a best guess. LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL Moderate populations. However, the existence of Intervention dependence 3 Largely unstudied, but some intervention needed if this species is to very small but consistent spawning runs persist. High in Redwood Creek and the Garcia River Environmental tolerance 1 Short life cycle, dependent on 1-2 streams.

1.6 Critical watershed over the last fifteen years call Genetic risk 1 If a local population, then risk is high. this determination into question. These Climate change 1 Critically vulnerable to increased stream temperatures and sea level rise impacts on estuaries. Extinct recent observations suggest that small and very fragile populations still exist in Anthropogenic threats 1 2 High and 3 Medium threats; loss of important spawning and crucial the state, and have been overlooked or estuarine habitat. ignored. Despite the slight increase in Average 1.6 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL Level of Concern since 2008, Pink salmon Certainty (1-4) 2 Very limited documentation are vulnerable to anthropogenic threats.

CHARACTERISTICS Habitat AND BEHA VIOR CONSERVATION ACTIONS Pink salmon have large black oval marks and Pink salmon typically live for two years, and spots on their backs, tails, and fins making return to freshwater from June to September. • Increase monitoring of coastal rivers them easy to tell apart from other salmon Their two-year life cycle has given rise to There are probably only one or two self-sustaining with confirmed spawning of Pink species. In the ocean, their backs are silvery discrete odd- and even-year runs in the populations in California. It is highly likely that salmon, such as the Garcia River and blue to olive in color, with silver sides and same river systems. Pink salmon spawning in Pink salmon will disappear from California streams Redwood Creek, and potential habitat white bellies. In freshwater, males take on a California typically takes place in odd years, humped back, while their snouts, full of sharp though Redwood Creek supports a small (except as strays from northern populations) within (e.g., Ten Mile River, Humboldt County teeth, become exaggerated and hooked. Pink even-year run. Spawning occurs in October the next 25-50 years, if they have not already. and Russian River, Sonoma County) to salmon are the smallest members of the salmon in intertidal or lower reaches of streams, and determine population status. family, usually reaching 60 cm long (about 24 young hatch in February or March. Young Pink in.) and weighing 2.5 kg (5.5 lbs.). The largest salmon do not feed in freshwater, but migrate Photo: WDFW. • Conduct genetic studies to determine recorded Pink salmon measured 76 cm (30 in.) quickly in large schools at night to reach river the origins of Pinks in California. and weighed 6.3 kg (nearly 14 lbs.). Unlike other estuaries. At sea, Pink salmon grow quickly, juvenile salmon, Pink salmon do not have feeding on abundant small crustaceans and CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREAT S • Protect potential spawning areas in IMPACT parr marks. invertebrates and eventually shift to eating lower reaches of coastal streams and small fish, squid, and shrimp. Climate change will increase stream temperatures and restore estuaries that serve as nursery ABUNDANCE eventually shift the southern habitat for salmonids. California represents the southern edge of Genetics boundary of Pink salmon northward outside of the Pink salmon range, and they have never Scientists do not know much about the California, and contribute to ESTUARY AGRICULTURE LOGGING been common in the state. It is highly likely relationship of California fish to more northern PINK S ALMON DIS TRIBUTION sea level rise that will make ALTERATION that Pink salmon were once common enough populations from Puget Sound, Washington, In the ocean, Pink salmon range from the Korean coast around the rim of habitat less suitable over time. Pink salmon are extremely Diversions, dikes, levees, and Historical and current logging in California to support small runs in several where they are thought to originate. Most, but the North Pacific to La Jolla (San Diego County). In California, they have vulnerable to estuary drained marsh/estuary habitat practices and associated road rivers, but they are much less common today not all, Pink salmon return to California streams been documented in streams from Monterey County in the south to degradation, which they rely to support agriculture in lower building causes increased than they were historically. Due to their use in odd years, suggesting there is a complex Del Norte County in the north, though most of the few fish that return on for spawning and nursery river stretches make habitat stream sedimentation, which habitat. less suitable for Pink salmon reduces egg survival in of lower stream reaches and rapid migration relationship between these fish and the to spawn do so reliably in only a handful of streams, including Prairie spawning. watersheds where Pink salmon to the ocean, they are difficult to accurately consistent runs in Oregon and Washington. and Redwood creeks (Humboldt County) and Garcia and Ten Mile rivers spawning still occurs. document. Present day populations likely (Mendocino County). depend on straying from more northern populations.

42 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 43 WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE SPECIES 2017 LEVEL OF STEELHEAD BETWEEN S TEELHEAD AND SCORE CONCERN RAINBOW TROUT? Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Central California Coast Steelhead 2.0 HIGH Rainbow trout have two basic life histories with different names: steelhead and Central Valley Steelhead 3.1 MODERATE resident trout. The relationship between Of the eight kinds of steelhead Klamath Mountains Province Summer Steelhead 1.9 CRITICAL in California, six saw an steelhead and residents is beautifully flexible and complex, making the species Klamath Mountains Province Winter Steelhead 3.3 MODERATE increase in Level of Concern one of most successful salmonids in Northern California Summer Steelhead 1.9 CRITICAL since 2008. the world, but creating headaches for managers. Anadromous steelhead regularly Northern California Winter Steelhead 3.3 MODERATE produce to resident trout offspring. Resident trout populations regularly South-Central California Coast Steelhead 1.9 CRITICAL produce anadromous smolts. In populations Southern Steelhead 1.9 CRITICAL where both forms occur, they regularly interbreed. This varied life history has a Steelhead can live seven years and, unlike salmon strong adaptive genetic basis. TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS TO STEELHEAD species, may return to fresh water to spawn up to four STEELHEAD times throughout their lives. There are two distinct run This diversity of life histories appears to be timing histories of steelhead recognized in Northern particularly important in California, where both fresh water and ocean environments California: winter and summer. These two runs are can undergo dramatic multi-year distinct in their genetics, sexual maturation, and fluctuations in habitat quality. For example, behavior. Where there is suitable habitat and open if survival is low during down-stream Steelhead are Rainbow trout that migrate to sea estuary mouths to the sea, adult and juvenile steelhead migration or in the ocean for an extended MAJOR DAMS ESTUARY AGRICULTURE before returning to fresh water to spawn, a behavior can be found migrating from fresh to salt water and period, then resident trout will have an ALTERATION known as anadromy. All steelhead in California are adaptive advantage. If ocean conditions vice versa during every month of the year, especially Dams in watersheds across There is little suitable estuarine Agriculture negatively impacts are good and promote high survival nearly identical in appearance. When they enter fresh in large northern California rivers. California have significantly habitat left in California, and steelhead through stream diversions water from the ocean they are a bright, silver-blue and growth, then offspring of migratory limited the ability of steelhead what remains is subject to high and warm return flows which steelhead females will predominate in to access historical spawning, turbidity and poor water quality, can degrade water quality. In the “steel” color which gives them their name. As adults Despite different run timings, most steelhead spawn fresh water. Resident trout also thrive migration, feeding, and nursery caused by a variety of land last two decades, illegal water remain in fresh water they darken, taking on a greenish from December through April. Post spawn adults, above natural barriers to anadromy hue on the back and iridescent pink and red sides habitat. Altered streamflows uses such as road construction, diversions to support marijuana known as “kelts,” slowly make their way from spawning (e.g., waterfalls) while steelhead can caused by dams may also agriculture, logging and rural cultivation has significantly limited characteristic of resident Rainbow trout. Steelhead tributaries to the ocean by summer. Eggs incubate re-colonize streams where resident fish affect stream temperature and development. survival of juvenile steelhead in have been eliminated by natural causes have many small black, spots radiating outward in in gravel redds dug by females for one to two reduce gravel quantity and small tributaries throughout the lines on their back and tail. Spawning males have a (e.g. volcanic eruptions, catastrophic quality necessary for successful North Coast. months, depending on water temperature. Juveniles wildfire). In watersheds with both steelhead kype used for fending off other males to secure mates. spawning and egg incubation. prefer habitats with cool water close to 17°C (about and wild resident Rainbow trout, the fish Juveniles have dark vertical ovals along their sides, 63°F), but there can be significant variability in their are part of a single, complex gene pool, called parr marks, and unlike juvenile salmon, have tolerances if food is plentiful. During winter and spring, which allows them to adapt to river systems spots on their fins and a short anal fin. There are eight juvenile steelhead prepare for ocean migrations by that are highly variable. Distinct Population Segments (DPSs) of steelhead in undergoing physical changes that allow them to Recognizing their diverse domestic and California, based on their geographic ranges, genetics, tolerate saltwater; these small, silvery fish are known and life histories. wild origins, the ‘Coastal Rainbow trout’ is as “smolts.” Smolts migrate downstream to the Pacific not really a discrete genetic entity. Coastal Ocean during the spring, where they remain for at least Rainbow trout in this report are defined BEHAVIORS and Habit at a year. After spending a few months in the food-rich as resident Rainbows that mostly inhabit Steelhead in California range from the Oregon upwelling California Current, juvenile steelhead migrate watersheds upstream of natural and man- made barriers without access to the ocean, border south to the Mexico border. These southern to the open waters of the North Pacific Ocean to feed although robust populations of resident populations have a spectrum of adaptations and on crustaceans, squid, shrimp, and fish. Unlike salmon, trout are now found in tailwater habitats express a broad range of life histories that allow them steelhead do not seem to school at sea, and are rarely below dams throughout the state. to thrive in California’s diverse large rivers, small caught in salt water. Their distribution and behavior at tributaries, estuaries, lagoons, and the Pacific Ocean. sea is poorly understood.

East Fork San Gabriel River. Photo: Richard Wong.

44 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 45 CENTRAL CALIFORNIA SUMMARY Metric Score Justification COAST STEELHEAD Low Most Central California Coast Area occupied 2 Multiple watersheds occupied in California but very few viable steelhead populations are extremely populations still exist. Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Moderate Estimated adult abundance 2 The Russian River contains > 1,000 spawners annually, with smaller low in abundance (e.g., San Francisco contributions from other populations, but numbers are declining and LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH Bay tributaries) and far below recovery supported by hatcheries. High 2.0 thresholds, particularly after drought Intervention dependence 2 Habitat restoration and barrier removal are critical to increasing habitat Central California Coast (CCC) steelhead populations (2012-2016) significantly reduced availability. are in long-term decline, and face extinction in the next Critical spawning and rearing habitat across Environmental tolerance 4 Able to adapt to live in freshwater and estuarine environments. 100 years without significant investments in monitoring, Extinct their range. While steelhead will continue Genetic risk 3 Widespread but populations increasingly fragmented and isolated, habitat restoration, and increased efficiency in water to exist in the far reaches of larger with potential for interbreeding with hatchery fish. use and management. Climate change 1 Extremely vulnerable due to limited access to habitat and watersheds, it is likely that populations cumulative effects of other factors (e.g. urbanization) dams, etc.). in many watersheds will disappear over Anthropogenic threats 2 3 High, 3 Medium factors. the next 25-50 years unless large-scale conservation and restoration actions are Average 2.0 LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH coordinated and implemented. Certainty (1-4) 3 Hard numbers are few but status is fairly certain.

CONSERVATION ACTIONS ABUNDANCE weeks, while male fish may linger and spawn • Use legal tools such as Assembly Bill Historical abundance estimates of Central multiple times before returning to the ocean. 2121 minimum flow requirements, California Coast steelhead are limited. During Eggs hatch after about a month in the gravel, Fish and Game Code 5937, and the early 1960s, the California Department of with fry emerging and beginning to feed about three weeks later. When juvenile steelhead the Sustainable Groundwater Fish and Wildlife estimated about 94,000 CCC steelhead spawned throughout their range, reach about 10 cm (about 4 in.) in length, Management Act to secure water with most spawning occurring in the Russian they begin to smolt and migrate downstream in streams, especially during critical (50,000) and San Lorenzo rivers (19,000). during spring and summer months to seek out foraging opportunities in larger mainstem Left: Adult steelhead. Photo: Mark Capelli. Right: Steelie tail. Photo: Mike Wier. summer and fall months. With the exception of hatchery-raised steelhead from the Warm Springs Hatchery on the Russian rivers or critical estuaries and lagoons. Smolts • Restore estuary habitat and function River, most watersheds support less than a spend up to two years or more in larger rivers CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREA TS for juvenile steelhead and other few hundred adult steelhead per year. Current and estuaries putting on weight and roughly IMPACT salmonids. populations are likely less than 10% of these doubling in length before their arduous historical estimates. For example, CDFW has journey to the Pacific Ocean. Once at sea, CCC Currently, there are few steelhead migrate to cool waters offshore of accessible headwater habitats at • Implement CDFW’s statewide coastal not documented spawning steelhead in San the Klamath-Trinidad coastline before moving higher elevations to provide cold salmonid monitoring program to Francisco Bay tributaries since the drought water to support CCC steelhead started in 2012. to feeding grounds in the North Pacific with without the removal of dams. collect abundance, life history, steelhead from other regions. CENTRAL CALIFORNIA COAS T S TEELHEAD With reduced precipitation MAJOR DAMS URBANIZATION ESTUARY and population data to inform expected in a changing climate, ALTERATION Habitat AND BEHAVIOR DISTRIBUTION recovery efforts. Genetics inflows to estuaries become Across the CCC steelhead Most CCC steelhead streams Estuaries and lagoons serve as All CCC steelhead are winter-run fish, entering Central California Coast steelhead range from the Russian River too warm and oxygen-poor range, dams and other are in urban or suburban areas critical nurseries for juvenile freshwater as mature adults during the highest CCC steelhead are more closely related to (Sonoma County) south to Aptos Creek (Santa Cruz County). Within the to support juvenile steelhead manmade barriers block that reduce steelhead habitat steelhead, yet continue to fill CHARACTERISTICS flows of the year, typically between late more southerly steelhead populations south San Francisco Bay Estuary, CCC steelhead are found in the Guadalupe and growth and survival. More greater than a fifth of historical suitability through water diversions, with sediment from upstream December and February. Adults returning to of Monterey Bay than they are to populations common prolonged drought spawning, migration, nursery, groundwater pumping, riparian land uses such as urbanization Central California Coast steelhead are Napa rivers, and San Leandro, San Lorenzo, Coyote, San Francisquito, San will deplete reservoir storage, and feeding habitat and habitat intrusion and degradation, and agriculture. For example, anadromous coastal Rainbow trout that live freshwater are mostly three and four years north of the Russian River. Steelhead from the Mateo, and Alameda creeks. Populations of CCC steelhead still reside in the possibly leading to the release have significantly limited and pollution. The associated over 90% of critical wetland old, and typically spawn during late spring Russian River (Sonoma County) south to the upper reaches of streams that feed reservoirs, such as Upper San Leandro populations. expansion of roadways, vineyards and estuarine habitat in the San downstream of manmade barriers throughout of highly turbid, warm water Golden Gate Bridge form a distinct genetic and other agriculture, logging, Francisco Bay has been drained their range. They are very similar to Northern (February to April). With favorable flow and Reservoir upstream of Chabot Dam. Some small coastal streams south of downstream, further degrading mining, sewage discharge, and and/or filled. California winter steelhead in appearance. temperature conditions, female steelhead may group, while steelhead from the Golden Gate the Golden Gate Bridge also contain CCC steelhead, such as Pilarcitos and spawning and rearing habitat. other actions reduce suitable spawn and return to saltwater in only a few Bridge south to Big Sur form another. Pescadero creeks in San Mateo County and Scott and Waddell creeks in habitat for steelhead. Santa Cruz County.

46 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 47 CENTRAL VALLEY STEELHEAD SUMMARY Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Low Central Valley steelhead were listed Area occupied 4 Steelhead are present in small numbers in at least 5 rivers, plus 3 hatcheries. LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE as “threatened” in 1998 following a Moderate severe decline in naturally produced Estimated adult abundance 3 Steelhead include hatchery fish; based on NMFS estimate. 3.0 steelhead returning from the ocean, Intervention dependence 2 Steelhead life history increasingly dependent on hatcheries; valley floor High Rainbow trout depend on tailwaters below dams. the result of dams blocking access to Central Valley steelhead are not in danger of extinction Environmental tolerance 4 Rainbow trout are one of most tolerant salmonids but conditions in much of their former spawning and but their numbers will remain low until river conditions Critical lower rivers/Delta may exceed tolerances of migrating steelhead. rearing habitats. Recent adult returns that support their migratory life history improve. The highly- Genetic risk 4 Appears to be one population with little genetic structure. Extinct have been low, presumably due to altered tail-water habitats downstream of dams select against Climate change 2 Appears to be one population with little genetic structure. drought-related impacts. anadromous life histories and instead favor resident life Anthropogenic threats 2 Score of “2” for only steelhead. Would be a “5” if resident trout histories by supplying cool water year-round. were also considered. CONSERVATION ACTIONS Average 3.0 LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE Certainty (1-4) 3 Steelhead are well studied, but steelhead/Rainbow trout interactions • Amend dam operations to mimic need more study. natural streamflow patterns and improve conditions that favor the anadromous life history of steelhead. CHARACTERISTICS steelhead fry move into deeper, mid-channel • Invest in restoration actions in the few Historically, adult Central Valley steelhead were habitats in the late summer and fall. They grow Central Valley streams that produce relatively small compared to coastal steelhead, quickly as opportunistic, voracious predators by wild steelhead, such as Deer and rarely exceeding 60 cm (about 24 in.) and a few feeding on aquatic and terrestrial insects, small kg (about 6 lbs.). Their slender body type allows fish, frogs and other prey. Most juvenile Central Battle creeks. them to undertake long and difficult migrations Valley steelhead feed and grow in their natal far inland to Central Valley rivers. streams for one or two years before migration • Exclude hatchery steelhead from the in late December through the beginning of May, DPS for management purposes, and peaking in mid-March. In general, both juveniles ABUNDANCE and resident adults prefer complex habitat Left: American steelie. Photo: Mike Wier. Right: A steelhead parr holding under a rock. Photo: Jen Edgar. revise hatchery practices to reduce interactions between hatchery fish Abundance estimates for Central Valley boulders, submerged clay and undercut banks, steelhead are lacking due to the timing of and naturally spawning steelhead and large woody debris that provide feeding CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREA TS winter spawning migrations during periods of opportunities, segregation of territories, refuge IMPACT while producing fish to support high flows. Historically, it is likely that 50,000- from high velocities, and cover from predators. the fishery. 100,000 adult steelhead returned per year Climate change is likely based on estimates of available habitat and to threaten Central Valley Genetics • Focus fisheries management in the food resources. In 2016, NMFS estimated that steelhead mainly through Below dams in the Central Valley, resident trout temperature increases and Central Valley on sustaining diverse, an average of 4,600 adult steelhead returned changes in flow regimes. to spawn per year, including to hatcheries. In and steelhead, including hatchery steelhead, wild trout populations in tailwaters CENTRAL VALLEY S TEELHEAD DIS TRIBUTION Warmer temperatures will MAJOR DAMS ESTUARY HATCHERIES contrast, resident trout both above and below form one genetic population that bears the ALTERATION increase the difficulty of downstream of dams, and restore river dams are abundant. signature of genetic input from introduced Historically, Central Valley steelhead inhabited the Sacramento and San managing large dams to An estimated 80-95% of The Sacramento-San Joaquin Interbreeding between hatchery and off-channel habitats. North Coast hatchery steelhead. The highly Joaquin Rivers and most of their tributaries as part of a single population maintain sufficiently large steelhead spawning, rearing, Delta and San Francisco and natural-origin steelhead altered Central Valley rivers today favor fish with resident Rainbows. There were possibly 81 discrete populations from pools of cool water to Habitat AND BEHAVIOR and migration habitat is Estuary are highly altered reduces the reproductive • Investigate the causes of poor juvenile that exhibit the resident life history, which has the San Joaquin Valley north to the Pit River drainage in the past. Due to support juvenile steelhead blocked by dams throughout environments that select against capacity and inhibits the Today, all adult Central Valley steelhead are the Central Valley. Where the anadromous steelhead life recovery of natural steelhead hatchery steelhead survival. a genetic basis and can evolve rapidly from the construction of dams and water diversions, nearly 95% of previously through the Central Valley’s winter-run fish, beginning their upstream increasingly hot, dry summers. anadromous fish once thrived, history due to its low flows, populations in the Central Valley. ancestral steelhead. Both natural and hatchery accessible habitat to CV steelhead has been blocked or lost. Above dam most are now replaced by elevated water temperatures, lack migrations to fresh water during peak flows • Increase access to historic floodplain steelhead are in decline, suggesting that the Rainbow trout populations appear to retain much of this native genetic Rainbow trout with resident of cover, unnatural flows due to between December and February. Returning life histories in cold tailwaters the operations of a series of rearing habitat in the Central Valley. anadromous life history itself is not sustainable population structure. A long history of translocations of hatchery Rainbow adults are mostly three to four years old, and downstream of dams. pumps, invasive species, and in the highly altered Central Valley. trout and steelhead, and pervasive habitat alteration, have created a single typically spawn from February to April. After predation threats. heavily hatchery-influenced population. hatching in spring and absorbing their yolk sac,

48 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 49 KLAMATH MOUNTAINS PROVINCE SUMMARY Metric Score Justification SUMMER STEELHEAD Low Only two or three Klamath Mountain Area occupied 2 Much diminished from historical distribution. Province summer steelhead populations Estimated adult abundance 2 Populations are very small and isolated. Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Moderate are large enough to sustain this unique Intervention dependence 3 No intervention is being undertaken but is badly needed. LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL life history throughout the next 50 years High Environmental tolerance 2 Adults require cold water refuges and pool habitat with cover that is under present conditions. Most of free from human disturbance. Klamath Mountain Province (KMP) summer steelhead 1.9 Critical the smaller populations are likely to Genetic risk 2 Due to the spatial and temporal separation between summer and winter are in a state of long-term decline in the Klamath Basin. disappear due to reduced streamflows, fish, the summer steelhead life history is in jeopardy of These stream-maturing fish face a high likelihood of extinction extinction in the KMP. Extinct shrinking availability of suitable in California in the next 50 years due to their reliance on cold Climate change 1 Highly vulnerable; temperatures and flows already marginal in many habitat, and higher temperatures areas and summer steelhead require cold water in the warmest months water sources during the warmest summer months, which are throughout the summer months in to survive to spawn. becoming increasingly rare. headwater tributaries. Anthropogenic threats 1 2 High, 6 Medium factors. Average 1.9 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL

Certainty (1-4) 3 Steelhead are well studied, but steelhead/Rainbow trout interactions CONSERVATION ACTIONS need more study. • Recognize KMP summer steelhead as a DPS and manage them separately from winter steelhead based on different CHARACTERISTICS and Trinity river tributaries by June and KMP summer steelhead are nearly identical to ascend into summer holding areas with deep, conservation needs. the more common KMP winter steelhead in bedrock pools with some overhead cover and their appearance. They can be differentiated cool seeps, often sharing these pools during • Draft and implement a summer the summer with spring-run Chinook salmon. steelhead management plan to manage by their timing of freshwater migration from April through June, timing of sexual maturation They spawn from January to March, about a land use activities and improve habitat. in freshwater, location of spawning in higher- month earlier than winter steelhead. Generally, summer steelhead spawn in small or intermittent • Initiate a monitoring program to gradient habitats than other steelhead, and genetic variation. KMP summer steelhead may headwater tributaries, and juveniles migrate into determine abundance and life history perennial streams soon after hatching. Juvenile Left: Trinity steelhead. Photo: Brian Vais. Right: Steelhead natal home, North Fork Trinity. Photo: Glen Kubacki. live up to seven years, and may return to spawn information and document to their natal streams several times throughout summer steelhead typically spend two years in habitat usage. their lives, especially in the Scott River. fresh water before migrating to the ocean, and CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREA TS returning to spawn at three or four years of age. IMPACT • Amend fishing regulations to protect ABUNDANCE Genetics Climate change is likely the vulnerable spring-run Chinook salmon Little is known about the historical abundance single largest contributing and summer steelhead while in of summer steelhead in the KMP. In recent Klamath Mountains Province summer and factor to the long-term winter steelhead are distinct from one another decline of summer steelhead fresh water. decades, estimates of returning adults annually in the KMP. Climate change ranged from 1,400 to 4,000 fish. They have in their life histories, behaviors, and genetics, but KLAMATH MOUNTAINS PROVINCE SUMMER is already reducing summer MAJOR DAMS AGRICULTURE logging • Remove the four lowermost Klamath since dwindled to less than approximately 2,000 are currently lumped together for management. streamflows, increasing dams to restore access to historical adults for the past decade. However, increases The cues for early migration in summer steelhead STEELHEAD DIS TRIBUTION stream temperatures, and Iron Gate (Klamath), Dwinnell Agricultural water diversions The Klamath and Trinity basins have been documented in some tributaries, such has a genetic basis that can be passed on to The KMP summer steelhead range historically included all coastal streams altering seasonal flow habitat and prioritize habitat restoration (Shasta), and Lewiston in the KMP, especially for have been heavily logged in as the South Fork Trinity River, in recent years. offspring. More genetic research is needed on and their tributaries from the Klamath River, including Upper Klamath Lake, patterns in KMP summer (Trinity) dams block access to alfalfa irrigation, have reduced the past century. Along with to support re-colonization by the existence of a possible fall-run steelhead in to the Elk River in southern Oregon. Their current distribution has been steelhead watersheds, which large portions of former KMP streamflows and degraded water construction of road networks, wild steelhead. the Klamath and Trinity rivers, which enter fresh will lead to further reduction summer steelhead habitats; the quality, particularly in the Scott logging activities increase Habitat AND BEHAVIOR significantly reduced by dam construction, and now includes merely the unreachable middle and upper and Shasta rivers. Large-scale erosion, increase sediment water a month earlier than winter steelhead Klamath River and its main tributaries, the Trinity, Salmon, Scott, and Shasta in suitable headwater streams The open Klamath Estuary provides steelhead that summer steelhead portions of the Klamath and marijuana cultivation also degrades discharge into waterways, and appear to have an intermediate life history rivers, and other streams north to the Oregon border. It is likely that summer Trinity rivers were historically habitats through water diversions, and reduce habitat quantity access to diverse habitats — from spring-fed rely upon. between summer and winter fish. steelhead once migrated far upstream of the present site of Copco Dam on important spawning and increased sedimentation, and and quality by causing the systems such as the Shasta River, to snowmelt- rearing grounds. pollution with fertilizers, herbicides, deep pools summer steelhead the Klamath River. and/or pesticides. rely on to fill with sediment. driven Trinity River tributaries — at different times of year. Summer steelhead enter Klamath

50 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 51 KLAMATH MOUNTAINS PROVINCE SUMMARY Metric Score Justification WINTER STEELHEAD Low Lack of strong, coordinated protection Area occupied 4 Winter steelhead found throughout KMP watersheds; dams block for wild stocks, combined with access to large portion of upstream spawning and rearing habitat. Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Moderate Estimated adult abundance 3 KMP winter steelhead abundance is relatively unknown, but is probably 3.3 reductions in habitat associated less than 50,000 fish/year including Smith River run. LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE with climate change, will continue to High Intervention dependence 3 Frequent management actions needed for habitat restoration and negatively impact KMP winter steelhead. protection to prevent continuation of long-term decline. Klamath dam Klamath Mountain Province (KMP) winter steelhead are Due to dam operations selecting for removal and restoration is likely to improve this score. in a state of decline from historical numbers in the Klamath Critical resident life histories, low adult returns, Environmental tolerance 4 Steelhead are very adaptable and winter fish return during a time Basin. These ocean-maturing fish are relatively more when flows are highest and temperatures lowest. Extinct and negative impacts on wild fish, Iron widespread than the stream-maturing summer-run fish, Genetic risk 3 Presumably genetically diverse; however, hybridization risk with Gate Hatchery on the Klamath River hatchery steelhead is a considerable threat. yet still face an uncertain future due to reductions in stopped rearing steelhead in 2013. suitable habitat. Climate change 3 All KMP watersheds are projected to see seasonal water temperatures and flows change. CONSERVATION ACTIONS Anthropogenic threats 1 9 Medium factors. Average 3.3 LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE • Manage KMP winter and summer Certainty (1-4) 3 Steelhead are well studied, but steelhead/Rainbow trout interactions steelhead separately based on need more study. their different habitat and conservation needs. CHARACTERISTICS One-half to two-thirds of KMP winter steelhead • Remove the four lower Klamath dams KMP winter steelhead are nearly identical spawn more than once during their lives. Fry emerge from redds beginning in April, and to restore access to nearly 480 km in appearance to their more rare summer counterparts, but are more likely to have juveniles defend territories in or below riffles (300 mi.) of historical habitat and spawning colors in the lower reaches of rivers. where food is most abundant. Juvenile KMP undertake large-scale restoration. Winter steelhead can be distinguished from steelhead can adopt one of three life histories, summer steelhead in their run timing, genetics, though the first is the most common by far: 1) • Use a hatchery and genetics sexual maturation, and spawning locations in spend up to two years in fresh water before management plan to reduce negative mainstem rivers and tributaries. migrating to sea; 2) a fresh water resident Photo: Jonathan Matthews. impacts of hatchery steelhead on strategy (about 10% of the population); and 3) spend two to three years in fresh water before remaining wild fish and protect life ABUNDANCE CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREA TS migrating to sea. Some juvenile steelhead spend history and genetic diversity. KMP winter steelhead returns have declined IMPACT two to four months in the Klamath Estuary or from historical estimates of approximately Pacific Ocean before returning to fresh water KMP winter steelhead are not • Preserve relatively unaltered habitats, 220,000 fish per year to less than 50,000 fish between August and October to over-winter. as vulnerable as KMP summer such as Blue Creek in the Klamath per year, including steelhead from the Trinity These immature fish, called “half-pounders,” steelhead due to their migration River Hatchery. The presence of presumed timing. As a result of climate River Basin. are likely to survive and spawn multiple times change, all KMP watersheds fall-run steelhead makes accurately predicting during their life. KLAMATH MOUNTAINS PROVINCE WINTER are expected to see increases MAJOR DAMS HATCHERIES MINING • Implement the California Coastal abundance of winter steelhead difficult. The life STEELHEAD DIS TRIBUTION in stream temperatures, which Salmonid Monitoring Plan to fill histories, behaviors, and genetics of these fish Genetics will reduce available habitat. The Klamath Dams (Klamath The Trinity River Hatchery Historical hydraulic mining remain the subject of ongoing research. The KMP winter steelhead range includes all coastal rivers and creeks critical data gaps. KMP winter steelhead are more closely related Snowmelt-fed rivers (e.g., River), Dwinnell Dam (Shasta releases hundreds of in KMP watersheds removed throughout the Klamath-Trinity rivers basin north to the Elk River near Port Salmon and Scott rivers) River), and Lewiston Dam thousands of juvenile spawning gravels, simplified to KMP summer steelhead than to other winter Habitat AND BEHAVIOR Orford, Oregon. In the Klamath River, they historically ascended all major may see sharp decreases in (Trinity River) block access steelhead each year, stream reaches, and reduced • Work with private and public steelhead. Steelhead from lower Klamath rivers and tributaries, and likely spawned in tributaries to Upper Klamath streamflows during the spring to hundreds of miles of which negatively impact suitable habitat. The Scott, partners to increase streamflows and The Klamath River Basin supports the greatest River tributaries are most similar to those from potential migration, spawning, wild steelhead in the Salmon, and South Fork Trinity Lake before passage was blocked by a chain of dams. In the Trinity River, and summer months. The timing diversity of steelhead life histories anywhere. other nearby coastal rivers (e.g. Smith River, Del of peak flows has already shifted and nursery habitat for KMP KMP through increased rivers still bear the scars of reduce diversions in the Klamath steelhead historically utilized each of the North, South, East, and Stuart winter steelhead, and reduce competition, predation, past mining that limit steelhead KMP winter steelhead enter fresh water between Norte County), while steelhead from the Shasta in the Klamath River — nearly Basin, especially in the Shasta and forks of the river until Lewiston Dam blocked upstream access to much of streamflows during important hybridization and reduced production through excessive November and April as mature adults. They and Scott rivers are closely related to Iron Gate a month earlier than existed migration periods. fitness over time. sedimentation. Scott rivers. this historical habitat. historically. spawn soon after arriving on spawning grounds, Hatchery steelhead. and migrate back to sea by March or April.

52 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 53 NOrthern california SUMMARY Metric Score Justification SUMMER STEELHEAD Low Sufficient flows and cool temperatures Area occupied 2 Much diminished from historical distribution. are rapidly disappearing across the Estimated adult abundance 2 Likely fewer than 1,000 adults across the DPS in a given year. Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Moderate Northern California (NC) summer Intervention dependence 3 Require continuous monitoring and significant improvement of habitat LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL steelhead DPS range during critical and accessibility for recovery. High over summering months. This is Environmental tolerance 2 Adults require coldwater refuges and pool habitat with cover that is free Northern California (NC) summer steelhead are in 1.9 from human intervention. Critical largely due to drought-related flow long-term decline and this trend will continue without reductions and illegal and unregulated Genetic risk 2 Spatial and temporal segregation between summer and winter fish substantial human intervention on a broad scale. They are make this life history susceptible to extinction. Extinct diversions to support exploding vulnerable to extinction by 2050 due to their reliance on Climate change 1 Highly vulnerable; temperatures and flows already marginal in many marijuana cultivation. areas and summer steelhead require cold water in the warmest months cold water during the warmest months and are critically to survive to spawn.

susceptible to climate change. Anthropogenic threats 1 3 High and 5 Medium threats. Sufficient flows and temperatures are CONSERVATION ACTIONS rapidly disappearing in the DPS. • Implement the 2016 Eel River Average 1.9 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL Action Plan with the Eel River Forum Certainty (1-4) 2-3 Actual numbers of fish poorly known. partners, which remains the best option for increasing NC summer steelhead runs. CHARACTERISTICS They prefer pools with boulders, large woody NC summer steelhead can be distinguished debris, and undercut banks that provide cover • Integrate statewide coastal salmonid from predators and visual separation from monitoring programs and Habitat from other steelhead by their run timing, life histories, genetic variation, maturation while other fishes. After spawning, adult fish migrate Conservation Plans of large private in fresh water, and their preferred spawning back to the Pacific Ocean around March. landowners with other restoration habitat in higher-gradient habitats and Juveniles leave their natal tributaries from April activities. small tributaries. to June to feed and grow in mainstem rivers and estuary habitats before migrating to sea. • Work with stakeholders to expand Once at sea, most juveniles spend their first Photo: Conrad Calimpong. ABUNDANCE best management practices for land months near the coast before moving to the Little historical abundance information North Pacific Ocean to feed on krill, squid, fish, uses that allow water to remain in exists for NC summer steelhead. Abundance CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREA TS crustaceans, and amphipods in surface waters. streams, especially during critical estimates today come mostly from volunteer IMPACT summer months. snorkel surveys in headwater tributaries and Genetics Climate change is likely mainstem rivers during summer months. The Recent studies found that NC winter and to alter precipitation and • Evaluate the potential for changes to Eel River, which once supported the largest run summer steelhead are distinct from one streamflows and lead to of NC summer steelhead, has had decreasing warmer temperatures, which operations of the Eel River dams as another. NC summer steelhead are more closely adult returns over the last fifty years. reduces suitable habitat and part of the Potter Valley Project on the related to NC winter steelhead than they are MAJOR DAMS AGRICULTURE ESTUARY NORTHERN CALIFORNIA SUMMER S TEELHEAD places further stress on small to summer steelhead from other regions in populations of NC summer ALTERATION upper mainstem Eel River. Habitat AND BEHAVIOR DISTRIBUTION California. NC summer steelhead have a genetic steelhead. Any reductions in Historically, NC summer steelhead ranged from Redwood Creek (Humboldt Scott Dam on the upper Grazing and diversions to Estuaries of the Eel and Mad Summer steelhead migrate further inland into variation similar to spring-run Chinook salmon streamflows or increases in mainstem Eel River blocks support agriculture have rivers and Redwood Creek have County) in the north to the Mattole River (Mendocino County) in the water temperature are likely smaller tributaries than winter fish. They spend that influences run-timing to fresh water, which access to an estimated 463 altered floodplains, decreased been leveed, armored with hard south. Today, only a few select watersheds still support summer steelhead, to disproportionately affect km (285 mi.) of potential bank stability, and increased structures, drained, constrained summer months resting in pools with consistent allows them to access higher elevation and including Redwood Creek and the Mad, Eel, and Mattole rivers. They can be NC summer steelhead due to spawning, migration, and sedimentation and pollutants. by tide gates, and converted to cool temperatures as they mature, waiting for smaller tributaries for spawning. their run timing. nursery habitat, while Illegal water diversions and support agricultural and rural winter rains to spawn in December-February. found in the mainstem, upper mainstem, North, Middle, and South forks of Matthews Dam blocks over a subsequent habitat degradation development, which degrades the Eel River. third of potential steelhead of remote headwater streams critical steelhead nursery NC summer steelhead can tolerate water habitat in the Mad River. for marijuana cultivation has habitats. temperatures up to approximately 23°C (about become the limiting factor for 73°F) for short periods of time, but seek refuge NC summer steelhead survival in many streams in the DPS. in deep pools with cool seeps and springs.

54 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 55 NOrthern california SUMMARY Metric Score Justification WINTER STEELHEAD Low While the Level of Concern for Area occupied 3 Multiple watersheds in CA. Northern California (NC) winter Estimated adult abundance 3 A few thousand wild spawning steelhead present annually in the Mad Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Moderate and Eel rivers combined; other populations (Redwood Creek, Mattole, 3.3 steelhead has remained the same since and Garcia) may contain as many, though information is lacking. Total is LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE 2008, the latest research indicates that likely less than 15,000-20,000. High they are now more susceptible to climate Intervention dependence 3 Require continuous monitoring, protection from poaching, and habitat Northern California winter steelhead are in a state of change impacts and are vulnerable to improvement for recovery. long-term decline over much of their range due to land Critical anthropogenic threats. Environmental tolerance 4 Broad tolerance in fresh water and may spawn several times. use practices that reduce habitat for juveniles, such Extinct Genetic risk 4 Genetically diverse with gene flow among populations, although as diversions that desiccate nursery tributaries during hatchery influence is a concern.

summer months. CONSERVATION ACTIONS Climate change 1 Vulnerable in most watersheds but possible refuges present. Moyle et al. (2013) vulnerability score is 17/35 (highly vulnerable). • Implement a statewide steelhead Anthropogenic threats 1 2 High and 7 Medium threats. Dams and estuary alteration preclude restoration and management plan recovery of NC winter steelhead.

that identifies specific actions to restore Average 3.3 LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE and manage steelhead populations and Certainty (1-4) 2-3 Actual numbers of fish poorly known. maintain diversity in California. • Protect life history diversity at relevant ecological scales to maintain CHARACTERISTICS many steelhead enjoy a high likelihood wild steelhead. NC steelhead are larger, on average, than of repeat spawning potential due to their • Begin large-scale restoration of steelhead from other watersheds in California. relatively short migrations. Most NC steelhead that live to spawn many times are females, and the Eel River through the Eel River In general, coastal steelhead in smaller, slower coastal rivers are deeper-bodied, longer, they may account for a significant proportion Action Plan, including dam removal, and more robust than steelhead from larger of returning adults in a given year, depending estuary restoration, and instream inland rivers. on the stream. Females can lay between 200 habitat enhancement. and 12,000 eggs, depending on their size and Photo: Mike Wier. condition, before migrating back to the ocean ABUNDANCE • Implement the Mad River Hatchery by May. Newly emerged steelhead school Reliable estimates of NC winter steelhead together and seek shallow waters with gentle CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREA TS Genetic Management Plan (2016) to numbers are lacking because high, turbid flows currents to grow, while older juveniles maintain IMPACT reduce negative impacts of hatchery during migration and spawning periods make territories in faster water and in pool habitats. NC winter steelhead are fish on remaining wild fish. safe, reliable sampling impractical. Historically, Juveniles smolt in early spring and migrate highly vulnerable to climate it is likely that about 200,000 adults returned to estuaries or the ocean between March and change due to juvenile • Secure water for fish, and reduce to spawn in NC steelhead watersheds annually. June. Some juvenile steelhead rely on estuaries reliance on small, headwater diversions for other uses throughout Optimistically, annual adult returns today are tributaries for nursery habitat. for rich feeding and growth opportunities, likely less than 20,000 fish. NORTHERN CALIFORNIA WINTER S TEELHEAD Reductions in suitable cold MAJOR DAMS ESTUARY AGRICULTURE the DPS range. increasing their chances of survival at sea. water are also expected to ALTERATION DISTRIBUTION result in local extirpations Scott Dam on the Eel River The estuaries of the Eel and In the past two decades, Habitat AND BEHAVIOR Genetics The NC steelhead DPS includes all naturally spawning populations in and range contractions for blocks access to an estimated Mad rivers and Redwood Creek illegal water diversions and NC winter steelhead generally enter estuaries California coastal river basins from Redwood Creek (Humboldt County) to NC steelhead, as higher The NC steelhead populations show some 290 km (180 mi.) of potential have been leveed, armored subsequent habitat degradation the Gualala River (Mendocino County). This distribution includes the Eel gradient headwater streams habitat, while Matthews Dam with structures, drained, altered of remote headwater streams and rivers between September and March, with genetic influence from KMP steelhead. Within River, the third largest watershed in California, with its four forks (North, that could provide refuge are on the Mad River blocks nearly by tide gates, and converted for marijuana cultivation has spawning peaking between December and the Eel River watershed, there are significant a third of historical steelhead for agricultural and rural become perhaps the most Middle, South, and Van Duzen) and their extensive tributaries. NC steelhead inaccessible behind waterfalls, early April. These steelhead are sexually mature genetic differences between resident Rainbow boulder fields, or dams. habitat. In addition, these dams development, greatly reducing important limiting factor for are present today wherever streams are accessible to the ocean and reduce streamflows during juvenile nursery habitat. What juvenile steelhead survival when they arrive at spawning areas, usually trout upstream of natural barriers in headwater sufficient flows and cool water exist. Some water bodies with no recent important migration windows suitable estuarine habitat in natal streams. after spending two years in freshwater and one tributaries and steelhead downstream. for adult and juvenile steelhead. remains is subject to high year growing at sea. In relatively small coastal direct access to the ocean, such as Big and Stone lagoons in Humboldt turbidity, poor water quality, County, also contain steelhead, although the source of these and sedimentation from runoff. watersheds in Mendocino County, fish is unknown. 56 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 57 SOUTH-CENTRAL CALIFORNIA SUMMARY Metric Score Justification COAST STEELHEAD Low NMFS considers the recovery potential Area occupied 3 Multiple watersheds occupied in small numbers. for South-Central California Coast Estimated adult abundance 1 Most populations probably contain less than a few dozen spawners, Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Moderate steelhead to be low to moderate, with with a total of less than 500 in the entire DPS in recent years. LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL small but consistent runs of adult Intervention dependence 2 Barrier removal, habitat restoration, and updated water management High practices are critical to recovery as are restored access to historical steelhead into accessible watersheds. spawning, rearing, and refuge habitat and reconnection of resident and South-Central California Coast (SCCC) steelhead are in 1.9 Removal of San Clemente Dam in the anadromous populations. long-term decline across their range, despite recent recovery Critical Carmel River in 2015 opened access Environmental tolerance 3 Moderate physiological tolerance; spawning multiple times is actions taken in core watersheds. Without widespread efforts uncommon in SCCC steelhead populations Extinct to more than 40 km (25 mi.) of habitat, to restore streamflows and improve access to historical habitat, Genetic risk 2 While introgression with hatchery rainbow trout is minimal, limited gene and is aiding in the restoration of more SCCC steelhead will likely be extinct in southern California flow among populations make them vulnerable. natural streamflows and sediment within 50 years. Climate change 1 Rated highly vulnerable. Effects on small populations documented. transport processes. Anthropogenic threats 1 4 “High” and 2 “Medium” factors.

Average 1.9 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL

CONSERVATION ACTIONS Certainty (1-4) 3 Little monitoring of most populations. High confidence that the DPS is in serious decline, low confidence in actual population size. • Secure water for SCCC steelhead through purchasing water rights, setting low flow requirements, incentivizing water efficient land use CHARACTERISTICS impossible. Juveniles may migrate from fresh practices, conservation, using storage South-Central California Coast steelhead in water to lagoons and estuaries, or between reservoirs and tributaries, multiple times in a tanks, reducing groundwater pumping, general have longer, streamlined bodies that are suited to the small, flashy streams of single year. Immature steelhead typically spend and increasing enforcement. central and southern California. several weeks to months in estuaries, where they grow rapidly to increase their survival • Restore fish passage on a broad and at sea. In the Pajaro and Salinas rivers, ABUNDANCE coordinated scale in core watersheds. desiccation of tributary streams in dry years Left: Juvenile steelhead. Photo: Glenn Kubacki. Right: San Carpoforo Creek adult steelhead. Photo: Mark Capelli. Historically, annual runs of adult SCCC forces juveniles out to sea if estuary mouths • Expand and improve estuarine/lagoon steelhead averaged about 27,000 adults in wet are open or upstream into headwaters where habitat through regulation of land years. Reliable abundance data are severely perennial streamflows exist. CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREA TS use practices. lacking, but best estimates suggest that less IMPACT than 500 adults return to fresh water each year Genetics Climate change will likely • Update and implement the California to spawn. During historic drought from 2012- SCCC steelhead are distinct from Southern exacerbate the decline of 2016, there was limited documented spawning Coastal Monitoring Plan protocols to steelhead in their genetics and the SCCC steelhead by reducing in most watersheds across the DPS, suggesting the availability and accessibility gather critical population data. environmental conditions in which they populations may shrink in the next few years. of usable habitat throughout live. Recent genetic research suggests that MAJOR DAMS AGRICULTURE ESTUARY SOUTH-CENTRAL CALIFORNIA COAS T S TEELHEAD their range. Under future • Complete a Fishery Management juvenile Rainbow trout females are more likely climate change, streamflows are ALTERATION DISTRIBUTION and Evaluation Plan to coordinate Habitat AND BEHAVIOR to migrate to sea than males; this could be expected to decrease and water SCCC steelhead range from the Pajaro River (Santa Clara/San Benito Dams and diversions Extensive agricultural Estuaries and lagoons provide recovery actions. The behaviors and habitats of SCCC steelhead because their egg production depends on large temperatures to increase, creating throughout the SCCC steelhead development for row crops, critical nursery and migration Counties) southward to the southern edge of San Luis Obispo County. The sources of environmental stressors are not well documented, but are apparently body size, which increases significantly with range reduce the magnitude orchards, and other crops has habitats for steelhead. Much watersheds that historically supported the largest populations of SCCC that threaten steelhead growth and alter the timing of flows significantly degraded mainstem of this estuarine habitat similar to those of Southern steelhead. In time spent at sea. steelhead include the Pajaro, Salinas, Carmel, and Big Sur rivers. Prior to and survival. In general, steelhead and block migration corridors river habitats, floodplains, and has been lost, especially in general, they spend one to three years in fresh for spawning and rearing estuaries in the SCCC range. northern portions of the SCCC the 2012-2016 drought, SCCC steelhead were still found in nearly all coastal in southern California will be water, then two to four years at sea before subject to the greatest increase steelhead. Water supply and Agricultural diversions reduce steelhead range, through urban watersheds in their historical range, including streams with no recent flood control facilities reduce flows, especially in critical encroachment and associated returning to natal rivers to spawn from January in duration and intensity of ocean historical records of steelhead, such as Los Osos, Vincente, and Villa creeks overall streamflows and alter summer and fall months, reduce water diversions that impacts all to May. In years with low rainfall, such as 2012- and land-based ecosystem shifts the timing of water availability groundwater recharge and life stages of steelhead. (San Luis Obispo County). associated with climate change. throughout most of the lower water tables, and degrade 2016, lagoon barriers may not breach during watersheds in the DPS. water quality in streams. the rainy season, making fresh water migrations

58 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 59 SOUTHERN STEELHEAD SUMMARY Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Low The abundance of southern steelhead is Area occupied 3 Found in most of native range, if scattered; mainly in 4 northernmost rivers, but also in a number of short coastal watersheds in the central precariously low throughout their range. and southern portion of the DPS. LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL Moderate Drought, increasing human population Estimated adult abundance 1 Highly variable but with general downward trend and very low pressures, and climate change have abundance in all populations. High contributed to their continued decline. Intervention dependence 2 Intensive efforts such as barrier modification, habitat restoration, and Southern steelhead populations are in danger of 1.9 restoration of instream flows are essential. Critical extinction within the next 25-50 years due to anthropogenic Environmental tolerance 3 Moderate physiological tolerance to existing conditions, although limits and environmental impacts threatening their recovery. are being reached. Extinct CONSERVATION ACTIONS Since its listing as an endangered species in 1997, Genetic risk 2 Limited gene flow among populations; some hatchery Southern steelhead abundance has continued to • Reduce surface water diversions and hybridization. Populations very small and geographically isolated. decline to precariously low levels. Climate change 1 Climate change impacts likely throughout their range, exacerbating groundwater pumping, increase use of other factors. recycled water, and expand Anthropogenic threats 1 5 High, 6 Medium, 4 Low factors. conservation measures to improve habitat for Southern steelhead. Average 1.9 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL Certainty (1-4) 2-3 Actual numbers of fish poorly known. • Manage native resident Rainbow trout with Southern steelhead as part of the DPS to acknowledge that resident fish can produce smolts and CHARACTERISTICS steelhead may feed in fresh water for up to three years before migrating to the Pacific anadromous offspring under favorable Southern steelhead generally have longer, more streamlined bodies than their northern Ocean. While anadromous steelhead are only environmental conditions. counterparts to facilitate passage through sporadically present in the current population, • Remove fish passage barriers and southern California’s characteristic low, resident Rainbow trout occupy the upper flashy streams. watersheds of most rivers year-round and expedite dam removal projects may be responsible for maintaining steelhead including Matilija Dam (Ventura River), runs through their offspring when streamflow Left: Adult and juvenile steelhead, Maria Ygnacio Creek. Right: Signage to protect spawning steelhead, Santa Barbara County. Photos: Mark Capelli. ABUNDANCE Rindge Dam (Malibu Creek), and other conditions are favorable. Anadromous offspring In the 19th Century, the Santa Ynez probably passage barrier remediation projects. from resident parents are common enough to supported the largest runs of Southern make protection of resident fish an integral CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREA TS steelhead throughout their range, likely component of Southern steelhead recovery. IMPACT • Develop and implement baseline between 20,000 to 30,000 adults per year, monitoring within the Coastal Southern steelhead represent while the other large watersheds likely Genetics the southern edge of the Salmonid Monitoring framework. supported runs of a few thousand adults per The environmental and genetic factors that species’ range, and, as such, year. In the last five years, the number of adult are critically vulnerable to underlie their ocean migrations are under • Remove non-native aquatic species anadromous steelhead has declined significantly, climate change. They are active investigation. Populations in the larger MAJOR DAMS URBANIZATION ESTUARY in prime trout habitat. to the point that it is now rare to see them SOUTHERN S TEELHEAD DIS TRIBUTION becoming increasingly exposed watersheds in the northern part of the DPS to higher water temperatures ALTERATION in the wild. Rainbow trout historically populated all coastal streams of southern (Santa Clara, Ventura, Santa Ynez and Santa and flow variability over time. California with permanent flows, as either resident or anadromous forms, Dams and water storage Nearly all Southern steelhead Nearly all estuaries and lagoons, Maria rivers) have remained un-hybridized, Their continued existence diversions, such as Matilija watersheds have been heavily which are critical nursery Habitat AND BEHAVIOR or both. Today, the Southern steelhead range spans over 30,000 square km depends on building resiliency despite decades of stocking hatchery-origin Dam in the Ventura River urbanized, which has increased habitats for juvenile steelhead, (about 11,580 square miles), has over 41,500 km (25,785 miles) of mostly to climate change through watershed and the Harvey demand for surface and have been severely degraded Southern steelhead tolerate warmer water Rainbow trout. Some resident Rainbow trout intermittent streams, and is home to more than 22 million Californians. The greater abundance, genetic Diversion on the Santa Clara groundwater resources and and significantly reduced in temperatures than their northern counterparts, populations in the southernmost portion of the River, have blocked steelhead reduced the quantity and size and function in Southern DPS includes all naturally spawned anadromous Coastal Rainbow trout diversity, and access to up to about 25˚C (77˚F), before they seek DPS have hybridized with hatchery-origin fish diverse habitats. access to spawning habitats quality of water for steelhead. California. populations downstream of natural and human-made barriers in streams and reduced available refuge in pools with cool seeps. They depend above barriers such as dams and diversions. from the Santa Maria River (San Luis Obispo County) to the Tijuana River rearing habitat for Southern on winter rains to provide passage through However, three populations of pure native steelhead juveniles. on the U.S.-Mexico border. They are most abundant in the four largest seasonally opened estuaries and lagoons to Southern steelhead are present in the San Luis watersheds in the northern portion of their range: the Santa Maria, Santa reach upstream spawning tributaries. Juvenile Rey, Santa Ana, and San Gabriel rivers today. Ynez, Ventura, and Santa Clara rivers. 60 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 61 SPECIES 2017 LEVEL OF Trout SCORE CONCERN Bull Trout 0.0 EXTINCT California Golden Trout 1.9 CRITICAL Of the eleven remaining trout Coastal Cutthroat Trout 2.7 HIGH species in California, five species saw an increase in Coastal Rainbow Trout 4.7 LOW Level of Concern since 2008. Eagle Lake Rainbow Trout 2.3 HIGH Goose Lake Redband Trout 3.1 MODERATE Kern River Rainbow Trout 1.4 CRITICAL Most trout species in small streams have short lifespans of about three or four years, while species Lahontan Cutthroat Trout 2.0 HIGH CALIFORNIA GOLDEN TROUT in larger habitats may live up to 11 years. All trout Little Kern Golden Trout 2.0 HIGH species depend on cold, clean water to survive. McCloud River Redband Trout 1.4 CRITICAL California’s diverse geography and A few species, such as Goose Lake Redband trout climate provide habitat for 11 different and Coastal Rainbow trout, have populations adapted Paiute Cutthroat Trout 2.1 HIGH kinds of native trout, more than any other to spending much of their lives growing in natural lakes Mountain Whitefish* 3.4 MODERATE or reservoirs before migrating into tributary streams state in the contiguous U.S. Five of these species * Mountain whitefish are not trout, but are salmonids. are found nowhere else. In acknowledgment of its to spawn and complete their life cycles. Yet other uniqueness and importance, the California Golden species, such as Paiute Cutthroat trout and Kern TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS TO TROUT trout was designated the official State Fish of River Rainbow trout, cannot survive in lakes, despite California in 1947. The state boasts both the rarest attempts to increase their range through stocking; – Paiute Cutthroat trout – and the most widespread these riverine (stream-dwelling) species remain in – Coastal Rainbow trout – trout species, which relatively small stretches of streams for their entire were transplanted from California to New Zealand, lives. One species, the Coastal Cutthroat trout, may become anadromous (ocean-going) similar to Argentina, and beyond. In 1971, California Trout helped ALIEN SPECIES HATCHERIES FIRE create a special program of the California Department steelhead, or remain in small tributaries throughout of Fish & Wildlife called the Heritage and Wild Trout their entire life. Alien species: Brown and Brook Hatchery-origin Rainbow trout Fires may potentially wipe out Program, which celebrates and draws attention to this trout have been introduced strains have been widely stocked entire populations through California’s trout species can tolerate a wide range diversity by encouraging anglers to “catch and release” extensively across California, across California for over a direct mortality, sedimentation these fish. The program provides opportunities for of environmental conditions, though each individual and are sources of competition century. These fish hybridize and siltation of habitat, and anglersto learn more about the ongoing efforts to species is specialized. Some species, such as Little and predation for native trout. with native Redband, Rainbow, destruction of riparian habitat, conserve them for future generations (www.wildlife. Kern Golden trout, have very limited habitat, occupying These non-native species are Golden, and Cutthroat trout, especially for species with very ca.gov/Fishing/Inland/HTC). only a single small watershed. Various other species generally better able to survive and their offspring replace limited ranges. Climate change is evolved remarkable tolerances to high pH (Eagle Lake in degraded habitats historically genetically pure populations likely to increase the risk of more occupied by native species. in the limited habitats they frequent and intense fires Rainbow trout), high stream temperatures (Lahontan Habitat AND BEHAVIOR still occupy. in California in the future. Cutthroat trout), and high turbidity (Goose Lake From the rivers of coastal redwood forests, to cold Redband trout) enabling them to survive in habitats Sunrise over Hot Creek. Photo: Kent Blackburn. spring-fed streams, to high meadows in the Sierra not suitable for other trout. Nevada, California’s native trout have evolved to occupy a variety of habitat types. Native trout that inhabit small, high-elevation streams with short growing seasons – such as California Golden trout and McCloud River Redband trout – are generally small in size, less than about 25 cm (10 in.). In larger habitats, such as food-rich lakes, some species – such as Lahontan cutthroat trout – may grow to 75 cm (30 in.) in length and weigh over 9 kg (20 lbs.). BULL TROUT CALIFORNIA COASTAL COASTAL EAGLE LAKE GOOSE LAKE KERN RIVER LAHONTAN LITTLE KERN MCCLOUD RIVER PAIUTE MOUNTAIN WHITEFISH GOLDEN TROUT CUTTHROAT TROUT RAINBOW TROUT RAINBOW TROUT RAINBOW TROUT RAINBOW TROUT CUTTHROAT TROUT GOLDEN TROUT REDBAND TROUT CUTTHROAT TROUT

62 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 63 CONSERVATION ACTIONS d) anadromous, where immature fish and adults BULL Trout undertake repeated estuary and/or ocean Salvelinus confluentus Low There are no plans to re-introduce Bull migrations to attain large sizes and seek more trout to the McCloud River, and so they abundant sources of prey. Adult Bull trout in LEVEL OF CONCERN: EXTINCT Moderate will remain absent from their historical rivers and smaller streams prefer to live on the bottom in deep pools, and presumably,

High habitat for the foreseeable future. McCloud River Bull trout fed on abundant Chinook salmon eggs and juveniles year-round. Historically, it is thought that the McCloud River Critical CHARACTERISTICS population was fluvial, with fish growing in Bull trout are a large species of trout that large pools in the lower river before migrating 0 specialize in eating fish. They typically thrive Extinct upstream to spawn in smaller tributaries. Most in cold water habitats with abundant juvenile Bull trout mature at around four or five years salmon or trout that they can ambush from of age, and spawning probably took place in below. Their bodies are dark olive in color, September or October when food was most with small red spots on the sides and yellowish abundant for hatching fry. spots near the tail and cream leading edges of their fins. Their eyes sit on top of their large, flat heads. Bull trout from the McCloud River Genetics were said to reach lengths near 70 cm (about Bull trout are members of the char family 28 in.) and weigh up to 7.3 kg (about 16 lbs.). (Salvelinus), along with the more common The California record was caught in McCloud but non-native, Brook “trout” that are now Reservoir and weighed about 5.1 kg (about 11 widespread in California. From museum Bull trout are extinct in their range in California; the last lbs.). They are capable of living over twenty specimens, scientists determined that Bull trout years of age. in California were distinct enough from other known individual was captured on the McCloud River in 1975. populations to warrant their own ESU if they Bull trout were likely in decline for most of the 20th century were still present in California. prior to their eventual extirpation due to construction of Shasta Dam and the subsequent elimination of their Last known angler-caught Bull trout from McCloud River, 1975. food supply. ABUNDANCE Photo: ODFW. In the 1930s, Bull trout supported a small fishery in the McCloud River. By the 1950s, after the CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS construction of Shasta Dam, they were already IMPACT scarce throughout the river. The last known Bull trout in California was caught by University If Bull Trout existed in of California, Davis graduate student Jamie their known range today, they would be extremely Sturgess in 1975, tagged, and released. vulnerable to climate change due to their reliance on very Habitat AND BEHAVIOR cold water and access to MAJOR DAMS HARVEST ALIEN SPECIES BULL TROUT DISTRIBUTION many different habitat types Bull trout require extremely cold, clear water Bull trout were historically found throughout the McCloud River from its that would be increasingly Completion of Shasta Dam Reductions in salmon and The introduction of Brook that historically was present in springs in the mouth to the Lower Falls, and could have potentially lived in the spring-fed difficult to maintain in a in 1942 blocked access of all steelhead from commercial and Brown trout to the upper McCloud River and some of its tributaries. upper Sacramento and Pit Rivers as well. Today, the southern extent of their warming and drying climate. historical salmon and steelhead fishing in the Sacramento McCloud River in the nineteenth Bull trout can express a variety of life histories, Construction of McCloud Dam in 1965 led to the demise of Bull range is in the Klamath River Basin in Oregon and the Jarbridge River Basin runs, whose offspring served River in the late 19th and early century led to increased trout in the McCloud River. Photo: Mike Wier. as key prey for Bull trout. 20th centuries reduced prey competition and predation including a) adfluvial, where juveniles grow in Nevada and range as far north as the Yukon River in British Columbia. Construction of McCloud Dam abundance for Bull trout. on Bull trout. in streams, migrate to lakes to mature, and in 1965 blocked historical Recreational harvest of Bull trout then adults migrate to spawn in natal streams, spawning migrations, reduced in McCloud Reservoir, in the flows, and increased water years following its completion b) fluvial, where all stages live in streams, temperatures to the point in 1965, also played a role in the but adults migrate to small tributaries for that the river could no longer demise of this species. spawning), c) stream resident fish with sustain this species. McCloud River, ideal habitat for Bull trout. Photo: Mike Wier. no separation of life history stages, or 64 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 65 SUMMARY CALIFORNIA GOLDEN TROUT Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus mykiss aguabonita Low The drought of 2012-2016 caused Area occupied 1 Unhybridized California Golden trout are confined to a few small meadow habitat near Volcano Creek – a tributaries in one watershed. LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL Moderate Estimated adult abundance 3 Volcano Creek populations may be <1,000 but, if other populations with key tributary for California Golden trout conservation value within native range are counted, the numbers would – to dry almost completely. Due to poor be much higher, perhaps 50,000. High habitat conditions and uncertainty over Intervention dependence 2 Annual monitoring of barrier performance required; continued 1.9 implementation of Conservation Strategy is critical. Rescued Critical the duration of drought, a fish rescue individuals from Volcano Creek will need to be re-introduced based was conducted by CDFW in September on genetic management strategy. Extinct 2016. These fish are being held for Environmental tolerance 3 Generally tolerant of a wide range of conditions and habitats within reintroduction as soon as favorable their native range. stream conditions allow. Better genetic Genetic risk 1 Hybridization with rainbow trout is a constant high risk. data have also revealed fewer “pure” Climate change 1 Rated critically vulnerable in Moyle et al. (2013). populations of California Golden trout Anthropogenic threats 2 1 High, 1 Medium threat.

exist in the wild than previously thought. Average 1.9 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL

Certainty (1-4) 4 Well-documented. CONSERVATION ACTIONS • Review and update the 2004 CHARACTERISTICS Habitat AND BEHAVIOR California Golden trout are likely to become extinct in the Conservation Strategy. California Golden trout take their name from California Golden trout live in cold, clear wild in the next 50 years. While the Golden Trout Creek (GTC) • Implement revised Conservation their bright, yellow-gold coloration. Their backs mountain streams in meadows at high elevations population is relatively secure, the South Fork Kern River (SFKR) Strategy to eliminate non-native are usually copper, with brilliant golden sides over 2,300m (about 7,500 ft.). They prefer to and bright red bands on their flanks. Their bellies stay in short reaches of streams, such as in pools population is threatened by hybridization with hatchery-origin trout species. Coastal Rainbow trout, and predation and competition from are often deep red, and even adult fish retain and beneath undercut banks, for most of their • Monitor and evaluate barrier parr marks. They have large spots on their fins lives. Most of their habitat is made up of riparian introduced Brown trout. and tail, with black bands and white to yellowish meadows in the Golden Trout Wilderness. In performance and collect abundance, Photo: Val Atkinson. tips. They can grow to 19-20 cm (about 8 in.) rivers and streams, they opportunistically eat distribution, and genetic data to and reach a maximum age of nine years in both terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates, but determine Strategy efficacy. streams. They are capable of growing larger in eat mostly midges in lakes. Due to the lack of CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS lakes – the largest Golden trout ever caught, in natural predators in their native range, they are IMPACT • Restrict grazing and off-road vehicles Virginia Lake (Madera County), weighed 4.5 kg more active during the daytime than most other California Golden trout are from sensitive areas. (10 lbs.). Their striking appearance makes them trout species. California Golden trout spawn critically vulnerable to climate easily recognizable, and led to California Golden when they are three or four years old, in late change impacts that will alter • Protect streams with pure and slightly trout becoming the official State fish of California June or July, and in finer substrates than other the snowmelt-fed streams they hybridized California Golden trout as in 1947. trout species. depend upon. While the highest portions of the southern Sierra ALIEN SPECIES GRAZING RECREATION refuge populations. CALIFORNIA GOLDEN TROUT DISTRIBUTION Nevada may continue to retain a ABUNDANCE Genetics California Golden trout are native to the South Fork Kern River and its great deal of snow as temperatures • Restore degraded headwater meadows Hybridization between Coastal The majority of California Recreational activities such as Despite numerous translocations to various California Golden trout are considered a distinct tributaries, Golden Trout Creek and Volcano Creek. As a result of extensive warm, snowpack may not persist Rainbow trout and California Golden trout streams have off-road vehicle use, travel by to increase cool streamflows in pack train collection and stocking efforts over the last century, they can be as long into summers in the watersheds, unhybridized California Golden species by the American Fisheries Society, Golden trout is a major threat been grazed by cattle and horse and pack stock, and hiking found in nearby Cottonwood Lakes and Mulkey Creek, as well as several extensive meadows of the Kern to maintaining the genetic sheep for the past 130 years, have degraded some portions of summer and fall months and enhance trout are much less abundant in their native while some experts consider them to be a Plateau. As a result, meadows are diversity of California Golden and some stream sections fragile meadow habitats in the species resiliency. range than they once were. In 1965, an estimated subspecies of Rainbow trout. Recent genetic watersheds in the Sierra Nevada. Expanded stocking has introduced them to likely to become drier by the trout in their native range. have been severely damaged, California Golden trout range 40,000 California Golden trout inhabited Golden studies have found that California Golden trout more than 300 high mountain lakes and 1,100 km (about 680 mi.) of streams end of summer, which will Introduced Brown trout also reducing the water storage that serve as reservoirs that outside their native range, including in Utah, Wyoming, and Montana. eat and compete with California capacity of meadows and total release cool water in summer Trout Creek and the South Fork Kern River. At and the closely-related Little Kern Golden trout reduce streamflows. Golden trout. streamflows over time. and fall months. present, only 400-2,600 ‘pure’ California Golden represent two independent lineages derived Trout remain in their native habitat in 5 km from Coastal Rainbow trout. (about 3 mi.) of Volcano Creek, representing a decrease of 95% from historical numbers. 66 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 67 SUMMARY Coastal CUTTHROAT Trout Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii Low Recent investigations indicate that Area occupied 5 Found in many watersheds from Eel River tributaries north to Oregon. we know very little about Coastal Estimated adult abundance 3 Many populations are genetically isolated by barriers; most appear to be LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH Moderate Cutthroat trout or where they live in small and fragmented within California. California. They depend upon estuaries, Intervention dependence 2 Persistence requires improved management of heavily logged 2.7 High watersheds and extensively altered estuaries. At least one tributary to and so habitat acquisition, protection, the Salt River required a fish rescue in August 2015, and more may be required if the current drought continues. Critical and restoration in the Smith and Klamath rivers, Redwood Creek, and Environmental tolerance 2 Prefer water temperatures below 12ºC (approximately 54ºF). Extinct lagoons throughout Del Norte and Genetic risk 2 Recent research indicates that hybridization with steelhead, while natural, may increase in degraded watersheds or in the presence of Humboldt counties is required to hatchery-origin steelhead; this may affect abundance estimates and improve conditions for Coastal fisheries management decisions. Cutthroat trout. Climate change 2 Most populations exist in small streams or depend upon existing estuary conditions; considerable range-wide vulnerability to climate change.

Anthropogenic threats 3 1 High, 7 Medium threats. CONSERVATION ACTIONS Average 2.7 LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH

• Conduct abundance and Certainty (1-4) 3 Information compiled from expert judgment, published and gray distribution surveys to update literature, and anecdotal evidence. information on the current status Coastal Cutthroat trout populations in California are small, across their range in California. They are capable of reaching 70 cm (about or undercut banks that provide shade and cover, 28 in.) in length, and 8 kg (nearly 18 lbs.), but where they can ambush small salmon, steelhead, fragmented, and face multiple threats, including cumulative • Conduct long-term monitoring rarely exceed 40 cm (16 in.) in California waters. and other fish. They may express one of four impacts from land use practices. While their numbers appear and assessment to inform a Tagged Coastal Cutthroats in California have been different life histories: (1) undertaking salt and known to live for up to 7 years. fresh water migrations; (2) spending their lives to be stable in the few watersheds they inhabit it is equally conservation strategy for likely that they have declined in response to watershed in lakes; (3) dwelling in rivers but seasonally the species. ABUNDANCE migrating to estuaries; or (4) remaining in alteration throughout their range. small tributaries. Juveniles adopt a history Coastal Cutthroat trout once supported a • Undertake estuary restoration based on habitat and food availability, water Coastal Cutthroat. Photo: Sam Rizza. substantial fishery and were even stocked in the in major watersheds to benefit quality, temperature, and other environmental Mad River (Humboldt County) as early as the factors. Adults between two and four years all salmonids, such as in the Eel, 1920s to support harvest. Abundance data from CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS of age migrate to natal streams after the first Klamath, and Smith rivers and California populations are typically incomplete IMPACT substantial rains in the fall, and spawn between and unpublished, but suggest that Coastal Redwood Creek. December and April. Coastal Cutthroat trout’s Cutthroat populations are probably significantly reliance on cold, oxygenated smaller than they were historically, and are either water makes them extremely CHARACTERISTICS Genetics vulnerable to increased stream currently stable or in decline due to extensive temperatures and variability Coastal Cutthroat trout are similar in appearance estuary and stream alteration throughout their California’s Coastal Cutthroat populations in precipitation likely to LOGGING ESTUARY AGRICULTURE to Rainbow trout, but are generally brassy in range in California. are at the southern end of their range, and COASTAL CUTTHROAT TROUT DISTRIBUTION occur as the climate changes. ALTERATION color and have more spots spread along their are considered part of the Southern Oregon- Coastal Cutthroat trout range from Prince William Sound, Alaska, to Recent drought has caused Logging and construction of Estuaries are important feeding Conversion of estuarine bodies, especially on their fins. They are more California Coast DPS for management. Habitat AND BEHAVIOR tributaries of the Salt River (Eel River, Humboldt County). They inhabit most the juvenile migration peak to associated road networks have and nursery habitats for Coastal wetlands to agricultural and slender and bullet-like in shape than Rainbow While separate species, Coastal Cutthroat coastal tributaries of major rivers open to the sea and lagoons between shift from June-July to May in caused tremendous impacts to Cutthroat juveniles, yet most grazing lands have led to trout, with pointed heads and forked tails. As Coastal Cutthroat trout are the least studied and Rainbow trout hybridize naturally, but the Smith River (Del Norte County) and the Eel River (Humboldt County) Redwood Creek (Humboldt Coastal Cutthroat habitats in estuaries in California have been diversions and an influx of salmonid along the North Coast. They need cool, County), indicating rapid shifts California through landslides severely altered and simplified fertilizers and other pollutants, juvenile Coastal Cutthroats become smolts differences in spawning timing, habitat in a relatively broad band along the coast. However, updated distribution clean, oxygenated water with ample cover and to changing environmental and erosion stemming from by agriculture, rural and urban which reduce habitat suitability. to undertake ocean migrations, their spots preferences, and behavior keep them distinct surveys are needed for this species, as they often inhabit disconnected conditions are possible. excessive tree removal and development, and associated disappear and the fish become silvery. Most, deep pools for holding during the summer. They in watersheds where they overlap. In watersheds headwater streams that are now upstream of man-made barriers such as road construction on steep, channelization. prefer small, low-gradient coastal streams with unstable soils. but not all, Coastal Cutthroats have characteristic where hatchery-origin steelhead are present, dams, diversions, and culverts. red to orange slashes under their lower jaws, access to estuarine habitats, including lagoons, higher rates of hybridization between the two though the slashes are rarely visible until the but may also live in small headwater streams. species have been documented. fish are a year or more old. Coastal Cutthroats lurk in pools with fallen logs 68 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 69 Coastal Rainbow Trout SUMMARY Metric Score Justification 4.7 Oncorhynchus mykiss Low While their status score increased Area occupied 5 Abundant in California and widely distributed around the world. slightly since 2008 because they Estimated adult abundance 5 Many fish in many populations. Adult abundance probably greater than LEVEL OF CONCERN: LOW Moderate are not considered vulnerable to 500,000 statewide. anthropogenic threats at this time, Intervention dependence 5 While stream improvements and other activities greatly improve habitat High for native and introduced populations, most populations can persist on total Coastal Rainbow trout abundance their own with existing protective laws and regulations.

Critical likely dipped in response to low Environmental tolerance 4 Broad physiological tolerance.

streamflows and high temperatures Genetic risk 5 Lots of gene flow among populations. Extinct associated with California’s historic Climate change 4 Low vulnerability due to widespread populations in diverse habitats. drought from 2012-2016. Anthropogenic threats 5 All threats low.

Average 4.7 LEVEL OF CONCERN: LOW CONSERVATION ACTIONS Certainty (1-4) 4 Well-documented. • Expand projects that increase reliable quantities and quality catch limits, although resident Coastal Rainbow and frogs, especially as they grow larger. They of cold water habitat. trout regularly attain this size where habitat is may feed on small invertebrate worms or insect favorable and food is plentiful. larvae on the bottom of some rivers and lakes. • Implement management and In lakes and reservoirs, they frequently feed on restoration projects that focus on ABUNDANCE fish such as Threadfin shad. Coastal Rainbow Coastal Rainbow trout are the least vulnerable native trout owe their success to their ability to adapt reconnecting populations of Wild resident Coastal Rainbow trout are more trout species in California due to their high tolerance to a wide variety of habitats. They are capable Rainbow trout that are currently abundant today than they were historically in of being stream residents, lake residents, or to a wide variety of environmental conditions, multiple California due to a long history of introductions separated by barriers and migratory between these habitats. Coastal life histories, and a large natural and expanded range by pack mule trains, airplanes, and other means, promoting access to diverse Rainbow trout that express one life history are especially into previously fishless high elevation (through introductions). capable of having offspring that take on another habitats to restore genetic diversity. lakes in the Sierra Nevada. However, Coastal life history if habitat is available. • Support healthy populations of Rainbow trout abundance across California was Photo: Phil Reedy likely depressed during the historic drought wild trout for catch-and-release (2012-16) based on drought rescue information Genetics recreational fisheries. from CDFW. Coastal Rainbow trout are defined in this report CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS as self-sustaining Rainbow trout populations that IMPACT are (a) isolated above natural barriers as the result Habitat AND BEHAVIOR Climate change is likely to of geologic activity (landslides, waterfalls, etc.), CHARACTERISTICS reduce the amount of suitable Coastal rainbows mature when they are two or (b) isolated above anthropogenic barriers, such habitat for Coastal Rainbow Coastal Rainbow trout are incredibly adaptable three years old, and rarely live more than five or as dams, and/or (c) introduced by people into trout but there will be sufficient to different environments and are capable of six years. They generally spawn in spring to early isolated areas, such as historically fishless lakes cold water to support many exhibiting a wide range of coloration. Trout from summer, from February to June depending on self-sustaining, if reduced, RESIDENTIAL AGRICULTURE ALIEN SPECIES of the Sierra Nevada. While all Coastal Rainbow COASTAL RAINBOW TROUT DISTRIBUTION small streams may be dark olive on the back stream temperatures, but have been known to populations. However, they DEVELOPMENT trout likely had steelhead ancestors, populations Coastal Rainbow trout were originally present in virtually all perennial with a yellowish belly and orange tips on the spawn during the winter months in Putah Creek are less vulnerable to climate Especially at lower elevations, Dams and diversions to Alien species, such as Brook upstream of major dams today have been found coastal streams from San Diego north to the Smith River (Del Norte fins, while lake-dwelling fish tend to be more (Solano County) and may spawn year-round in change than other trout species residential development support agriculture reduce and Brown trout and bass, limit to be more genetically similar to other above-dam County), and in most rivers in the Central Valley from the Kern River north due to their inherent tolerance limits populations of Coastal cold water supply and degrade populations of Coastal Rainbow silver in color. Most Coastal Rainbow trout have spring-fed streams such as the Fall River (Shasta populations than they are to fish downstream to the Pit River near Alturas (Modoc County). Resident Coastal Rainbow for high water temperatures and Rainbow trout by placing high habitat for Coastal Rainbow trout through predation and heavy, irregular spotting, and spots that radiate County) without strong seasonal cues such as demands on limited water trout across California through direct competition, especially in of dams. Despite over a century of widespread trout were typically found upstream of natural barriers, such as waterfalls poor water quality, competitive outward in lines on the tail and a white belly. flow or temperature. Fish that spend their entire behavior, abundance, and access supplies through diversions altered streamflows and altered habitats. stocking of hatchery strains of Coastal Rainbow or rockslides, which were too difficult for steelhead to pass. Today, due to and groundwater pumping, increased temperatures. The pink to deep red band on their flanks gives lives in fresh water rarely attain sizes greater to diverse habitats that increase trout in California, many populations above numerous introductions, Coastal Rainbows are found in virtually all streams which reduce, degrade, and their resilience as a species. the fish its namesake. In waters with access than 70 cm (28 in.), but lake-dwelling fish may fragment habitat. man-made barriers share relatively little genetic where suitable habitat exists, including the once-fishless Sierra Nevada to the ocean, any rainbow trout greater than grow larger. In rivers and streams, they feed on material with hatchery Rainbow trout. north of the upper Kern River Basin and lakes and streams in the Cascade 41 cm (16 in.) in length are considered to be aquatic and terrestrial insects that drift in the Range and Trinity Alps. “steelhead” for management purposes and water column, and may occasionally eat fish

70 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 71 SUMMARY EAGLE LAKE RAINBOW Trout Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus mykiss aquilarum Low Removal of non-native Brook trout in Area occupied 1 Endemic only to Eagle Lake watershed. Pine Creek, the sole spawning tributary Estimated adult abundance 4 Includes hatchery fish. LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH Moderate for Eagle Lake Rainbow trout, began Intervention dependence 1 Persistence depends on trapping fish for hatchery spawning, rearing in 2007. The Pine Creek fish trap was and restocking annually, and allowing passage on Pine Creek. High 2.3 modified in 2012 to allow passage of Environmental tolerance 4 One of most tolerant, long-lived forms of Rainbow trout.

Critical spawning fish upstream for the first time Genetic risk 3 Although operated to maximize diversity and minimize artificial selection processes, hatchery rearing has presumably altered in decades. Cattle have been excluded genetics; possible selection against longevity and fitness in the wild Extinct from meadows along Pine Creek to allow is of concern, particularly for stream forms; accidental hybridization riparian habitat to rebound. In 2015, in hatcheries possible. a joint Conservation Agreement that Climate change 1 Rated critically vulnerable in Moyle et al. (2013). focuses on implementing restoration Anthropogenic threats 2 One High and five Medium threats. projects that enhance watershed function Average 2.3 LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH and increase spawning and juvenile Certainty (1-4) 4 Well-documented. nursery habitat was signed.

CONSERVATION ACTIONS CHARACTERISTICS While recent progress has been made to improve access to • Work with conservation partners Eagle Lake Rainbow trout look similar to spawning habitat in Pine Creek, Eagle Lake Rainbow trout in the U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Fish Coastal Rainbow trout, but have finer scales and the snout is frequently rounded. They (ELRT) do not exist as a self-sustaining wild population & Wildlife Service, and CDFW to have numerous small, irregular spots along because of its dependence on hatchery propagation. restore a wild, naturally-spawning their back and fins. They grow quickly and are population of Eagle Lake Rainbow capable of reaching lengths up to 72 cm (28 trout in Pine Creek by promoting in.) and weights of 4.5 kg (10 lbs.).

Photo: Gerard Carmona-Catot. access and controlling non-native brook trout populations. ABUNDANCE Abundance of Eagle Lake Rainbow trout is CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS • Implement effective restoration not known due to lack of comprehensive IMPACT programs that enhance spawning studies on their population. Presumably, the numbers depend on the stocking allotment of Climate change will likely and rearing habitat in Pine Creek have two major impacts on fish into the lake in a given year from young Eagle Lake Rainbow trout: and its tributaries. reared at Crystal Lake and Darrah Springs Fish decreased streamflows and Hatcheries. Since the population is dependent changing lake conditions. • Implement an adaptive genetics on hatchery production, it is presumably stable. EAGLE LAKE RAINBOW TROUT DISTRIBUTION With more precipitation in ALIEN SPECIES HATCHERIES HARVEST management plan that can be the Mount Lassen region Eagle Lake Rainbow trout are found only in Eagle Lake (Lassen County) and incorporated into the conservation Eagle Lake. Photo: Melanie McFarland likely to fall as rain instead Non-native Brook trout have Eagle Lake Rainbow trout are A trophy trout fishery is Habitat AND BEHAVIOR its major tributary, Pine Creek. They have been raised in the Mount Shasta of snow in the future, taken over Pine Creek, the dependent upon collection and managed closely by CDFW, strategy to protect the genetic integrity Eagle Lake Rainbow trout are known for their and Darrah Springs fish hatcheries and subsequently planted across the spawning migrations into only spawning tributary of artificial spawning at the Pine but harvest impacts may be of these rare fish. adaptability to both the highly alkaline waters United States and Canada due to their tolerance for harsh conditions and Pine Creek may become Eagle Lake. They compete Creek fish trap for distribution selecting for larger fish over Genetics problematic, and alkalinity with and displace Eagle Lake to nearby hatcheries for hatching time, with unknown impacts of Eagle Lake and the spring-fed tributaries to rapid growth. Rainbow trout. and raising juveniles. on the population. levels of the lake could shift Pine Creek where they historically spawned. The most recent genetic evidence suggests that over time, making its waters They are capable of rapid growth due to the Coastal Rainbow trout invaded Eagle Lake via a inhospitable to trout. abundant food in Eagle Lake, making them historical connection between the Feather River desirable as a hatchery strain of fish. They may and Pine Creek and became stranded. These fish live up to 11 years of age, and mature slowly, have two fewer chromosomes (58) than other usually at about age three. Rainbow trout. 72 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 73 SUMMARY GOOSE LAKE REDBAND Trout Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus mykiss newberrii Low From 2013-2015, Goose Lake dried up Area occupied 4 Present in six streams in California and 13 in Oregon. entirely, reducing the overall abundance Estimated adult abundance 3 Populations greatly reduced in drought years. LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE Moderate of the population and causing remaining 3.1 Intervention dependence 4 Long-term decline reversed by restoration actions; over 220 Redbands Goose Lake Redband trout to seek refuge were rescued from Cold Creek during drought in 2014 and 2015; may High require future rescue if drought conditions persist. in tributary streams. Environmental tolerance 4 Indirect evidence suggests they are more tolerant than most salmonids Critical of adverse water quality. CONSERVATION ACTIONS Genetic risk 3 Genetic risks are currently low; potential impacts from isolation of Extinct headwater populations need investigation.

• Remove barriers and restore Climate change 2 Distribution in isolated, small streams increases probability of stream-lake connectivity to allow extirpation due to prolonged drought. Goose Lake Redbands to migrate Anthropogenic threats 2 One High and two Medium threats. between the lake and tributary Average 3.1 LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE

habitats. Certainty (1-4) 2 Mostly ‘grey’ reports and expert opinion. • Improve management of headwater areas to protect streams from livestock grazing and other stressors ABUNDANCE extremely turbid but rich with invertebrates with exclusion fencing, off-channel Goose Lake Redband trout do not face immediate Historically, Goose Lake and its tributaries likely for trout to feed on. Redbands can take on water sources for livestock, and two different life histories to exploit this risk of extinction. However, California populations are not supported thousands of spawning adult fish altered land management practices annually. More recently, abundance estimates harsh environment. Some fish are born in secure because they are mostly small, largely isolated, and, tributary streams and migrate to the lake to adjacent to riparian habitat. in California tributaries were about half of during drought periods, the lake population disappears estimates from a decade or two earlier, or on grow larger before returning to spawn in their and stream populations contract. • Work with partners to fully the order of several hundred year-old trout per mile. home streams. Other fish reside in cold, clear headwater tributary streams for their entire implement the Goose Lake Fishes lives without undertaking lake migrations.

Photo: Matt Hernandez. Conservation Strategy restoration Spawning migrations follow snowmelt and and conservation actions and rain in the spring, usually during late March necessary monitoring functions. or in April, with most spawning occurring in CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS May. Spawning fish are mostly made up of IMPACT three-year-old adults, which appear pale in Summer stream color, perhaps resulting from time spent in the CHARACTERISTICS temperatures are often near lake’s turbid waters. In the lake, the trout feed the upper thermal tolerance Goose Lake Redband trout were once so on Goose Lake Tui chub, Tadpole shrimp, and of Goose Lake Redbands. abundant they were harvested commercially other abundant invertebrates, while in streams, Temperature increases, and sold to nearby logging camps in California Goose Lake. Photo: Paul Divine. the Redbands mostly eat insects and fly larvae. coupled with more severe AGRICULTURE GRAZING HARVEST GOOSE LAKE REDBAND TROUT DISTRIBUTION and Oregon. They look similar to other Redband and frequent drought, Goose Lake Redband trout inhabit Goose Lake, its many tributaries trout, with yellowish bodies, brick-red lateral Habitat AND BEHAVIOR cause Goose Lake to dry Dams and water diversions to Headwater streams containing While legal fishing is mostly Genetics in Oregon and California, and a few select tributaries to the upper stripes, heavy spots on the body, and white- completely are likely to support widespread agricultural Redbands have been heavily catch-and-release and pressure Goose Lake Redband trout are adapted to Goose Lake Redband trout are most similar Pit River near Alturas (Modoc County). They are present today in six increase extinction risk uses in the basin reduce grazed historically, and more is light, poaching of adults tipped fins. Fish in streams keep their parr live in the highly alkaline, cool, and shallow to trout of two adjacent basins: the Warner Goose Lake tributaries in California and four Pit River tributaries in far in the next century. streamflows and increase water recently, resulting in reduced during spawning runs when they marks, or dark ovals along their sides, for their waters of the vast Goose Lake, which sits Basin in California, Oregon and Nevada, and the northeastern California. temperatures; these impacts are riparian cover, channelization, are most vulnerable may be a entire lives, while adults in the lake take on a compounded by drought. erosion, and stream degradation. problem. 1,430 m (about 4,700 ft.) above sea level. Chewaucan Basin in Oregon. Recent genetic silvery coloration. In Goose Lake, fish historically Goose Lake is approximately 76 km (47 mi.) studies indicate a close relationship between attained lengths up to 70 cm (28 in.), while long and 19 km (12 mi.) wide when full, yet is Goose Lake Redbands and neighboring Warner stream-dwelling fish rarely grow larger than only about 3 m (10 ft.) at its deepest point. Lakes Redbands and their distinctiveness 25 cm (10 in.). High prevailing winds in this desolate region requires further study. regularly churn the waters, making the waters

74 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 75 SUMMARY KERN RIVER RAINBOW Trout Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus mykiss gilbertii Low The most recent genetic evidence Area occupied 1 Found in 4-6 small tributaries and short reaches of the Kern River. suggests that there are far fewer Estimated adult abundance 2 High uncertainty about size of populations. LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL Moderate relatively “pure” Kern River Rainbow Intervention dependence 1 Barriers must be maintained, planting of hatchery fish managed trout populations than previously (preferably eliminated), grazing managed, and other actions. High thought left in the wild, and that many Environmental tolerance 3 Presumably fairly tolerant as most Rainbow trout are but not tested. trout thought to be Kern River Rainbows Genetic risk 1 Hybridization with introduced Rainbow trout and California golden 1.4 Critical are actually Kern River/Coastal Rainbow trout a constant high risk to its distinctiveness. Extinct trout hybrids. Drought conditions have Climate change 1 Rated critically vulnerable in Moyle et al. (2013). desiccated headwater meadows and Anthropogenic threats 1 1 Critical, 1 High, and 4 Medium Threats. Continued stocking of hatchery some portions of streams, reducing Rainbow trout in Kern River is an ongoing threat. the availability of cold water during Average 1.4 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL summer months and elevating stream Certainty (1-4) 3 Least-studied of three native trout in the Kern River Basin. temperatures to levels that are harmful to trout. CHARACTERISTICS Kern River Rainbow trout look similar to CONSERVATION ACTIONS Coastal Rainbow trout, but have a slight gold hint. They have many fine, irregular spots all Kern River Rainbow trout have a high probability of • Complete and implement the draft over their bodies, and larger fish may have a disappearing as a distinct entity in the next 50 years, if not Kern River Rainbow Trout Conservation rosy streak along their sides. sooner. The greatest threat is hybridization with Coastal Strategy as soon as possible. ABUNDANCE Rainbow trout, but competition and predation from • Use a conservation hatchery to There are little to no abundance data on invasive Brown and Brook trout may also be contributing increase numbers of Kern River unhybridized Kern River Rainbow trout to its decline. Rainbow trout and genetic diversity populations. Kern River Rainbow trout were Evolution Valley. Photo: Matt Hernandez. Photo: Bill Brubaker. among populations in the wild. once abundant and widespread in the upper Kern River Basin and were subject to intensive Habitat AND BEHAVIOR • Review, revise, and implement grazing angling pressure. Since the nineteenth century, Almost no life history studies have been CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS management to restore ecological overexploitation, habitat degradation and, most conducted on Kern River Rainbow trout. IMPACT importantly, hybridization with other trout function of watersheds. Presumably, they share similar habitat with The small, isolated, headwater has reduced populations to a small fraction of Coastal Rainbow trout in high elevation streams that support most • Regularly sample populations to historical numbers. Based on CDFW surveys streams. They historically grew to large sizes, pure populations will be determine distribution, abundance, in 2009 and expert judgment, they currently as much as 71 cm (28 in.) and 3.6 kg (8 lbs.), subject to increased drying persist in about 20 km (12 mi.) of small streams. although fish over 25 cm (10 in.) are rare today. and warmer temperatures due and genetic structure, and to identify Using the best estimates of approximately More research is needed on the behaviors and to climate change. Climate ALIEN SPECIES HATCHERIES GRAZING KERN RIVER RAINBOW TROUT DISTRIBUTION 200-1,500 trout per km (1.2 mi.), total numbers change will likely also change any changes in the species’ status. habitat requirements of this rare species. Historically, Kern River Rainbow trout could be found throughout the Kern of Kern River Rainbow trout are likely between precipitation patterns (more The most critical threat to Kern River Rainbow trout While less severe recently, the • Assess, prioritize, and restore riparian River and its tributaries in Tulare County. Today, most populations can only rain, less snow in the Sierra Kern River Rainbow trout is are hybridized with Coastal long history of grazing livestock 4,000 and 30,000 fish, though are likely at Genetics be found far upstream of Lake Isabella within the Sequoia National Forest or Nevada) and make severe hybridization with Coastal Rainbow and California Golden (mostly sheep) in the Kern River and headwater meadows to boost the lower end of this range due to habitat Kern River Rainbow trout are a distinct Sequoia National Park lands. droughts more common Rainbow, California Golden, trout in much of their historical Basin has degraded meadow, degradation and hybridization. The majority of and Little Kern Golden trout. range due to well-documented riparian, and stream habitat that water storage capacity, restore critical subspecies of Rainbow trout that likely resulted across California in the future. remaining unhybridized Kern River Rainbows Predation by, and competition hatchery stocking in the past. support Kern River Rainbow habitats, and bolster resiliency to from natural hybridization of Coastal Rainbow with Brown and Brook trout trout. These impacts also are upstream of natural and/or man-made trout with Little Kern Golden trout several is also a major threat. increase the potential impacts climate change. barriers and isolated from other populations, of catastrophic fire or drought thousand years ago. They are most genetically and their status could deteriorate rapidly due on the species by reducing similar to California Golden trout and Little to a lack of population connectivity. suitable stream habitat. Kern Golden trout than they are to present-day Coastal Rainbow trout. 76 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 77 SUMMARY LAHONTAN CUTTHROAT Trout Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus clarkii henshawi Low Local extirpations in marginal habitat Area occupied 2 Multiple watersheds in California, but no connectivity among them. have decreased the abundance and Estimated adult abundance 2 Most wild populations have significantly less than 1,000 fish each, with LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH Moderate distribution of Lahontan Cutthroat trout the lacustrine habitats and Upper Truckee River as the exceptions. (LCT). Increased restoration actions Intervention dependence 1 Hatchery program using wild brood stock required for persistence. High in the Truckee and Walker rivers and Environmental tolerance 5 LCT are fairly long-lived and demonstrate broad physiological tolerance 2.0 and are iteroparous. Critical Independence Lake, fish rescues, and Genetic risk 1 Hybridization risk and loss of genetic variation is well documented and reintroduction programs inside the major threat to the species. Extinct and outside of their historical range Climate change 1 LCT are extremely vulnerable to climate change in all will help expand the species into watersheds inhabited.

restored habitats. Anthropogenic threats 2 1 Critical and 2 High Factors.

Average 2.0 LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH

CONSERVATION ACTIONS Certainty (1-4) 4 Peer reviewed literature, agency reports, grey literature, and professional judgment. • Ramp up alien species removal, such as Brook, Brown, and Rainbow trout, CHARACTERISTICS help of many partners, alien species removal, with appropriate education and Lahontan Cutthroat trout are the largest especially of Rainbow and Brook trout in Slinkard outreach efforts. subspecies of Cutthroat trout, capable of and Silver creeks, has become an essential Despite significant efforts in recent years, wild, weighing over 9kg (20 lbs.). Their color varies component of expanding the species’ range. • Maintain Lahontan Cutthroat in self-sustaining Lahontan Cutthroat trout in California based on their habitat: lake-dwelling fish are current habitats and reintroduce them pale gold or silver with pink or purple hues Habitat AND BEHAVIOR face a large and increasing risk of extinction over the next to historical habitat where practicable. along their flanks and gill plates and greenish- Lahontan Cutthroat trout are very adaptable 50 years due primarily to the presence of non-native trout bronze to dark olive backs. Lahontan Cutthroat and capable of withstanding conditions and degraded habitats throughout their range. • Assess and prioritize current and trout found in streams are usually much smaller that few other trout could survive. They are potential Lahontan Cutthroat trout than those found in lakes, and may exhibit highly tolerant of alkaline waters, high stream habitats for restoration. purple or bluish hues along their flanks and parr temperatures, and low dissolved oxygen that Photo: Mike Wier. marks. Yellow to red slash marks under their has allowed them to flourish in harsh, arid • Reduce stream diversions, reconnect mouth gives them their ‘cutthroat’ name. environments. While these fish can grow CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS fragmented floodplain and riparian large in lakes, they must spawn in streams. IMPACT habitats to stream reaches, and ABUNDANCE Ensuring healthy stream habitats are available Lahontan Cutthroat trout persist in less than to lake-dwelling Lahontan Cutthroats is Lahontan Cutthroat trout are improve instream habitat. critically important to allow them to complete critically vulnerable to climate 5% of their original stream habitat and a mere their life cycle. Spawning typically occurs change because they are • Explore use of a conservation hatchery 0.4% of their original lake habitat in California. already constrained to marginal and associated genetic management Wild, self-sustaining populations in headwater from April through July, though fall spawning habitat. They face barriers such streams in California likely total only a few has been documented in some populations. ALIEN SPECIES HATCHERIES FIRE plan to maintain genetic diversity and LAHONTAN CUTTHROAT TROUT DISTRIBUTION as waterfalls upstream, while hundred fish each, with the possible exception They feed primarily on terrestrial and aquatic downstream habitats are occupied Historically, Lahontan Cutthroat trout were found across the Lahontan Basin serve as source populations for future of the Upper Truckee River. Local extirpations invertebrates, leeches, and small fish as they by alien species and hybrid trout in Southern Oregon, Eastern California and Northern Nevada. The Western Non-native trout introductions Competition and hybridization More frequent and intense reintroduction efforts. of isolated populations likely occurred during grow larger. and are too warm to tolerate. (from decades of legal and with hatchery-origin Rainbow wildfires throughout the Lahontan segment of the species encompasses fish in their current range in Climate change is expected to California’s historic drought from 2012 -2016, illegal stocking) pose the single trout from decades of stocking Lahontan Cutthroat trout range California, including populations in the Carson, Truckee, and Walker drainages, reduce habitat availability by greatest threat to the continued is a major threat to the genetic are expected due to decades • Assess, prioritize, and restore riparian further reducing the species’ remnant Genetics Lake Tahoe tributaries, and some lakes. Once found in the Susan River reducing Sierra Nevada snowmelt persistence of Lahontan integrity and long-term survival of fire suppression policies and and headwater meadows to boost populations throughout their range. To help Lahontan Cutthroat trout are closely related Cutthroat trout in California of Lahontan Cutthroat trout. climate change, and have the drainage, Lahontan Cutthroat trout since have been transplanted to other during summer months. combat the continued declines, populations through competition for limited potential to extirpate small, water storage capacity, restore critical to the Paiute Cutthroat trout found in the basins in California to help boost their populations in different geographies. resources and predation. isolated populations. habitats, and bolster resiliency to have been established in nine creeks outside of Carson River Basin. They readily interbreed with their native range in California through stocking climate change. Redband, Cutthroat, and Rainbow trout, making from source populations and protected by them especially vulnerable to hybridization. man-made and natural barriers. With the

78 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 79 SUMMARY LITTLE KERN GOLDEN Trout Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus mykiss whitei Low Recent genetic studies indicate that Area occupied 1 Unhybridized populations occur in just 5 or 6 stream segments. With the exception of Coyote Creek (adjacent drainage), there are no remaining populations of Little Kern other populations outside the Little Kern drainage. LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH Moderate Golden trout are small, isolated, and Estimated adult abundance 2 Probably less than 5,000 adults in 5 isolated populations. susceptible to inbreeding and loss of High Intervention dependence 3 Requires intervention to maintain unhybridized populations, prevent 2.0 genetic diversity. Non-native Brown trout invasions of alien trout, and promote population connectivity. Critical appear to have been removed from the Environmental tolerance 3 Presumably fairly tolerant, as are most Rainbow trout, but not tested. majority of Little Kern Golden trout native Genetic risk 1 Significant as populations are fragmented. Ongoing threats from Extinct habitat, and large cascades and a barrier hybridization and loss of genetic diversity through inbreeding and in the lower portion of the river block their genetic drift. movement upstream. Hatchery-origin Climate change 1 Critically vulnerable to range reductions and habitat alteration from climate change. Rainbow trout are no longer stocked in the Anthropogenic threats 2 1 High and 1 Medium threat. Little Kern River Basin, and hybridization threats have been reduced as a result. Average 2.0 LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH Certainty (1-4) 4 Recent publications and USFWS 5-year review. CONSERVATION ACTIONS

• Identify all unhybridized and slightly CHARACTERISTICS and high gradient tributaries characteristic of The Little Kern Golden trout is vulnerable to extinction in hybridized populations. Little Kern Golden trout are similar in the Little Kern River Basin. Little Kern Goldens generally produce fewer eggs than other trout its native range in the next 100 years. The recovery of Little appearance to California Golden trout but • Prepare a conservation strategy and their coloration is more subdued. Their backs species, and individual fish have smaller ranges Kern Golden trout is ongoing, and the focus on reducing genetic management plan. are often olive to brass in color, with more and than most other trout species. hybridized populations is shifting to improving genetic smaller spots along their flanks than California • Conduct habitat assessments to diversity, population connectivity and size, and expanding Golden trout. prioritize future restoration actions. the species’ distribution. ABUNDANCE Photo: Mike Wier. • Establish refuge populations through translocations. A few decades ago, the population of Little Kern Golden trout was estimated to be about CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS • Continue to use and manage structural 4,500 fish spread across a few of small IMPACT barriers to minimize hybridization watersheds. A small handful of sub-populations Under climate change, low but improve connectivity between have been determined by recent genetic study streamflows typical of fall unhybridized populations. to be relatively ‘pure.’ If it is assumed that months may become particularly adding these populations yields a habitat range stressful for Little Kern Golden • Revise grazing management plans and spanning 50 km (31 mi.) of small streams, with trout because the Kern River about 300 one-year old fish per km (500 per LITTLE KERN GOLDEN TROUT DISTRIBUTION Basin experiences reductions HATCHERIES ALIEN SPECIES FIRE use riparian fencing to protect Lion, mi.), then total numbers could reach as high in groundwater and warmer Grey, and Loggy meadows to provide Little Kern Golden trout were historically isolated to roughly 160 km (about stream temperatures during this as 15,000 fish. If only unhybridized fish are 100 mi.) of streams in the Little Kern River and its tributaries by natural Little Kern Golden trout remain Hybridized populations With such small, isolated critical habitat and enhance species counted, then there are only perhaps 5,000- Ideal habitat for the Little Kern Golden. Photo: Mike Wier. time. The high elevation of the threatened by hybridization and remnant Rainbow trout populations, fire can increase barriers such as waterfalls and cascades. Hybridization with non-native trout southern Sierra Nevada may at with hatchery Coastal Rainbow populations continue to vulnerability of Little Kern Golden resiliency to climate change. 6,000 Little Kern Golden trout left within their reduced their habitat range to less than 16 km (10 mi.) of streams in the least partially offset predicted trout and California Golden threaten the genetic integrity trout to other stressors, change native range. Genetics 1970s. By the year 2000, after decades of restoration, barrier management, reductions in snowpack. trout, which were stocked of Little Kern Golden trout watershed processes, cause throughout the Kern River in by fragmenting unhybridized siltation, and lead to a loss of Both Little Kern Golden trout and California and reintroduction through stocking, their habitat was restored to over 51 the past. Stocking of Rainbow populations. Their isolation habitat. Recent fires (e.g., Lion Fire) Habitat AND BEHAVIOR Golden trout represent distinct evolutionary km (32 mi.) of streams and three lakes. Relatively “pure” Little Kern Golden trout and non-native species in from one another likely promotes have directly impacted core The life cycle and behavior of this species is not lineages of Coastal Rainbow trout. However, trout can be found today in upper North Fork Clicks Creek, Upper Clicks the Kern River has since inbreeding and further reduces conservation streams by burning been halted. their genetic diversity. riparian habitat and meadows well studied, but is presumably similar to that the two species of Golden trout are more Creek, Trout Meadow Creek, Little Kern River above Broder’s Cabin, and that supply cold water through of California Golden trout. They are adapted to similar to one another today than they are the Little Kern River above Wet Meadows Creek in Sequoia National Forest warm summer months. living in small, meandering meadow streams to Coastal Rainbows. (Tulare County).

80 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 81 SUMMARY McCLOUD RIVER REDBAND TROUT Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus mykiss stonei Low The recent drought has caused many Area occupied 1 Four ‘core’ populations are clustered fairly close to each other and McCloud River Redband trout streams to all are in Upper McCloud watershed, so are treated as one ‘watershed.’ LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL Moderate Estimated adult abundance 1 Population prior to the 2012-2016 drought was likely somewhat less than dry, causing CDFW to rescue hundreds of 3,000 fish over 8 cm (3 in.), with each stream having 100-1,000 fish. fish and bring them into the Mount Shasta In drought years, total numbers of fish of this size likely High Hatchery during 2013. These last resort totaled less than 1,250 fish. rescue efforts greatly reduced mortality in Intervention dependence 2 Drought necessitated rescue of several populations and relocation to 1.4 Critical holding facilities until natural conditions improved. Ongoing implemen- the remaining population. These fish were tation and recent revision and expansion of a formal Conservation Strategy is critical for survival. Extinct reared, spawned, and then released back Environmental tolerance 3 It is likely they are fairly tolerant of high temperatures, as are other into their native habitat in September 2016 Redband trout, but water quality in their small streams has to be after average precipitation returned to the monitored during drought years. McCloud River Basin. Genetic risk 1 Hybridization risk with rainbow trout is high; small isolated populations result in genetic bottlenecks and inbreeding depression.

Climate change 1 Vulnerability is high in all streams because of small size and CONSERVATION ACTIONS cumulative effects of a changing climate and drought. • Work with the McCloud Redband Anthropogenic threats 2 1 High and 4 Medium threats. Core Group to implement the 2014 Average 1.4 LEVEL OF CONCERN: CRITICAL

Inland Redband Conservation Certainty (1-4) 4 Most published information is on Sheepheaven Creek population, Agreement to manage land uses in though recently more studies have come from Edson, Moosehead, McCloud River Redband trout populations are very and Swamp creeks habitats. small, fragmented, and exist in limited and isolated the McCloud River Basin. habitat. Their status could change rapidly, particularly • Establish a McCloud River Redband ABUNDANCE 8 in.). They can become territorial and even in relation to predicted climate change impacts such trout refuge that contains all current Estimated numbers of McCloud River Redband cannibalistic under some circumstances. Like as reduced snowpack and precipitation increasingly Redband streams and suitable trout in the past were highly variable and most other Redband trout, they spawn in late falling as rain instead of snow. reaches of potential future habitat ranged from 53 to 1,100 per km (about 85 spring from May to June. to 1,770 trout per mi.) throughout their Photo: Craig Ballenger for translocations. range. According to a 2011 CDFW survey, the Genetics • Use a captive broodstock program total population of McCloud River Redband Hybridization between Coastal Rainbow trout CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS to protect the genetic integrity of trout was about 3,560 fish. During recent and Redband trout is a natural event. However, IMPACT McCloud River Redbands and drought years, 1,597 trout were rescued from due to planting of Rainbow trout upstream of Sheepheaven, Swamp, Edson, and Moosehead McCloud River Redband trout facilitate CDFW’s 2013 Upper natural barriers such as waterfalls, hybridization are critically vulnerable to creeks, likely leaving less than 1,250 fish over 80 has become a primary threat to McCloud River climate change because of the McCloud River Redband Trout mm (3 in.) in the wild. Redbands. While there are currently four, and small size of their populations, Reintroduction Plan. possibly as many as six, isolated populations the small streams they inhabit, of McCloud River Redband trout, recent MCCLOUD RIVER REDBAND TROUT DISTRIBUTION and their isolation from one HATCHERIES FIRE GRAZING Habitat AND BEHAVIOR genetic analyses show that fish in Sheepheaven another. Remaining McCloud CHARACTERISTICS Sheepheaven Creek is a small, spring-fed McCloud River Redband trout once ranged throughout the mainstem Redband streams are already Creek are distinct from the others. A formal McCloud River above Middle Falls and its tributaries, and perhaps Decades of stocking non-native Decades of fire suppression Grazing has occurred for McCloud River Redband trout are similar in stream at an elevation of 1,433 m (nearly subject to seasonal reductions McCloud River Redbands Hatchery and Genetic the lower river and its tributaries as well. Potential habitat, including Rainbow trout in the McCloud in the McCloud River Basin over 125 years in the McCloud appearance to other Redbands, with yellow to 4,600 ft.). Very cold, clear water trickles from in flow, but future reductions River Basin in the past created has built up potential fuels River Basin, which has Management Plan is forthcoming from CDFW. the upper McCloud River, encompasses about 98 km (about 61 mi.). orange bodies, dark oval parr marks on their volcanic soils between 10-13°C (50-55°F) in snowpack as expected hybrid Redband-Rainbow sources, which has increased the degraded riparian and stream Today, they persist only in four small (< 2 km, or 1.2 mi.) isolated streams with climate change may populations in many streams. potential for large, high intensity habitat significantly through sides, and white-tipped fins. The characteristic year-round and runs a short distance before upstream of the McCloud River’s Middle Falls that disappear underground dramatically reduce available These fish pose an ongoing, fires that could potentially wipe sedimentation and streamflow brick-red stripe on their sides is a defining feature, returning underground. Other McCloud River major threat to McCloud out one or more McCloud River alteration. Today, much of into highly porous volcanic rock before connecting with the mainstem habitat, as was seen during similar to that of the California Golden trout. Redband trout streams are generally small, the 2012-2016 drought. Redbands through competition Redband populations. Sheepheaven and lower Trout McCloud River downstream. and hybridization. creeks have been fenced to Many, but not all, McCloud River Redbands have with riffles and small pools providing cover, exclude cattle, but this could teeth on their tongues and an orange slash especially if they contain fallen trees. McCloud change in the future. along the throat, characteristics more typically River Redbands are small trout; the largest associated with Cutthroat trout. adults often measure less than 21 cm (about 82 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 83 SUMMARY paiute CUTTHROAT TROUT Metric Score Justification Oncorhynchus clarkii seleniris Low A multi-year hybrid trout removal effort Area occupied 2 Occupies several watersheds, but connectivity between headwater on Silver King Creek and its tributaries populations has recently been established on Silver King Creek. LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH Moderate Estimated adult abundance 2 The largest effective population may be less than 1,000 individuals, but concluded in 2015, restoring unimpeded most are much smaller. access to over 17 km (approximately High Intervention dependence 2 Human assistance required to maintain and increase genetic diversity 2.1 11 mi.) of stream habitat for Paiute through reintroduction efforts and protection of limited habitats. Critical Cutthroat trout (PCT). Monitoring Environmental tolerance 2 Actual physiological tolerances not known, but adapted for small cold- surveys in 2015 and 2016 found some water headwater streams, which suggests limited tolerance. Extinct individuals from refuge populations in Genetic risk 1 Genetic diversity is very low. tributaries have already re-colonized Climate change 3 Vulnerable because streams are very small and some may become dry downstream areas of Silver King Creek. during droughts. Drought desiccated some stream Anthropogenic threats 3 2 High, 1 Medium threat. segments, while some tributary streams Average 2.1 LEVEL OF CONCERN: HIGH were subject to total freezing that Certainty (1-4) 4 PCT well documented in peer-reviewed literature, in government agency reduced population numbers. reports, and USFWS reviews.

CONSERVATION ACTIONS CHARACTERISTICS Habitat AND BEHAVIOR Paiute Cutthroat trout have very few spots Paiute Cutthroat trout life expectancy is Paiute Cutthroat trout have a high likelihood of extirpation • Conduct follow-up monitoring of above the lateral line, and iridescent copper, about 3-4 years in the wild, although some in their native range within 50-100 years without continued reintroduction efforts for at least green, or pink body coloration. All Paiute individuals may live up to 6 years. They mature commitment to intense monitoring and management. three years to determine progress Cutthroat have a red-orange slash under the at 2 years of age, and only have the potential All populations are small and isolated, and are susceptible of hybrid removal, restoration jaw for which they are named, and retain parr to successfully spawn two or three times over marks into adulthood. They rarely reach more their lifespan. Spawning takes place in July, to hybridization and local environmental changes. activities, and re-colonization of than about 25 cm (10 in.) in length owing to the and eggs hatch in August and September. They historical habitat by Paiute Cutthroats. high elevation, low productivity streams they rarely migrate very far from where they were

Photo: Bill Somer. inhabit. The largest PCT was captured in a lake reared or introduced. Adult Paiute Cutthroats • Prepare and implement a long outside its native range, and measured 46 cm are territorial, defending their established term conservation strategy with (18 in.) long and weighed 1.1 kg (about 2.4 lbs.). territories in desirable pool habitat from CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS CDFW, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Fish & The native habitat of this species is the smallest others. Deeper pool habitat and overhanging IMPACT Wildlife Service, academics, and other of any known salmonid in North America, vegetation provide important refuge and making them the rarest trout species on Earth. overwintering areas for this species. Climate change in the arid stakeholders to adaptively manage Eastern Sierra is likely to They nearly went extinct due to hybridization increase water temperature, future recovery efforts. with non-native trout, but Joe Jaunsaras, a Genetics decrease streamflow, reduce Basque herdsman, began transferring fish in • Continue to monitor existing The Paiute Cutthroat trout is very closely snowpack, and cause more 1912 above a natural barrier at Llewellyn Falls, ALIEN SPECIES FIRE GRAZING related to the Lahontan Cutthroat trout, and PAIUTE CUTTHROAT TROUT DISTRIBUTION frequent cycles of drought populations to determine progress saving the species. and catastrophic fire. Paiute is the least genetically diverse trout species of Paiute Cutthroat trout are native only to Silver King Creek, a tributary of Cutthroats are vulnerable to of restoration activities and Competition and hybridization A single large fire could Historically, the Silver King Basin trout in California. Today, populations of Paiute the East Fork Carson River located at an elevation of about 2,400 m (about any changes in precipitation with alien trout, especially potentially wipe out most was subject to heavy grazing re-colonization of historical habitat. ABUNDANCE Cutthroats share the most genetic material with 7,900 ft.) in the Carson-Iceberg Wilderness in Humboldt-Toiyabe National patterns because the streams California Golden, Lahontan remaining Paiute Cutthroat trout from livestock that caused Paiute Cutthroat trout populations likely Lahontan Cutthroat trout from Independence Forest (Alpine Co.). Five pure populations of PCT exist in Coyote Valley, they inhabit are very small Cutthroat and Coastal Rainbow due to their small population degradation of riparian habitats. Lake (Nevada Co.), as opposed to Lahontan and some may become dry trout, with which they readily in fragmented, isolated habitat Grazing allotments in the basin declined in the last three years due to reduced Corral Valley, Four Mile Canyon, and Upper Silver King creeks upstream of a during droughts. interbreed, are major threats in a single watershed. Fires can were permanently closed in streamflows in summer and anchor ice in Cutthroat populations found just downstream in historical barrier at Llewellyn Falls. Many introductions of Paiute Cutthroat to Paiute Cutthroat trout. destroy riparian habitat, increase 1994, but riparian habitat is still winter resulting from drought. Remaining the Carson River. have been attempted outside the species’ native range over the last six Hybridization leads to a loss of sedimentation, and smother in recovery; it has shown marked populations are small, isolated by barriers genetic diversity and can occur habitat with silt and ash. progress with narrowing and decades, though only Cottonwood and Cabin creeks (Mono Co.), Stairway rapidly in small populations due deepening channels in meadow and cannot interbreed. Nine streams currently Creek (Madera Co.), and Sharktooth Creek (Fresno Co.) have self-sustaining to genetic bottlenecks. sections of Silver King Creek. support small (400 to 700 fish each) but stable populations. There are no known populations of lake-dwelling Paiute populations of pure Paiute Cutthroat trout. Cutthroat trout in California.

84 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 85 SUMMARY MOUNTAIN WHITEFISH Metric Score Justification Prosopium williamsoni Low Based on current limited research, Area occupied 4 Present in three watersheds and several lakes. Mountain whitefish populations Estimated adult abundance 4 Numbers appear to be declining in many streams so this number LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE 3.4 Moderate appear to have become constrained may be high. by poor water quantity and quality Intervention dependence 4 Populations persist but intervention will be needed if their High decline continues. throughout their range. Ongoing water Environmental tolerance 3 Whitefish appear to be more physiologically tolerant than many Critical diversion and drought have combined salmonids, live at least 5 years and may spawn several times; however, to reduce suitable available habitat they require high water quality and low temperatures. Extinct for the species. Genetic risk 4 Genetics have not been studied but most populations are isolated from one another.

Climate change 2 Whitefish are likely to be negatively affected by decreased flows, CONSERVATION ACTIONS warmer temperatures and increased diversions but persist in lakes. • Conduct a population study to Anthropogenic threats 3 4 Medium threats. determine distribution and abundance Average 3.4 LEVEL OF CONCERN: MODERATE of Mountain whitefish. Certainty (1-4) 2 Grey literature, survey data, and professional judgment. • Include Mountain whitefish in CDFW management and restoration currently focused on other salmonids that Mountain whitefish persist in some fragmented water bodies ABUNDANCE They are generally less tolerant of warm water overlap their range, such as Lahontan temperatures than other trout species with in California, but their overall abundance and distribution Basic distribution and population data for Cutthroat trout. Mountain whitefish are generally lacking, which they co-occur. are reduced from historical levels and may be continuing so their overall status in California remains to decline. Population estimates and comprehensive • Consider reducing current daily bag uncertain. While still present in much of distribution surveys are lacking; while their overall status limits of 5 Mountain whitefish per their limited range, their populations are remains uncertain, it appears to have declined. angler/day until reliable abundance disconnected and seemingly shrinking. data are available. The absence and low densities of Mountain Photo: CDFW. whitefish observed over the last several years • Expand ongoing negotiations in the in surveys around Lake Tahoe may indicate Tahoe, Carson, Walker, and Truckee that the status of this species has declined CLIMATE CHANGE TOP 3 Anthropogenic THREATS since 2008. IMPACT basins that keep water in streams and They are highly susceptible enhance habitat for all native fishes. Habitat AND BEHAVIOR to climate change impacts because they are constrained to Mountain whitefish are capable of living to low-gradient sections of rivers, more than 10 years of age, depending on do not effectively colonize CHARACTERISTICS habitat and food availability. They frequently MAJOR DAMS RESIDENTIAL ALIEN SPECIES MOUNTAIN WHITEFISH DISTRIBUTION high-gradient headwater Mountain whitefish are not trout, but rather a shoal in groups of 5 to 20 fish close to the streams that could provide DEVELOPMENT Mountain whitefish historically occupied similar habitats to Lahontan unique-looking relative of trout and grayling bottom of streams and lakes. They tend to feed refuge from increasing stream Ideal habitat for Mountain whitefish. Photo: Mike Wier. Cutthroat trout on both the California and Nevada sides of the Sierra Mountain whitefish cannot Development in the popular Non-native species, such with an olive/dusky green back and large on benthic aquatic insects in deep, slow pools, temperatures, and are often survive in impounded lakes, Tahoe Basin has increased as Brown and Brook trout, Nevada. Their current range in California includes the Lower, Little, and out-competed by nonnative silver scales. They are one of the most widely especially at dawn or dusk, but will rise through and only remain in natural significantly in the past throughout the range of Genetics Upper Truckee, East Fork Carson, and East and West Walker river drainages fishes better adapted to Tahoe Basin lakes. Dams several decades, leading to Mountain whitefish increase distributed salmonids, but are not well studied the water column to opportunistically prey on on the east side of the Sierra Nevada, and perhaps the West Fork Carson warmer temperatures. support myriad diversions for greater water withdrawals and predation and competition for in California. They have a downturned mouth drifting invertebrates. Their general feeding The Lahontan Basin population (Nevada and agricultural and other purposes degradation of water quality limited resources and may limit River as well. They can also be found in natural lakes, including Tahoe, that allows them to feed on the streambed, and and holding patterns only slightly overlap with California portions of the range) of Mountain throughout their range, and for Mountain whitefish their populations. Independence, Cascade, and Fallen Leaf lakes. reduce water quantity and through pollution. a prominent adipose fin. In streams, they tend those of closely related trout. From October whitefish in North America are distinct, due to quality for Mountain whitefish, to be relatively small, usually less than 25cm (10 through December, Mountain whitefish return geographic isolation from other populations, which generally require colder in.), but may reach up to about 35cm (14 in.) and and may eventually deserve their own and cleaner water than other to natal streams to scatter their small, adhesive salmonids in California. 2kg (4.4 lbs.) in lakes. eggs over gravel. taxonomic designation.

86 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 87 METHODOLOGY

SPECIES STATUS ASSESSMENT TABLE 2: STATUS SCORING RUBRIC SUMMARY TABLE

For this report, the following methods were used to assess the status of From these accounts, the research team produced condensed accounts SCORE 1 2 3 4 5 all 32 kinds of salmon, steelhead, and trout in California. that are presented in this report. These condensed accounts necessarily leave out many important details found in the main accounts, SELECTION OF SPECIES and readers should consult the main accounts as the basis for the information where questions arise. Each main account was drafted using AREA OCCUPIED: The research team used species, subspecies, Evolutionary Significant 1 watershed/ stream system 2-3 watersheds/ stream systems 3-5 watersheds/ stream 6-10 watersheds/ stream systems More than 10 watersheds/ a standard format, with sections for species description, taxonomic INLAND Units (ESUs), or Distinct Population Segments (DPSs) - taxonomic in California only without fluvial connections to systems with or without fluvial stream systems categories already recognized by state and federal natural resource relationships, life history, habitat, abundance, threats, climate change, each other connections agencies for management as “species.” status scoring analysis, and conservation recommendations. More than 10 self-sustaining Anadromous: 0-1 self-sustaining populations 2-4 self-sustaining populations 5-7 self-sustaining populations 8-10 self-sustaining populations populations The research team also recognized a few distinct life history variants All drafts were reviewed and revised by the research team until they of Chinook salmon and steelhead (e.g., summer steelhead) that are were satisfied with the accuracy of the drafts and then underwent a Estimated adult Less than or equal to 500 501 – 5,000 5,001 – 50,000 50,001 – 500,000 500,000 + not yet recognized as distinct entities by all management agencies. final review by at least one, but in many cases more than one, external abundance They nonetheless possess, in our judgment, sufficient significant biologist familiar with the taxon and its status. Intervention Captive broodstock program Continuous active management Frequent (usually annual) Long-term habitat protection or Self-sustaining populations evolutionary, ecological, and genetic differences to merit being treated dependence or similar extreme measures of habitats (e.g. adding water to management actions (e.g. improvements (e.g. restoration) but require minimal intervention EVALUATION OF STATUS as distinct taxa. This report focuses solely on native California salmonids. required to prevent extinction streams) required removal of alien species) no immediate threats It does not include introduced species: Brown trout, Brook trout, The status of each species was evaluated using a set of seven criteria Lake trout, Kokanee salmon, or Colorado Cutthroat trout. Dr. Peter scored using the rubric found in Table 2. Those scores were then Environmental Extremely narrow physiological Narrow physiological tolerance in Moderate physiological tolerance Broad physiological tolerance Physiological tolerance rarely an Moyle’s laboratory group at UC Davis has been continuously evaluating averaged to produce an overall score for each species - the Level of tolerance tolerance in all habitats all existing habitats or broad limits in all existing habitats under most conditions likely to be issue for persistence California’s fish fauna since the first edition of Inland Fishes of Concern (Table 3). A reliability index was provided for each account but species may exist at edge of encountered California (1976) and the first edition of Fish Species of Special Concern based on the certainty of available information (Table 4). tolerances in California (1989). The language has evolved and expanded as research has become available, and this report represents the evolution of those OVERALL ANALYSIS Genetic risk Fragmentation, genetic drift, Limited gene flow among Moderately diverse genetically, Genetically diverse but limited Genetically diverse with gene and isolation by distance, due populations, although hybridization some gene flow among gene flow to other populations flow to other populations assessments to provide snapshots in time of species status under The team summarized the status rankings for all 32 taxa and for to migration, and/or frequent can be a threat populations; hybridization due to reductions in habitat current trends. each of the seven criteria and compared the Level of Concern hybridization with related fish risks low connectivity of all taxa to those found in the first edition of the State of the LITERATURE COMPILATION Salmonids report to determine trends in status. The comparisons Climate change Vulnerable to extinction in all Vulnerable in most watersheds Vulnerable in portions of Low vulnerability due to location, Not vulnerable, most habitats The research team conducted a literature review to: (1) update were made using verbal assessments based on the accounts and status watersheds inhabited inhabited watersheds inhabited cold water sources and/or active will remain within thermal information for each taxon; (2) analyze detailed summaries for taxa scores, rather than comparing the status scores from the two accounts management tolerance ranges not adequately treated in previous reviews; and (3) find ‘gray’ literature directly. Numerical status scores were not directly compared between such as agency administrative reports not used in previous accounts. years due to: (1) greatly improved metrics for species distribution and Anthropogenic 1 or more threats rated critical 1 or 2 threats rated high - species No high threats but 5 or more 2-4 threats rated medium - no 1 threat rated medium, all others The team also consulted with over sixty individuals and experts abundance; (2) an improved metric for climate change, based on a threats or 3 or more threats rated high could be pushed to extinction in the threats rated medium; no single immediate extinction risk but low; known threats do not foreseeable future threat likely to cause extinction in aggregate threats reduce imperil the species from fishery management agencies familiar with each taxon to obtain study by Moyle et al. (2013); and (3) addition of a new metric that but in aggregate could push population viability unpublished and anecdotal information and gain a better understanding quantified anthropogenic effects (Table 5). We decided the two scoring species to extinction in the of local conditions. systems were different enough that the scores should not be directly foreseeable future compared, so we instead used the assessment categories from the 2008 PRODUCTION OF SPECIES ACCOUNTS report: extinct, critical concern, high concern, moderate concern, and The full, peer-reviewed species accounts, or “main accounts,” are low concern. literature reviews with extensive documentation and have been published as Salmon, Steelhead, and Trout in California: Status of Emblematic Fishes, Second Edition.

88 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 89 GLOSSARY

Table 3. Levels of C oncern of California ’s salmonids TABLE 4. Certainty Adfluvial life history in which juvenile fish are born Copepod a group of small crustaceans that inhabit Endemic species a species native and confined Forbearance refraining from exercising a legal Status categories, score ranges, and definitions. of information for in streams, migrate to lakes to feed and grow, and then most fresh water habitats and oceans to a certain region; usually with a comparatively water right; used to keep water in streams on a status evaluation migrate back to natal streams as adults to spawn restricted distribution temporary basis without permanently giving up the STATUS/LEVEL STATUS DEFINITION Critical habitat a specific geographic area, right to that water OF CONCERN SCORE Adipose fin a small, fleshy fin on the back of whether occupied by a special-status species or not, Estuary/estuarine the area or habitat where fresh CERTAINTY SCORE salmonids near the tail that is sometimes clipped off that is determined to be essential for the conservation and salt water mix at the mouth of a river, used as Fry a stage of development in young salmon or salmon and steelhead to allow easy differentiation and management of special status species rearing and feeding habitat by many fish species and trout; during this stage the fish is usually less than from wild fish for management purposes other animals one year old, has absorbed its yolk sac, is rearing in the EXTINCT 0.0 Extirpated from inland waters of California. Crustaceans animals, including crabs, shrimp and stream, and is between the alevin and parr stage 1 Status is based on professional Alevin A newly hatched salmonid that is still carrying crayfish that have a hard shell instead of a skeleton and Entrainment the incidental trapping of fish and of development CRITICAL 1.0-1.9 High risk of extinction in the wild; abundance critically low or declining; current judgment, with little or no published the yolk sac Amphipods a group of crustaceans that usually live in water other aquatic organisms in water diverted from threats projected to push species to extinction in the wild in 10-15 generations. information. without a carapace, or exoskeleton Anadromous fish streams, rivers and reservoirs; the process of drawing Genetic diversity the total number of genetic that are hatched in fresh water, migrate to and mature California Department of Fish and Wildlife fish into diversions, along with water, resulting in the characteristics in the makeup of a species that allow in salt water, and return to fresh water to spawn (CDFW) the California state agency tasked with loss of such fish populations to adapt to changing environmental HIGH 2.0-2.9 High risk of becoming a critical concern species; range and abundance 2 Status is based on professional managing California’s diverse fish, wildlife, and plant conditions significantly reduced; trajectory to extinction in 15-20 generations if no actions taken. judgment augmented by moderate Anthropogenic human-induced or exacerbated, resources, and the habitats upon which they depend, Escapement those fish that survive natural mortality amounts of published or gray as in climate change Barrier a manmade structure for their ecological values and for their use and and harvest, and make up a spawning population Genetic risk the probability of an action or inaction MODERATE 3.0-3.9 Declining, fragmented and/or small populations possibly subject to rapid status literature or management agency change; management actions needed to prevent increased conservation concern. such as a dam or culvert which prevents fish passage enjoyment by the public having a negative impact on the genetic character of administrative reports. in a stream Evolutionary Significant Unit (ESU) a term a population or species Dissolved oxygen oxygen freely available in used by the National Marine Fisheries Service to LOW 4.0-5.0 Populations are not in significant decline; abundant and widespread. 3 Status is based on reports found Benthic occurring at the bottom of a body of water, water and necessary for the lives of fish and other denote a population or group of populations of Gill covers the outer covering of the gill chamber mainly in the in gray literature with such as a river or lake aquatic organisms salmon that is substantially reproductively isolated which opens and closes to allow water to pass over some information in peer-reviewed from other populations and contributes to the the gills for respiration sources but where gaps existed in Broodstock a group of sexually mature individuals Distinct Population Segment (DPS) a term with evolution of the species some important areas (e.g. genetics). of a cultured species that is kept separate for breeding specific meaning under the Endangered Species Act Gray literature refers to material that is not purposes, such as to support hatchery operations when used for listing, delisting, and reclassification Extant still in existence or surviving formally published, such as institutional or technical Table 5. Anthropogenic Threats Scoring 4 Status is based on highly reliable purposes to describe a population that may be added reports, working papers, business documents, and information, with numerous accounts California Current a Pacific Ocean current or deleted from the list of threatened and endangered Extirpated a species that has been eliminated from a conference materials Criteria for ratings assigned to anthropogenic threat factors with correlated timelines. in the peer reviewed and management that moves south along the western coast of North species; applied here to steelhead particular area, but still exists elsewhere; locally extinct agency literature. America, beginning off southern British Columbia, Grilse a salmon that has spent only one winter at sea and ending off southern Baja California Drainage a group of interconnected streams whose Extinct a species that no longer exists in any habitat before returning to fresh water to spawn THREAT CRITERIA TIMELINE main channel enters an ocean, estuary, or the main- on Earth RATING Central Valley a large, flat valley that dominates stem of a basin Habitat the physical, chemical, and biological features the central portion of California; the northern half is Expert judgment based on the professional of an area that supplies food, water, shelter and space referred to the Sacramento Valley and its southern Ecosystem a recognizable unit on the landscape opinions of experts; used here as biologists best necessary for a particular species’ existence CRITICAL Could push species to extinction. 3 species generations or 10 years, whichever is less. half as the San Joaquin Valley that includes organisms, their environment, and all the guesses interactions among them Half-pounder an immature steelhead that spends HIGH Could push species to extinction. 10 species generations or 11-50 years, whichever is less. Climate change refers to the human-induced Fauna all of the animal life of any particular region only a few months at sea, enters fresh water in spring, increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s Effective population size the average number of or time feeds until the following winter, then migrates to sea near-surface air and oceans and changes in its individuals in a population that contribute genes to the again before returning to spawn MEDIUM Unlikely to drive a species to extinction Next 100 years. precipitation and wind patterns succeeding generations Fishery specific species of fish, area of water or by itself but contributes seabed, fishing method, class of boats, people Headwaters the source or upper part of a lake, river, to increased extinction risk. Cobble naturally rounded rock fragments between Endangered Species under the Endangered involved in catching or processing fish, or a or stream 2 1/2 inches and 10 inches in diameter Species Act, any species that is likely to become combination of these LOW May reduce populations but extinction Next 100 years. extinct within the foreseeable future throughout all or a Homogenous all alike, as in a loss of genetic diversity unlikely as a result. Coded wire tag a small magnetized wire injected significant portion of its range Floodplain the low area along a stream or river leads to homogenized populations into the snout of juvenile fish to track their migrations channel into which water spreads during floods; can to support research and management Endangered Species Act (ESA) the federal be valuable feeding habitat for salmonids and provide Hybridize/Hybridization to breed plants or Endangered Species Act that was enacted by Congress refuge from high flows animals of different varieties or species in order to Conjunctive use the practice of storing water on in 1973 in response to an alarming decline of many create offspring having characteristics of each; the surface of the Earth in groundwater basins in wet animal and plant species. The ultimate goal of the Act Fluvial a life history in which fish are born in rivers or here used to highlight breeding of related but years, and then withdrawing it for use during dry years is to return threatened and endangered species to the streams and spend their entire lives there distinct species point where they no longer need the law’s protections

90 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 91 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Hydrology the movement of water across the Peer reviewed literature scientific writing Run the time at which a fish swims back up the rivers Trap-and-haul the capture and transport of juvenile SOS II: Fish in Hot Water is the culmination of the We would especially like to thank Tracey Diaz for her McCanne, Kate McLaughlin, Chad Mellison, Michael landscape, including the water cycle or research that has undergone evaluation by other in which they were born to spawn or adult fish around barriers, such as dams; two-way dedication, passion, and selflessness of dozens of keen organization and messaging savvy, Jane Brady Miller, Travis Neebling, Jennifer Nelson, Jonathan Nelson, experts in the field to judge if it merits publication trap and haul involves trucking adult salmonids around Introgression the spread of genes from one or funding Salmonid any member of the taxonomic family dams to spawn, and juveniles are then captured as individuals over the last 18 months. Thanks go first for driving the creative vision and exceptional design Erin Noesser, Freddy Otte, Stephen Phillips, population or species into another as a result of Salmonidae, which includes all species of salmon, trout, they migrate downstream and released downstream of and foremost to Dr. Peter B. Moyle, who recently and of this report, Paul Waters for his remarkable original Sam Plemons, Phil Reedy, Allan Renger, Seth Ricker, hybridization Pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus spp.) a torpedo-shaped char, whitefish and grayling dams and diversions deservedly retired from a long and highly distinguished illustrations that help bring these fish to life, Megan Sam Rizza, Andrea Schreier, Tom Schroyer, Erin fish with an olive-green and gold back, white belly, and Invertebrate an animal without a backbone, many black stripe on its side; a major natural predator on Sedimentation fragmentary material that originates Tributary a stream that feeds into a larger stream; career at the University of California, Davis, where Nguyen and Nicholas Santos for their meticulous Seghesio, Hilda Sexauer, Kevin Shaffer, Rachel Simmons, of which serves as prey for salmonids juvenile salmonids in California from the weathering of rocks or the additions of also called a feeder stream he studied and communicated the importance of cartography, and John Fellner for his generous donation Lisa Sims, Wade Sinnen, Bill Somer, Michael Sparkman, materials from manmade activities into a river California’s native fish species and their conservation toward the binding and printing of this report. Stan Stephens, Stephen Swales, Ross Taylor, Brian Vais, Iteroparous reproducing more than once in a Piscicide a chemical substance which is poisonous Smolt the third stage in the development of a trout, Translocation the intentional capture, movement, lifetime Juvenile fish from one year of age until to fishes salmon or char, when the small, silvery fish have and release of a species for a specific purpose, such as throughout California. He has trained and inspired Ryan Watanabe, Jeff Weaver, Nina Erlich-Williams, sexual maturity undergone physical changes to allow them to begin to expand its range or establish a refuge population generations of fisheries biologists, ecologists, and Thank you. Severn Williams, Richard Wong, and Ron Yoshiyama: Pool a relatively deep, still section in a stream their migration from fresh water to the sea scientists and instilled in them a conservation ethic to thank you all. Kelt a salmonid that has spawned but not yet Trophy fish a prized, large-sized fish pursued returned to sea Kype the distinctive hooked jaw that Reach a section of stream defined in a variety of ways Spawn the release and fertilization of eggs for sport help preserve and protect the remarkable and diverse The information underpinning this report could not male salmonids develop during spawning such as the section between tributaries or a section fishes of California. Dr. Moyle served on California have been obtained without the help and support of The guidance and support of Curtis Knight and the with consistent characteristics Spawning run the migration of fish to the place Trucking use of specialized, insulated tanker trucks Trout’s Board of Directors for many years, and continues the University of California, Davis Center for Watershed entire California Trout staff, and past and present Board to transport fish Lacustrine a life history where fish spend their entire where they mate and lay their eggs to guide our work today. He drove this project from its Sciences and our management partners at the California Members was essential for realizing our goals and lives in lakes Rear to bring to maturity Steelhead a form of Rainbow trout that migrates Tui chub (Gila bicolor) a minnow that is an important inception in 2008 through the second edition in 2017. Department of Fish and Wildlife, the National Marine finalizing the document. Thank you to California Trout Life history a series of changes an organism Redd a circular or oval-shaped depression excavated from the stream in which it was born to the sea and food source for Lahontan Cutthroat trout Without his inspiration, dedication, vast knowledge, Fisheries Service, and numerous individuals who staff Alisan Amrhein, Craig Ballenger, Redgie Collins, undergoes during its lifetime, or the timing of key by adult female salmonids with their tails where eggs back to its home stream to spawn and tireless work ethic, this undertaking could not have generously provided their time and expertise to the Sandi Jacobson, Jacob Katz, Melissa Racklyeft, Gaby events in an organisms’ lifetime, such as sexual are laid Watershed the area of land that water flows across maturation and behavior Straying the behavior of fish to migrate or return or under on its way to a river, lake or ocean; includes all been completed. Thank you for teaching, guiding, and research and information, expert opinions, peer reviews, Roff, Julie Seelen, and Mike Wier for your input, photos, Reintroduction putting a species back into a to non-natal streams for various purposes such as surface waters and adjacent estuaries and marine areas inspiring us all. photos, and countless other helpful suggestions. numerous edits, and reviews. We appreciate all the help Natal stream stream of birth, where a fish hatches former habitat Resident describes species of fish feeding, exploration, or spawning Those individuals include, but are not limited to: Val from the entire team. which spend their entire lives in fresh water Zooplankton microscopic animals in water Native species an indigenous stock of fish that has Stronghold a place that provides sufficient habitat which form the important beginnings of food webs for Peter has long said “The fish don’t lie.” We agree. Atkinson, Philip Bairrington, Ethan Bell, Kent Blackburn, not been substantially affected by genetic interactions Resilience the ability of ecosystem or species to quantity and quality to serve as a refuge for a species larger animals And if they could speak, they would surely thank you too. Roger Bloom, Sara Borok, Jim Bowker, Bill Brubaker, We apologize to anyone whom we may have with non-native stocks or by other factors and is still withstand ecological disturbance while maintaining its Jennifer Bull, Conrad Calimpong, Mark Capelli, Gerard inadvertently failed to list here but had a hand in the present in all or part of its original range normal patterns of operation and function Taxonomic (singular: taxon, plural: taxa) a taxonomic category such as family, genus, species that refers to a California Trout is deeply grateful to our supporters Carmona-Catot, Joel Casagrande, Diana Chesney, Mary generation of this report. Any errors or omissions that Net pen a mesh enclosure used to confine juvenile Restoration/conservation hatchery distinct natural group whose financial contributions helped make the Claire Kier, Emily Cooper, Flora Cordoleani, LeRoy appear are the responsibility of California Trout. salmon and allow them to acclimate to brackish or salt a hatchery designed to produce fish for restoration second edition of the State of the Salmonids a reality. Cyr, Rosi Dagit, Mike Dege, Doug DeRoy, Paul Divine, water before release purposes rather than for recreational purposes Terrestrial from the Earth, as in land-based invertebrates that fall into streams and become prey Specifically, we would like to thank the Darrell and Walt Duffy, Jen Edgar, Brian Ellrott, Bjorn Erickson, Sincerely, National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Richness the number of different species represented for trout Lauren Boyle family, the Mary A. Crocker Trust, the J. Joe Ferreira, Molly Finger, Josh Fuller, Sean Gallagher, California Trout Staff and Board of Directors a federal agency and division of the Department of in an ecosystem Vance Huckins Fund of the Tides Foundation, Justin Garwood, Michelle Gilroy, Kitty Griswold, Anders Commerce, responsible for the stewardship of the Threadfin shad (Dorosoma petenense) a non-native and the American Fisheries Society – Western Division. Halverson, Meredith Hardy, Scott Harris, Bret Harvey, nation’s living marine resources and their habitat Riparian habitat the terrestrial habitat adjacent to fish species common in large rivers and reservoirs streams, lakes, estuaries or other waterways Our sincere thanks to you. Matt Hernandez, John Hileman, Andy Hill, Stephanie Parr the stage in sea-going trout and salmon prior to Threatened any species which are vulnerable to Hogan, Ed Homich, Josh Hull, Mike Hupp, Jim Inman, the smolt stage and migration to salt water Riverine situated on or in a river or its banks extinction in the near future, as defined by the federal We appreciate the leadership of Patrick Samuel and Josh Israel, Patrick Jarrett, Andrew Jensen, Matt Endangered Species Act Parr marks distinctive vertical, dark oval markings Rotenone a plant-based, odorless, colorless, Dr. Rob Lusardi who worked closely to pull this project Johnson, Rachel Johnson, Morgan Knechtle, Jonathan on the sides of young salmon or trout piscicide commonly used for removing fish from together. They were tireless in their efforts to talk with Koehler, Glenn Kubacki, Cathryn Lawrence, Dana Lee, a stream experts, dig for data, and write species accounts, all Dennis Lee, Michelle Leicester, Robert Leidy, Ken Lindke, while Patrick became a new dad and Rob finished his PhD. Jay Lund, Dean Marston, Jonathan Matthews, Dana

92 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 93 ABOUT CALIFORNIA TROUT

California Trout is a leading nonprofit organization Today, CalTrout solves complex resource issues California Trout’s work is funded by individuals whose mission is ensuring there are resilient wild balancing the needs of fish and people. Working whose generosity is leveraged to obtain fish thriving in healthy waters for a better California. and living in local communities, developing government and foundation grants and Established in 1971, California Trout revolutionized innovative, science-based solutions that work for partnerships, multiplying even small gifts to fisheries management in California through the diverse interests of fish, farms, commerce, and accomplish large multi-million dollar projects. restoration, pursuing “Wild and Scenic” designation the community. These proof-of-concept project Visit CalTrout.org and join us to ensure wild to protect rivers, and rallying to establish catch and successes establish precedent, empower partners 1 fish will thrive in healthy California waters release as the predominant modern angling ethic. and influence statewide policy. for generations to come.

BOARD OF GOVERNORS AND CALTROUT STAFF

Drew Bassak SAN FRANCISCO CENTRAL CALIFORNIA Janet Hatfield Photos clockwise from top left: Chair CENTRAL OFFICE Project Manager Jacob Katz, Ph.D. 1) Wallace Weir groundbreaking to Curtis Knight Steve Rogers Senior Scientist, Mike Wier prevent stranding of adult salmon in Executive Director Vice Chair Central Valley Field Reporter the Central Valley. Photo: Jacob Katz. 2 Alan Roesberry Richard West 2) High Sierra meadow where Finance Director NORTH COAST SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA Treasurer restoration work boosts water storage 6 7 Gaby Roff Darren Mierau Candice Meneghin capacity and carbon sequestration. Rick Kaufman Institutional Giving Director North Coast Program Director Conservation Program Photo: Mike Wier. Secretary Manager Julie Seelen, CFRE Mary Burke 3) The Nigiri Project at Knaggs Linda Ach Project Manager Sandra Jacobson, Ph.D. Ranch where science has proven that Gary Arabian Advancement Director Coalition Coordinator reconnecting historic floodplain rearing Tony Brookfield Tracey Diaz MT. SHASTA/KLAMATH habitats benefits fish and people. George Choe Marketing and Andy Eckert Drew Braugh UC Davis Center for 4) 2017 Meadows Conference where Communications Director Watershed Sciences Bill Epstein Mt. Shasta Program over 20 State and Federal, non-profit, Redgie Collins Edward De La Rosa Director Rob Lusardi, Ph.D. environmental, academic and Staff Attorney Dick Galland CalTrout-UC Davis Wild private agencies signed an MOU in Tuli Potts Loretta Keller Patrick Samuel and Coldwater Fish Scientist support of the CalTrout-led Sierra 3 Program Coordinator Tom Larsen Conservation Program Meadows Strategy. Contact Charles Linker Coordinator Craig Ballenger 5) Installation of woody debris at Fly Fishing Ambassador Laurie McLellan Melissa Racklyeft 360 Pine St., 4th Floor Hat Creek to restore instream habitat. Bob Payne Grants Associate San Francisco, CA 94104 Photo: Val Atkinson. Bob Rosenberg SIERRA HEADWATERS (415) 392-8887 Alisan Amrhein 6) Newly installed Hat Creek pedestrian Scott Tucker Mark Drew, Ph.D. [email protected] Marketing and Development bridge that reconnects trail segments, Paul Vais Sierra Headwaters Associate decreasing streambank erosion. Photo: Jeff Williams www.caltrout.org Program Director Val Atkinson. Nathan Lubarov Levi Keszey Compliance Manager 7) Fall River PIT tagging to track Watershed and Outreach wild trout migration, growth rates, Casey Sullivan Coordinator genetics, and population structure. Donor Database Associate Photo: Mike Wier.

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94 SOS II: Fish in Hot Water 95 “Something will have gone out of us as a people if we ever let the remaining wilderness be destroyed; if we permit the last virgin forests to be turned into comic books and plastic cigarette cases; if we drive the few remaining members of the wild species into zoos or to extinction; if we pollute the last clear air and dirty the last clean streams and push our paved roads through the last of the silence ... We simply need that wild country available to us ... For it can be a means of reassuring ourselves of our sanity as creatures, a part of the geography of hope.”

Wallace Stegner

360 Pine Street, 4th Floor San Francisco, CA 94104 . 415 392 8887 . www.caltrout.org