4 P R K 1 0 E 2 O A E N O United Nations Environment Programme IN OUR GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT IN OUR GLOBAL EMERGING ISSUES EMERGING B Y U

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 EMERGING ISSUES IN OUR GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT DEW/1793/NA 978-92-807-3381-5 a y amme g g Ken ogr r .or obi, t P .or g air .or onmen .unep vir .unep uneppub@unep www +254 20 762 3927 +254 20 762 1234 ax: el.: tions En T F a x 30552 - 00100 N o e-mail:

www B . ed N

.O P Unit

and stunning images from around the around help tell world and stunning images from the stories. innovative solutions that been created those to have solve challenges.innovative Video,animations, data visualization multi-media experience thatmulti-media experience helps illustrate the challenges face environmental today we and some of the the past decade. This UNEP Year Book 2014 takes advantage of the latest technology, providing a of the advantage takes latest providing technology, Book 2014 the This past decade. UNEP Year e-book anniversary edition – UNEP Year Book 2014 – presents a fresh look at ten issues highlighted over look at ten fresh highlighteda issues – presents over Book 2014 e-book anniversary – UNEP Year edition Ten years after the first Year Book in this series appeared (http://www.unep.org/yearbook/), a special a after years in this Book seriesthe (http://www.unep.org/yearbook/), appeared Ten first Year © 2014 United Nations Environment Programme ISBN: 978-92-807-3381-5 Job Number: DEW/1793/NA Disclaimers This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or nonprofit services without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving acopy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. UNEP No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission inwriting from the United Nations Environment Programme. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of Digital the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, DCPI, UNEP, P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya. UNEP Year Book 2014 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP concerning the legal status of any country, territory or city or its authorities, or concerning the for iPad and Android delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. For general guidance on matters relating to the use of maps in publications please go to: United Nations Environment Programme http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/english/htmain.htm

United Nations Environment Programme Mention of a commercial company or product in this publication does not imply endorsement by the United Nations Environment environment for developmentUNEP YEAR Programme. The use of information from this publication concerning proprietary products for publicity or advertising is not BOOK EmERgiN g issUEs iN OUR chANgiNg ENviRONmENt

2014 UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP United Nations Environment Programme Excess Nitrogen in the Environment The Emergence of Infectious Diseases Fish and Shellfish Farming in Marine Ecosystems permitted. Ten years after the first Year Book in this series appeared (http://www.unep.org/yearbook/), a special e-book anniversary edition – UNEP Year Book 2014 – presents a fresh look at ten envrionmental issues highlighted over the past decade.

© Maps, photos, and illustrations as specified.

Production UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Illegal Trade in Wildlife Methane from Hydrates Realizing the Potential of Citizen Science Air Pollution: World’s Worst Environmental Health Risk UNEP Division of Early Warning and Assessment

United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Environment Programme environment for development soil carbon What is being done to manage soil carbon better? Maintaining and enhancing soil carbon benefits

In agriculture, the purpose of many ongoing research and development efforts is to improve land management. For example, conservation agriculture initiatives in developing countries are aimed at increasing soil organic carbon and reducing its losses while improving farmers’ incomes and alleviating poverty. The effectiveness of measures to increase carbon inputs to agricultural soils and reduce carbon losses depends on local conditions, including soil P.O. Box 30552 types and climate.

Securing Soil Benefits Carbon The rate of global forest clearance has accelerated due to population growth and demand for food, feed, fibre, fuel – and living space. Over 5 million hectares of forest has been Enhancing soil carbon through conservation agriculture brings socio-economic benefits. cleared annually in recent years. Soil carbon is lost rapidly © Concern Worldwide as a result of forest clearance. Preventing forest loss and degradation (e.g. under the UN-REDD programme) has multiple benefits in addition to protecting and enhancing carbon stocks. These benefits include water regulation and biodiversity conservation. UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Global Forest Nairobi, 00100, Kenya Resources Assessments are produced every five years to Plastic Debris in the Ocean Securing Soil Carbon Benefits Rapid Change in the Arctic provide an update on the state of the world’s forests and Tap on the image for web link Tap on the podcast icon to learn more

how they are changing. The recently launched Global Forest about the Carbon Benefits Project BOOK 2014 YEAR UNEP The Global Forest Watch and the Carbon Benefits Project are examples of initiatives that help measure the effectiveness of efforts to preserve soil carbon. © Elke Noellemeyer Tel: (+254) 20 7621234 Fax: (+254) 20 7623927 E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.unep.org To view UNEP Year Book UNEP

YEAR UNEP Rapid change in the Arctic BOOK 2013 2014 digital magazine The extent of Arctic sea ice was at a record low in September 2012. Rapid change in the Arctic resulting from global warming is threatening ecosystems and providing new development opportunities – including easier Em ER gi N g iss UE s i OUR gl OBA l EN vi RON m t access to oil, gas and minerals. The UNEP Year Book 2013 shows that changes in the Arctic will have consequences far beyond this fragile region and require an urgent international response. YEAR The volume of chemicals in the world continues to grow, with a shift in production from developed to developing countries. To meet the goal of producing and using chemicals in ways that minimize significant impacts on health and the environment by 2020, we need to step up efforts to reduce the use of highly toxic chemicals, promote safer alternatives and build capacity for sound chemicals management. Adequate for iPad go to iTunes App Store information for minimizing chemical risks is essential to support these efforts.

The UNEP Year Book series examines emerging environmental issues and policy-relevant developments. It also presents the latest trends using key environmental indicators. BOOK EmERgiN g issUEs Minimizing chemical risks iN OUR glOBAl ENviRONmENt or for Android go to Google Play 2013 www.unep.org United Nations Environment Programme P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi 00100, Kenya Tel: +254-(0)20-762 1234 Fax: +254-(0)20-762 3927 Email: [email protected] web: www.unep.org United Nations Environment Programme and search for “UNON PSS App”,

978-92-807-3284-9 DEW/1565/NA install and enjoy...

UNON PUblishiNg services sectiON, NairObi, isO 14001:2004-certifiedUNON PUblishiNg services sectiON, NairObi, UNON PUblishiNg services sectiON, NairObi, isO 14001:2004-certifiedUNON PUblishiNg services sectiON, NairObi, isO 14001:2004-certified UNON PUblishiNg services sectiON, NairObi, UNON PUblishiNg services sectiON, NairObi, isO 14001:2004-certified UNON PUblishiNg services sectiON, NairObi, isO 14001:2004-certifiedUNON PUblishiNg services sectiON, NairObi,UNON PUblishiNg services sectiON, UNON Your feedback is important. Please visit us at unep.org/yearbook/2014App created by UNON to give us your thoughts and suggestions. Publishing Services Section wwwhttp://dcs.unon.org UNEP YEAR BOOK Emerging issues in our global environment 2014

United Nations Environment Programme Table of Contents

Foreword 5

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Excess Nitrogen in the Environment 6 Changes in the global nitrogen cycle 7 Increased coastal dead zones and climate change impacts 8 What is being done to reduce excess nitrogen releases? 9 Towards integrated nitrogen management 10

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update The Emergence of Infectious Diseases 12 Emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases 13 Combatting infectious disease while addressing environmental challenges 14 Taking actions to combat infectious diseases 15 A multi-sectoral approach to ensure healthy life for all 16 Further information about infectious diseases 17

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Fish and Shellfish Farming in Marine Ecosystems 18 Implications for the environment of providing food from the ocean 19 Development of marine aquaculture 20 Marine aquaculture with less impact 21 Capitalizing on progress 22 Further information about fish and shellfish farming 23

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Illegal Trade in Wildlife 24 The high environmental, social and economic costs 25 Recognition of illegal wildlife trade as a serious crime 26 Are we turning a corner? Small steps towards success 27 Combatting illegal wildlife trade through international collaboration 28 Further information about illegal wildlife trade 29

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Methane from Hydrates 30 Methane hydrates 31 Recent observations and knowledge 32 Searching for answers to some complex questions 33 Addressing big questions and continuing international cooperation 34 Further information about methane hydrates 35 2 Acknowledgements 66 Further information abouttheArctic Combatting climate changeandbuildingresilience Adapting to rapid change Arctic update: science andshipping A viewfrom thetop Change intheArctic Rapid UNEP Year 2014emerging Book issuesupdate Further information benefits aboutsoilcarbon objectives synergies withotherpolicy Seeking benefits andenhancingsoilcarbon Maintaining Improved soilmanagement: crucial for climate changeandfood production Managing soilsfor multiple economic, societal andenvironmental benefits Carbon Soil Benefits Securing UNEP Year 2014emerging Book issuesupdate Further information intheocean aboutplasticdebris The keyto reducing isat inputsofplasticdebris thesource Cooperation at international, regional andnational levels Growing concern aboutmicroplastics Continous flows ofplastic environmentto themarine Plastic DebrisintheOcean UNEP Year 2014emerging Book issuesupdate Further information aboutairpollution agreedMeeting standards to achieve economic andhealthbenefits challengeofairpollution The transboundary Air pollution:theleadingcauseofenvironmentally related deaths Unacceptable environmental, socialandeconomic costs Air Pollution: World’s Worst Environmental HealthRisk UNEP Year 2014emerging Book issuesupdate Further information aboutcitizen science Improving coordination to achieve greater impacts andunderstandingtraditionalRenewing knowledge Trends andrecent developments incitizen science involved:Getting citizen science thePotentialRealizing ofCitizen Science UNEP Year 2014emerging Book issuesupdate 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 3

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 4 Foreword

Ten years ago UNEP alerted the world to the development of dead zones in coastal waters resulting from excess nitrogen seeping into the water. That was in the first edition of the Year Book series. In the intervening period many more emerging issues have been identified, with some rising to crisis level and others showing encouraging improvement.

The 2014 Year Book shows how scientific endeavour and policy actions have led to innovative solutions and vital advancements. Yet these are frequently outpaced by overall economic growth. For example, as the fuel efficiency of cars has increased, the size of the vehicle fleet continues to grow. Similarly, as the aquaculture sector expands in response to the demand for food, scientists expect that its environmental impacts may double by 2030. For the illegal wildlife trade, a state of crisis has been reached, with the world standing to lose two iconic species as a result of the demand for ivory and rhino horn if no urgent action is taken.

The 2014 Year Book reconfirms the critical role that the environment plays in maintaining and improving the health of people and ecosystems: from the well-managed soils and nutrients that underpin food production to the critical role of biodiversity in protecting human health against the spread of infectious diseases. Clean air in our cities prevents the premature death and illness of millions of people and can save society trillions of dollars.

Our economies are still largely fossil-fuel based, with the environmental, economic and health costs largely hidden. For example, in the pristine polar regions, scientists have recently found tiny pieces of plastic trapped in sea ice. Transported by ocean currents across great distances, these contaminated particles eventually can become a source of chemicals in our food. The key of course is to prevent plastic debris from entering the environment in the first place.

The issues in the 2014 Year Book have clear connections. A warmer and wetter climate will cause shifts in the spread of infectious diseases, whilst rapid melting of Arctic glaciers will have far-reaching global implications for sea-level rise and the potential release of methane – a potent greenhouse gas. Strong action on air pollutants, especially particulate matter – of which black carbon is a component – would result in multiple benefits by not only slowing the melting of polar ice and snow, but also significantly improving human health.

A key message of the 2014 Year Book is that we will increasingly need access to timely, reliable environmental information from locations around the world so that we can identify issues as they emerge and develop effective actions and policies to respond to them. Without this, the global community’s efforts will be hampered. It is for this reason that UNEP is committed to helping countries improve their environmental data flow and to making knowledge much more widely accessible. From new space technologies to social media and citizen science, UNEP is supporting local and indigenous communities to start measuring and providing data themselves. The Year Book itself reflects this change by being launched as a mobile app, richly illustrating the topics with live graphics and video stories about positive initiatives that address existing and emerging issues.

I encourage you to explore the Year Book in its new format and use the 2014 Year Book update to support your own activities in the advancement of sustainable development.

Achim Steiner United Nations Under-Secretary-General and Executive Director, United Nations Environment Programme 5 EXCESS NITROGEN IN THE ENVIRONMENT The nitrogen cascade

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Excess Nitrogen in the Environment and isreferred to asthe ‘nitrogen cascade’. human health. This sequence continues over along period in theair, onland, infreshwater systems, andmarine andon nitrogen atom cancontribute to multiplenegative effects As nitrogen moves through theenvironment, thesame creates nitrogen oxides. andinenergy which production, fuel combustion intransport inadequately treated animalandhumanwastes andfossil fertilizers, sources ofexcess nitrogen intheenvironment are per year).additionto inefficient In application ofnitrogen created through natural processes (112milliontonnes million tonnes peryear) isnow greater thantheamount or ‘reactive’ nitrogen produced by humans(about190 over thepastcentury.human activity The amount ofusable The globalnitrogen hasbeenprofoundly cycle altered by visible indeveloped regions thanindeveloping ones. are more often Suchimpacts and livelihoods theysupport). ecosystemsto (andtheservices ofimportant theundermining with profound ranging from impacts airandwater pollution lossesto theenvironment, andlargelyenormous unnecessary in mostoftheworld’s agricultural systems –resulting in Today nitrogen andothernutrientsare usedinefficiently increase inglobalfood production. possible. fertilizers This was discovery followed by aspectacular in theairto ammoniamadethemanufacture ofnitrogen process agoofanindustrial thata century converted nitrogen Nitrogen isanessential nutrientfor plant growth. The discovery Changes intheglobalnitrogen cycle were firstproduced scalein1913. onanindustrial containing offertilizers manufacture nitrogen, which artificially. The Haber-Bosch process isessential for the (e.g. nitrogen fixation by legumessuchassoybeans) or be madeusableor ‘reactive’ through natural processes unusable by mostorganisms. Atmospheric nitrogen can this nitrogen exists almostentirely inaform that is There isanabundance ofnitrogen intheatmosphere, but processHaber-Bosch 100yearsNitrogen fertilizers: of using the Read moreRead aboutthenitrogen cascadeinthe2003 Year Book. • • • • • • • environmental problems, including: nitrogen intheenvironment contributes to many healthand cascade, whileair transfers thenitrogen more rapidly. Excess accumulate it, whichcanleadto slowing ofthenitrogen at thesamerate. For example, soil, forests andgrasslands Nitrogen doesnotmove through allenvironmental systems Simplified viewofthenitrogen cascade Key Unreactive di-nitrogen phosphate i n Mineral air(N) ( P O ) Intend N 4 & N 2 ultraviolet (UV) rays ultraviolet (UV) ozone, from whichprotects harmful life onEarth Global climate changeandthedepletionofstratospheric ground-level ozone exposure to nitrogen depositionandover-fertilization, aswell as Reduced crop, forest due andgrassland productivity component ofsmog, causingrespiratorydiseases aerosols andground-level (tropospheric) ozone, amain resulting fromHuman healthimpacts theformation of Groundwater pollutionby nitrates water systems dueto eutrophication andacidification Biodiversity lossinterrestrial, freshwater and coastal and leachinginto river systems eutrophication orhypoxia resulting from nitrate run-off Coastalkills due to severe deadzones andfish Freshwater pollutiondueto eutrophication andacidification 2

→ P N e d n r C w i Hi rop tr manufacture other s Ma o gh detergent manufacture co & gen Fer

Fer b

nu mbus in tempera iol til du

til products fa o iz x iz ctu g s a e tio e tr ical t r N Uni r i y s o red & n tu n &

ntend

P r

e

Co b w h Crops y e ns s

u d h m umpt u m a n for a E

n f nv io o concern s

ani o n ir d onm Green g

mal Nitrous Oxide & as M

e (N O)

a n mat ent b

F feed n 2 e al o h u r o g anc al o r erial d e y us ,

& e e

Nitrogen Oxides s Phosphorus run-o (PO Phosphorus run-o Lives N (NO ) Urban itr plus SewageN&P q ua ate leaching(NO), x Stratos Freshw tock ozo lit air y

ne farm ph ater

los S ozone in eri oil Troposph s g Ammonia Eutrophicati c a

(NH ) c idi 3 - formation Nat 3 4 3- ) Source: Sutton etal. 2013 c a eric ura t i o l n o

Ammonium nitrate eco n i n rain(NHNO) s y P st art Terrestrial Matter em ic ulat s 4

Further Nemission lakes &coastalseas e N &Pinstreams, 3 as NO&NO the cascade carrying on Eutrophicatio Marine E x r ut nitrogen 2 rophic n o Eventual f Nto a t io r n 2 7

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 EXCESS NITROGEN IN THE ENVIRONMENT Increased coastal dead zones and climate change impacts

Ongoing research is improving our understanding of how More than two-thirds of atmospheric emissions of nitrous excess nitrogen affects air, water and soil quality, puts pressure oxide arise from processes in soils, largely resulting from on ecosystems and biodiversity, leads to human health risks, application of nitrogen fertilizers. Some countries are and affects the global climate. Because of human modification experiencing intense air pollution, much of which is due of the nitrogen cycle, thresholds for reactive nitrogen have to nitrogen emissions. These emissions result in deposition already been exceeded in some places – with the risk of of nitrogen in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, with bringing about abrupt or irreversible environmental changes. implications for human and ecosystem health, biodiversity and climate change. Nitrogen deposition rates in the Organisms require oxygen to grow and reproduce. ‘Dead industrialized and agriculturally intensified regions of China zones’ are oxygen-depleted (hypoxic) areas that result from are reportedly as high as the peak rates in northwestern over-enrichment of waters with nutrients (especially nitrogen Europe in the 1980s, before the introduction of nitrogen and phosphorus), for example from fertilizer run-off, industrial emission mitigation measures. waste and sewage. Reported cases of coastal dead zones have doubled in each of the last four decades. There are currently Nitrogen plays a critical role in climate change mitigation, over 500 known dead zones in the world, whereas in 2003 adaptation and impacts. It has been suggested that nitrogen only around 150 such oxygen-depleted areas were reported. has a net cooling effect on climate change through the Close to 1000 other coastal and marine areas are experiencing contribution of aerosols (suspensions of tiny particles the effects of eutrophication. The number of areas identified formed from nitrous oxide, nitrogen oxide and ammonia as suffering from hypoxia is increasing most rapidly in the that scatter sunlight) and biomass growth in terrestrial and developing world. Rapid increases in algae growth in aquatic aquatic systems due to nitrogen fertilization, which leads to systems (algal blooms) are stimulated by nutrient enrichment. greater carbon dioxide (CO2) uptake. Climate warming results They can include toxic algae or algae that, after deposition, from increased nitrous oxide emissions, ground-level ozone cause damage to living coral reefs. production, and damage to vegetation because of over- fertilization with nitrogen. Even with the net cooling effect, Nitrogen emissions to the air – notably those of nitrous therefore, much can be done to reduce nitrogen’s warming oxide (N2O) – are contributing to climate change. Nitrous impacts and contribute to efforts to tackle climate change. oxide is naturally present in relatively small quantities in the atmosphere as part of the nitrogen cycle. However, human activities such as agriculture and deforestation, fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes and wastewater management are increasing the amount in the atmosphere.

Nitrous oxide: the ‘forgotten greenhouse gas’

Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions continue to increase

globally. N2O is a powerful greenhouse gas that causes stratospheric ozone layer depletion. Sometimes referred to as the ‘forgotten greenhouse gas’, it is over 300 times more effective at trapping heat in the atmosphere than

carbon dioxide (CO2) over a 100-year period.

© http://www.daypic.ru 8 (EU) Nitrates Directive, whichisintended to prevent nitrates management. For example, despite the1991European Union tousing fertilizers improve oftheirnutrient theefficiency misuse orover-use. There isconsiderable scope for farmers worldwide andto minimize thenegative oftheir impacts maximize thebenefitsofusingmanufactured fertilizers Fertilizer best management are practices designed to measures ontheenvironment, economies andlanduse. animations that helpsusersunderstand theeffectsofdifferent for watershed managers, andN-Visualisation, atool with footprint’ tool designed asimplegeo-spatial model, N-Sink, management. These includetheN-Calculator, a ‘nitrogen and othersintheagriculturalonbetter nutrient sector makers andthegeneral public, aswell asto educate farmers to increase awareness ofthenitrogen issueby decision A numberoftools have beendeveloped inrecent years management andwaste treatment. creating greater awareness oftheurgent needfor better nutrient forward through programme aconcerted including ofactions, This commitment by needsto theglobalcommunity betaken ecosystems. ofsuchpollutionon marine incidence andimpacts World madeacommitment to leadersat reduce Rio+20 to act the compounds, from andland-basedsources.’ anumberofmarine biodiversity are negatively affected by (…)nitrogen-based also ‘noted withconcern that thehealthofoceans andmarine outcome(Rio+20) document Future‘The We Want’, governments the 2012UNConferenceIn onSustainableDevelopment agencies addressing nutrients. work acrossco-operative international andregional fora and for countries andotherstakeholdersidentify opportunities resources andenvironmental meansofGPNM, protection. By ofnatural(through conservation increased productivity), nutrient management inorder to achieve food security and UNagencies–allcommitted to promoting effective sector, thescientific community, organizations civilsociety madeupofgovernments,stakeholder partnership theprivate (GPNM).Management Establishedin2009,GPNMisamulti- challenge by endorsingtheGlobalPartnership ofNutrient 2011governmentsIn agreed to address thenitrogen What isbeingdoneto reduce excess nitrogen releases? climate change mitigation, adaptation and impacts. increasing nitrogen inputs, includingnitrogen’s role critical in environmental andhumanhealthconsequences ofever- In particular, effective action. awareness isneeded ofthe losses to theenvironment andcreate the momentum to take be better understood andcommunicated inorder to reduce There iswiderecognition that thenitrogen issueneedsto treatment that removes mostofthenitrogen. many sewage treatment facilitiesdonotincludethetertiary does littleto remove nitrogen. Even inthedeveloped world, treatment,exist, provide they often which only primary cities have any form ofsewage treatment. Where suchfacilities the environment. developing In countries, fewer than35%of growing world population hasincreased nitrogen inputsto The volume ofsewage waste andindustrial generated by a amount usedandlesseningenvironmental offertilizer damage. increasing crop yieldsandfarmers’ incomes whilereducing the deep placement are examples. Such innovations are aimedat billions ofpeople. Controlled-release andfertilizer fertilizers released to theenvironment, foodfor whileensuring security Technological innovations canalsolimittheamount ofnitrogen are required services extension throughout theworld. guidelines, educational programmes andindependent conditions, soilsandotherfactors. Adequate andappropriate There are andsizes, large variationstypes infarm climatic nitrogen lossesto theenvironment from agricultural sources. use efficiency. Thisisthemost option cost-effective for reducing Better management are practices essential to improve nitrogen excessive nitrogen inputs. efficiently inviewofthenegative environmental of impacts through use, fertilizer rather more thanonapplyingfertilizer focus often onincreasing production services and extension subsidiesinmanyfertilizer countries. Furthermore, education One reason for inefficient nutrientuseisthe existence of reduced ofnitrogen thistype pollutionsofar. only two EUcountries, andtheNetherlands, have Denmark from agricultural sources waters, pollutingground andsurface nitrogen 9

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 EXCESS NITROGEN IN THE ENVIRONMENT Towards integrated nitrogen management

Our knowledge of the nitrogen cycle has improved in the last Society faces profound challenges in trying to meet global decade, along with our ability to quantify the sources, fate and demands for food, fibre and fuel while minimizing nitrogen’s impacts of nitrogen in the environment. However, because of unintended negative environmental and human health the complexity of the nitrogen cycle and the different scales impacts. Effective management policies need to be in place involved (from local to global), scientific understanding and to prevent or reduce air pollution, eutrophication and climate measures to reduce nitrogen pollution are often focused on effects, among others. A number of key actions for more individual sectors. effective management have been proposed that could reduce the amount of nitrogen entering the environment, using an There is also a fragmentation of the policies that address integrated approach. Generally these include the following: aspects of the nitrogen challenge. These policies typically focus on environmental compartments (e.g. air, water, soil), • Focusing on natural production (nitrogen ‘fixing’) while particular environmental issues (e.g. waste management, limiting flows of reactive nitrogen biodiversity loss, climate change) or a single form of nitrogen • Fixing nitrogen in such a way that it does not find its (e.g. nitrates, nitrogen oxides). way back into the environment, and, if possible, reuse nitrogen The scale on which stakeholders operate also differs, ranging • Using technology that converts nitrogen back into from the global commodity level in the case of the fertilizer unreactive nitrogen (N2) as soon as possible industry to small-scale farmers and local communities. More comprehensive, integrated management is needed to reduce Technological innovations – and wide dissemination of these the adverse effects of excess nitrogen in the environment technologies and of good practices – are crucial. However, while optimizing food production and energy use. There is an the immense impacts of human activities on the nitrogen urgent need to: cycle, especially since the mid 20th century, also call for re- evaluating 21st century consumption patterns – that is, our • Develop joined-up approaches that take into account nitrogen footprint. impacts on the nitrogen cycle in, for example, the production and consumption of food and energy, as well as the risks to ecosystems, biodiversity, the climate and human health • Establish internationally agreed targets for integrated nitrogen management • Coordinate (and collaborate) among regions and locations in order to make the large improvements needed in global nitrogen use efficiency

One of the key messages of the recent ‘Our Nutrient World’ report is that a 20% improvement in global nutrient use efficiency by 2020 would reduce annual use of nitrogen fertilizer by an estimated 20 million tonnes. This, in turn, could produce net savings of US$50-400 billion per year in terms of improvements in human health, climate and biodiversity. Source: Sutton et al. 2013

10 sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780124076686 and Economic Perspectives. Elsevierhttp://www. Environments inaChanging Climate: Sustainability Noone, etal. K.J., (2013).ManagingOcean nature/journal/v494/n7438/pdf/nature11917.pdf China. Nature, 494,459-462http://www.nature.com/ Liu, X.,etal. (2013).Enhanced nitrogen depositionover pii/S221146451100008X 40–66 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ to theenvironment. Environmental Development 1, help consumers understandtheirrole innitrogen losses Leach, A.M.etal. (2012).Anitrogen footprint modelto org/content/320/5878/889 Science, 320(5878),889-892http://www.sciencemag. Recent trends,cycle: questions, andpotential solutions. Galloway, J., etal. (2008). Transformation ofthenitrogen BioScience, 53(4),341-356. Galloway, J.N. etal. (2003). The nitrogen cascade. content/368/1621/20130165.full 368, 1621http://www.rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/ Transactions oftheRoyal Society. B:Biological Sciences, introduction. Philosophical the twenty-first century: Fowler, D., etal. (2013). The globalnitrogen in cycle abs/ngeo325.html - 639http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v1/n10/ synthesis changedtheworld. Nature Geoscience 1,636 J.W.Erisman, et al. ofammonia (2008).How acentury effect_on_climate_change Reactive_nitrogen_in_the_environment_and_its_ http://www.researchgate.net/publication/230619445_ Opinion inEnvironmental 3(5),281-290 Sustainability environment anditseffectonclimate change, Current J.W.Erisman, et al. nitrogen (2011).Reactive inthe content/368/1621/20130116.short www.rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/ cycle. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 368(1621)http:// human modification oftheglobalnitrogen J.W.Erisman, et al. (2013).Consequences of pdf environment/integration/research/newsalert/pdf/IR6. for Policy http://www.ec.europa.eu/ Air Quality Pollution andtheEuropean Environment Implications EC (2013).Sciencefor Environment Policy. Nitrogen agriculture/49841630.pdf Waters. OECDhttp://www.oecd.org/tad/sustainable- Aquaculture: Hypoxia andEutrophication inMarine Díaz, R.,etal. (2012).Agriculture’s on Impact DavidsonetalIssuesEcol.12.pdf http://www.whrc.org/resources/publications/pdf/ No.Ecology 15.Ecological ofAmerica Report Society environment: Trends, risks, andsolutions. Issuesin Davidson, E.A., etal. (2012).Excess nitrogen intheU.S. Further information aboutexcess nitrogen intheenvironment work/project/eutrophication-and-hypoxia Eutrophication &Hypoxia http://www.wri.org/our- World Resources of (2013).Interactive Map Institute details.asp?id=DTI/0904/PA of aGood Thing http://www.unep.fr/scp/publications/ Nitrogen intheEnvironment: Too or Much Too Little UNEP and Woods HoleResearch Center (2007).Reactive UNEPN2Oreport/ Kenya http://www.unep.org/publications/ebooks/ Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),Nairobi, and theOzone Layer. United AUNEPSynthesis Report. UNEP (2013).Drawing Down N2Oto Protect Climate Oceans_final%20version.pdf documents/1339Non_recurrent_e_publication_ www.sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ development: Local andregional experiences http:// social andenvironmental dimensionsofsustainable seas-related measures contribute to theeconomic, UNDP, UNEP, (2014).How UNWTO oceans- and UNDESA, UN-DOALOS/OLA, IAEA,IMO, IOC-UNESCO, xhtml royalsocietypublishing.org/site/2012/nitrous_oxide. B: Biological Sciences, 367http://www.rstb. Philosophical Transactions oftheRoyal Society. “Nitrous oxide: theforgotten greenhouse gas”. Thompson, A.J., etal. (eds.) Issue (2012a).Meeting management-gpnm/143-our-nutrient-world and-resources/global-partnership-on-nutrient- partnership-on-nutrient-management/publications- pollution http://www.gpa.unep.org/index.php/global- challenge to produce more food andenergy withless Sutton, M.A., etal. Nutrient (2013).Our World. The frontmatter/9781107006126_frontmatter.pdf http://www.assets.cambridge.org/97811070/06126/ Cambridge University Press; for Policy Makers Summary Assessment: Sources, Effectsand Policy Perspectives. Sutton, M. A.,etal. (2011). The European Nitrogen z#page-1 springer.com/article/10.1007/s10533-012-9795- issue. Biogeochemistry, 114:1-10http://www.link. interactions intheUnited States: foreword to thematic ofnitrogen-climate climate changeandtheimpacts E.C., etal.Suddick, (2013). The role ofnitrogen in publication/STAP_Hypoxia_low.pdf http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/ STAP Document. GlobalEnvironment Advisory Facility Advice for Prevention, RemediationandResearch. A intheCoastal Zone.Hypoxia andNutrientReduction STAP and (Scientific Technical Advisory Panel) (2011). nitrogen 11

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 The emergence of infectious diseaseS Emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update The Emergence of Infectious Diseases responsible for anddenguefever. diseaseslikemalaria ideal environments for mosquitoes, whichare thevector Infrastructure, channels, such asdamsandirrigation creates species, orcreate favourable conditions for diseasehosts. the numberofnatural predators, changethedominance of ofnaturaldeterioration habitats ordestruction canreduce ofinfectiousdiseases. Forand re-emergence example, the Environmental changeplays amajorrole inthe emergence slow development ofaffordable new vaccines. pesticides andofsomeparasites to medicines, aswell asthe was the growingthis impact resistance ofmany vectors to and accounting for 25%ofglobalmortality. Contributing to themtheworld’sdiseases, making leadingcauseofdeath that 15millionpeoplediedannuallyfromreported infectious to anotherorfrom ananimalto people. The 2004/5 Year Book that spread viaavector orindirectly directly microorganisms viruses, suchasbacteria, parasites andfungi Human infectiousdiseasesare causedby pathogenic health threat. conditions andairtravel coming together, creating aglobal of humanpopulations, economic environmental activities, had spread from bats to humans–was astunningexample whichlikely a previouslycoronavirus unknown (SARS-CoV) more than8000othersill. The SARSoutbreak –causedby EuropeAmerica, 774peopleandmaking andAsia, killing spread to more andSouth thantwo dozen countries inNorth was officiallydeclared contained just five months later, ithad in Asia inFebruary 2003.Before thisviral respiratoryillness Severe acute respiratorysyndrome (SARS)was first reported ofinfectiousdiseases Emergence andre-emergence ‘vertically’ viatheir mothers. transmit itto another. However, some vectors are infected vectors acquireMost adiseasefrom onehostand whichtransmits aninfectiousdiseaseto ahost.insect), (e.g.A vector isananimal, anarthropod typically atickor Vectors from oneperson diseases inthe2004/5 Year Book. more infectious Read aboutemerging andre-emerging that are by water, carried air, food, mosquitoes orrodents. for and infectiousdiseaseslikeinfluenza, malaria Nile virus West disasters, itcanleadto contagion –creating abreeding ground from poverty, ordisplacement ornatural dueto conflicts lived inslum-likeconditions. Whether overcrowding results management orvector control. 2012,863millionpeople In Many peopleworldwide lack adequate sanitation, waste ofemergingThe vast majority infectiousdiseasesare zoonotic. diseases alsohave oneormore inthewild. animalreservoirs to humans. EbolaandLyme diseaseare examples, butother to wildlife, allowing previouslydiseasesto spread unknown Land usechangeanddeforestation peoplecloser canbring being affected by environmental conditions. mostoftheirlifecycleduring are especiallysusceptible to by agentsDiseases carried that are outsidethehumanhost transmitted from anon-humanvertebrate hostto humans. Zoonotic diseases are diseasesinwhichthepathogen is Zoonotic diseases © BalazsKovacs Images/Shutterstock infectious diseases 13

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 The emergence of infectious diseaseS Combatting infectious disease while addressing environmental challenges

Infectious diseases are the world’s leading cause of death for reduced to close to zero in some communities. Mortality rates children and adolescents. They are the second leading overall dropped by 42% globally and by 49% in Africa between 2000 cause of death after heart disease. Continuous outbreaks and 2012, with an estimated 450,000 lives saved in a single of infectious diseases have been reported during the past year. decade. In the first half of 2014, ebola caused over 200 deaths in West Africa and over 500 people contracted Middle East However, global climate change is expected to result in Respiratory Syndrome (MERS). There were more than 145 fatal increased rainfall and higher temperatures. It also will lead cases of MERS. to changes in habitats and in the presence of vectors such as mosquitoes, which will be able to move into new areas Although great strides have been made, millions of people and reach vulnerable populations that have had little or continue to die each year from infectious diseases and no previous exposure to the diseases. A recent study in the millions more suffer permanent disabilities or poor health. highlands of Ethiopia and Colombia showed that malaria is A triple threat is represented by new infectious diseases, the already spreading in warmer years to higher elevations where re-emergence of infectious diseases that were once under it was not previously seen. This implies that there may be control, and the continuous development of antibiotic further exposures of densely populated regions of Africa and resistance. Along with changes in society and technology Latin America to malaria as a result of climate change. – and in the microorganisms themselves – these factors are contributing to a ‘perfect storm’ of vulnerability. Preventing infectious diseases through environmental management and climate change mitigation is highly cost- Environmental factors play a major role in the development effective. For example, malaria costs Africa US$12 billion and transmission of infectious diseases. Science increasingly annually while a comprehensive African malaria control shows that human-induced changes in the environment programme would cost an average of US$3 billion per year. linked to population dynamics, climate change, land use and globalization are associated with infectious disease Understanding how a changing climate and environment patterns. Biodiversity, which can play an important role as drive the emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases a buffer, helps protect against infectious diseases. Several can lead to effective strategies to combat their development studies have suggested that as biodiversity is lost, there is an and spread. Ecosystem- and community-based approaches increase in the rate of disease transmission. A range of factors have proven to be valuable tools. may be involved, including changes in the abundance and altered behaviour of a host, vector or parasite. This effect of Climate change: a game changer? biodiversity loss has been reported for diseases including malaria, Lyme disease, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis and Climate change has implications for human health, schistosomiasis. especially with respect to vector-borne and water-borne infectious diseases such as cholera and dengue. Parasites Major progress in malaria control in the past decade has also and water-borne pathogens and vectors may find a more been made partly through environmental management. By hospitable environment not only where there are warmer preventing or removing the breeding sites of mosquitoes that temperatures, but also where there is rising humidity or carry the malaria parasite, and keeping the mosquitoes out disaster events are occurring. In countries where some of living spaces (e.g. with screens and treated mosquito bed infectious diseases have essentially been eradicated, nets, coupled with spraying), malaria transmission has been climate change could expand vector range and some diseases could make a comeback.

14 actively supported by NGOsandother UNorganizations, supported actively expansion approaches. ofcommunity are also Suchactivities gain access to improved sanitation, largely thanksto the programmesemergency helpedmore than10millionpeople through theUnited Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)non- of infectiousdisease. 2012, In WASH initiatives implemented hygiene (WASH) isanother effective way to minimizerisks the Improving acommunity’s access to water, sanitation and andrespiratoryinfections.diarrhoea mothers andchildren that have helpedreduce therate of has brought aboutlong-lastingbehavioural changesin campaign promoting hand-washing withsoap, SupperAmma, a health andsanitationchange community India practices. In organizations (NGOs)andothershelpraise awareness and ways. Educational campaigns by non-governmental be disseminated to communities insimplebutinnovative messagesaboutdiseasetransmission needto Important educationcommunity withhousingimprovements. 10), where Chagasdiseasewas controlled by combining builds onthesuccess inGuatemala ofprevious (2003- efforts parasite. thedisease-causing This project homes andcarry controlling speciesthat infest theinsect constructed poorly toare reduce working thetransmission ofthisdiseaseby disease inElSalvador, Guatemala andHonduras. Researchers an is taking ‘ecohealth approach’ to combatting Chagas communities. For example, inCentral anewproject America diseases isgainingrecognition from governments andlocal management approaches infighting thespread ofinfectious The effectiveness ofecosystem andenvironmental Taking to combat actions infectiousdiseases Chagas. It kills more than10,000peopleperyear. kills Chagas. It ofthosewhoare infected developOne-third chronic disease, whichisendemic inmany poor, rural areas. than 10millionpeopleintheregion are infected withthis animals to peopleby thebite ofatriatomine bug. More caused by aparasite transmitted from wildlife ordomestic is challenges inLatin andtheCaribbean. America It publichealth Chagas diseaseisoneofthemostserious Chagas disease cle/20130303/NEWS04/303030062/VIDEO-Preservation-An-antidote-Lyme-disease For videolinks pleasegoto http://www.archive.poughkeepsiejournal.com/arti- the northeastern USA the northeastern ofhostspecies inthetransmissionRoles ofLyme diseasein information onmore than80,000casesand31diseaseoutbreaks. received contributions from over 600individualsandcollected countries. DISAMAR inPeru, An example isAlerta whichhas indeveloping informal networks infectiousdiseasesurveillance phoneshaveglobally in2014.Mobile thepotential to support There were almost7billionmobilephonesubscriptions andreduces falsealarms. of alerts evidence increases andtimeliness that HealthMap thesensitivity informationonline surveillance onemerging diseases. There is online news, eyewitness andofficial to reports, provide real-time from traditional andpublichealthinformation systems including developers. freelyand software accessible Its website usesdata establishedbynetwork ateam ofresearchers, epidemiologists international is an innovative HealthMap importance. surveillance provide rapid identification ofany outbreaks that might beof institutions, organizations around andnetworks theworld to (GOARN), Network andResponse whichlinksmedical Alert the international level, WHO hasestablishedtheGlobalOutbreak isthereforeSurveillance lineofdefence. anotherimportant At trade contribute to therapid spread ofinfectiousdiseases. cooperation andcoordination. International travel and Effective prevention ofinfectious diseases requires global (UNDP), WHO andOxfam. including theUnited Nations Development Programme Roles ofhostspeciesinthetransmissionLymediseasenortheasternUSA. Source: Keesingetal.2010 Ticks groomed o andkilled (1012 per hectare) White-footed mouse (906 perhectare) (78 perhectare) Ticks fedand Ticks fedand uninfected infected Blacklegged tick (5487 perhectare) Ticks groomedo and killed Vir ginia opossum infectious diseases (194 perhectare) (5 perhectare) Ticks fedand Ticks fedand uninfected infected 15

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 The emergence of infectious diseaseS A multi-sectoral approach to ensure healthy life for all

The control of infectious diseases can be further strengthened through recognition of the potential contribution of environmental management to preventing their emergence and spread. Climate change remains one of the biggest threats with respect to the spread of vectors and water-borne disease, especially diarrhoeal diseases. Evidence, and better understanding, of the multiple benefits of climate change mitigation are growing. In addition, practical initiatives such as ensuring adequate access to safe water and sanitation (e.g. through the Sanitation and Water for All Global Partnership) and appropriate shelter contribute to combatting infectious diseases. International dialogue and cooperation have been essential in the past and will continue to be required in the future.

There is increasing recognition of the role ecosystems and © Sanitation for All biodiversity play in protecting and enhancing human health. This goes beyond undiscovered plants that might provide Environmental disruption leads to the emergence, new treatments, or undisturbed wetlands that filter disease- amplification and spread of new diseases, while intact causing organisms (e.g. in drinking water) – although these ecosystems have a protective effect. This suggests an exciting benefits are also important arguments for biodiversity new approach to infectious disease control: by working to conservation. ensure a strong and healthy environment, we can help protect people against the devastating impacts of infectious disease. There are formidable challenges to be met. Interactions within ecosystems are complex. However, there is much to be gained by pursuing this approach, which can supplement more traditional public health activities.

Like other urgent environmentally related problems (e.g. air and water pollution), infectious diseases know no boundaries. Efforts to prevent, detect and respond to infectious diseases cannot be carried out successfully at the local or national level alone, or by a single group of stakeholders. Combatting their spread requires well coordinated actions, based on reliable information and effective communication among various partners. Multi-sectoral approaches that recognize the roles of actors at all levels need to be better recognized © Shutterstock/tomgigabite and supported, particularly in developing countries, in order to address the links between human health, the environment and economic activities and make healthy lives for all possible.

16 Human_Health/Pages/About.aspx and_the_Environment/Ecosystem_Approaches_to_ we do. http://www.idrc.ca/EN/Programs/Agriculture_ (2014). Ecosystems and humanhealth: Why we dowhat IRDC (InternationalDevelopment Research Centre) biodiversity-and-infectious-diseases Diseaseshttp://chge.med.harvard.edu/topic/Infectious and theGlobalEnvironment (2012).Biodiversity and ofPublic School Health/CentreHarvard for Health geo_yearbook_2004.pdf Findings http://www.unep.org/yearbook/2004/pdf/ Geo Year (2004/2005)Emerging Book Challenges-New Diseases:Linksto EnvironmentalInfectious Change. Goldstein, B., etal. (2005).Emerging andRe-emerging impacts-Lyme-disease-watch-video NEWS04/130228009/Coming-Sunday-Biodiversity- poughkeepsiejournal.com/article/20130228/ Poughkeepsie Journal, Feb. 28,2013http://www. Ferro, J.Lyme (2013).Biodiversity impacts Disease. 7790-7792 http://jvi.asm.org/content/87/14/7790.full the Coronavirus Study Group. Journal Virol 2013;87: announcement of syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): Groot,De B.R.J., Eastrespiratory etal. (2013)Middle http://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/mers/ Syndrome EastRespiratory (MERS) CDC (2014).Middle cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/outbreaks/guinea/ andSierra LeoneEbola inGuinea,Liberia, http://www. Fever.CDC (2014).EbolaHemorrhagic Outbreak of westnile/index.html CDC (2014). West Nile Virus http://www.cdc.gov/ Syndrome (SARS)http://www.cdc.gov/sars/index.html (United States) (2014a).Severe Acute Respiratory CDC (Centers for DiseaseControl andPrevention) info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0050151 Medicine, 8Julyhttp://www.plosmedicine.org/article/ Disease IntelligenceProject. andtheHealthMap PLOS Frontières: Internet-Based Emerging Infectious Brownstein, J.S., etal. Sans (2008).Surveillance S1075996411001053 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ withinEurope.community Anaerobe, 17,6,337-40 and growing awareness from thepublichealth environment scenarios andinfection:facts, C.,etal. (2011)ClimateBezirtzoglou, changes, Environmental HealthPerspectives, 117,7,1023-1032 Health-BasedSystemsfor Interdisciplinary Research. andProposal Diseases:AReview Related Infectious Batterman, S.,etal. (2009)SustainableControl of Water- content/341/6145/514.abstract Framework http://www.sciencemag.org/ (abstract) Diseases:FromInfectious Evidence to aPredictive Altizer, S.,etal. (2013)Climate Changeand Further information aboutinfectiousdiseases org/content/343/6175/1154 Science, 343,6175,1154-1158.http://www.sciencemag. ofEthiopia andColombia. inHighlands Incidence Siraj, A.S.(2014). Altitudinal ChangesinMalaria http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/08-0506.1 oninfectiousdiseases. Ecology,impacts 90,4,927-931 S.E. (2009)PerspectivesRandolph, on climate change eri-ire/coronavirus/fact-feuillet-eng.php http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) SyndromeAsked EastRespiratory Questions. Middle Public ofCanada HealthAgency (2014).Frequently bio_2009_59_11.pdf 954 http://www.epa.gov/ncer/biodiversity/pubs/ Global DiseaseEcology. BioScience, 59, 11,945- Pongsiri, M.J., etal. (2009).Biodiversity Loss Affects ecolsys-102710-145022 www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev- Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 43,157-82 http:// diversity oninfectiousdisease. Annual Review Ostfeld, R.,andKeesing, F. (2012)Effects of host Health_from_%20Global_Environmental_Change.pdf files/Myers_Emerging_Threats_To_Human_%20 223-252 http://chge.med.harvard.edu/sites/default/ ofEnvironmentAnnual Review andResources, 34,1. human healthfrom globalenvironmental change. Myers, S.S.andPatz, J.A. (2009).Emerging threats to of-ecosystem-alteration.pdf wcs.org/files/pdfs/PNAS-2013-Human-health-impacts- Academy ofScience, 110,47,18753-18760http://www. ecosystem alteration. Proceedings oftheNational Myers, of S.S.,etal. (2013).Humanhealthimpacts pone.0090032 plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal. Loss Matter. PLoS One, 9,2,e90032http://www. Outbreaks inAsia-Pacific:RegulationIts Biodiversity and Morand, S.S.,etal.Diseasesand (2014).Infectious Their ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3620092/ Health Perspectives, 121,4,a120–a125http://www. EnvironmentalBiodiversity andHumanDiseaseRisk. Levy, S.(2013) The Lyme DiseaseDebate Host Nature emergence andtransmission ofinfectiousdiseases. Keesing, F., ofbiodiversity onthe etal. (2010).Impacts markbrDoes-almost-everyone-have-a-phone.note.aspx En/3741-Mobile-subscriptions-near-the-78209billion- havealmost everyone aphone?https://itunews.itu.int/ nearthe7billionmark Does subscriptions Mobile ITU (International Telecommunication Union)(2014). articledetails.aspx?publicationid=1100 ecosystem_approaches_to_human_health/pages/ ca/en/programs/agriculture_and_the_environment/ Chagas diseaseinCentral http://www.idrc. America IRDC (2014b). Ecosystems andhumanhealth: Tackling content/74/6/1034.full.pdf Hygiene, 74,6,1034-1042http://www.ajtmh.org/ of Journal American Lanka. Tropical and Medicine diseasepreventionborne inrice ecosystems inSri foractions mosquito control andmosquito- knowledge, agricultural practices, andcommunity Yasuoka, ofeducation J., on etal. (2006).Impact disease/poliomyelitis/en/ Poliomyelitis http://www.who.int/csr/don/archive/ (GAR). andResponse WHO (2014).GlobalAlert coronavirus_infections/archive_updates/en/ updates http://www.who.int/csr/disease/CoV summary (GAR). andResponse MERS- WHO (2014).GlobalAlert www.who.int/ith/diseases/lyme/en/ WHO (2014).Lyme Borreliosis (Lyme disease)http:// http://www.who.int/topics/emerging_diseases/en/ WHO (2014).Health Topics. Emerging DiseaseDefinition http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/ WHO (2014).Ebola Virus Disease. Fact sheetN°103 Landscape_Today.pdf?ua=1 action_plan/GVAP_Introduction_and_Immunization_ http://www.who.int/immunization/global_vaccine_ WHO (2013).Global Vaccine Plan Action 2011-2020 en/ www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2003/pr56/ Outbreak Controlled. Worldwide Centre Media http:// HealthOrganization) (2003).SARS WHO (World com sanitation for allhttp://sanitationupdates.wordpress. Sanitation updates. News, opinionsandresources for UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund) (2014). info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0017642 ONE, 6,3,e17642http://www.plosone.org/article/ Platform Diseases. Infectious for PLoS Respiratory Vaccine Nanoparticle-Based Intranasal Single-Dose Ulery, B.D., etal. (2011).Design ofaProtective smartglobalhealth.org/issues/entry/infectious-diseases Diseases: aPersistent Threat .http://www. The GlobalHealthPolicy Center (2014).Infectious infectious diseases 17

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Fish and shellfish farming in marine ecosystems Marine Fish and Shellfish Farming Implications for the environment of providing food from the ocean

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Fish and Shellfish Farming in Marine Ecosystems fish and shellfish farming Implications for the environment of providing food from the ocean

Helping to feed a growing world population, aquaculture Trophic level production has increased since the 1950s from 650 thousand tonnes to almost 67 million tonnes. In the same period, the The trophic level (TL) of a species is the number of total marine catch has increased from 20 million to about 80 consumption steps between that species and primary million tonnes. Today, aquaculture provides half of all fish for producers such as algae, which are by definition TL1. A human consumption and the sector is expected to grow. filter feeding mussel has a TL between 2 and 3, while an Atlantic salmon is between TL4 and 5. To grow to the While significant progress has been made over the past same weight a mussel requires less energy input than a decades towards making marine aquaculture more salmon. sustainable, environmental concerns remain – reflecting this sector’s rapid growth. Broadly speaking, fish farms can release nutrients, undigested feed and veterinary drugs, and other Shrimp farming has expanded rapidly in the past several biocides to the environment. They can also create conditions decades. Destruction of coastal habitats, especially mangrove that increase risks of diseases and parasites and of harmful forests, has been attributed in particular to extensive shrimp algal blooms. In some countries certain forms of shrimp farming. Other impacts include water pollution by chemicals farming have destroyed large areas of coastal habitats, such and pharmaceuticals, eutrophication resulting from releases as mangrove forests. Farmed fish and shellfish can escape to of nutrients in the form of feed and waste, and salinization of surrounding waters, which may have negative impacts on arable land and freshwater supplies. In many places there have ecosystems through genetic regression or introduction of also been social and community impacts. invasive species. Use of fish-based feeds in aquaculture can put additional pressures on poorly managed wild fish stocks Marine net pen farming involves rearing fish from the and on the marine environment. juvenile to harvest stages in net pens. Atlantic salmon is normally farmed in net pens. Environmental impacts include Despite these implications for the environment, there the discharge of waste to bottom-dwelling communities (e.g. is increasing potential for responsibly managed marine cold water corals). The high density of Atlantic salmon in open aquaculture to provide food from the oceans, particularly cages can lead to disease or parasite outbreaks, with potential in view of increasing pressures on freshwater and terrestrial impacts on wild populations. Escapees can act as vectors and, ecosystems, including those related to climate change. The particularly if genetically modified, affect wild populations’ main systems of marine aquaculture differ in their potential genetic variability. Marine net pen farmed species, which tend environmental consequences: to feed naturally on fish, require high amounts of protein as well as fishmeal and fish oil in their diet. This can impact both Extractive aquaculture is the practice of enhancing terrestrial and marine ecosystems. production of molluscs. Larvae or juveniles are seeded to the sea bottom or attached to manmade structures, where they Read more about fish and shellfish farming in the grow feeding on (or ‘extracting’) natural phytoplankton. The 2006 Year Book. detrimental environmental impacts of extractive aquaculture are comparatively low, partly because of the species’ low trophic level. However, there is a risk that non-native species will be introduced. UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 YEAR UNEP

19 Fish and shellfish farming in marine ecosystems Development of marine aquaculture

Marine aquaculture production has grown by over 35% since Aquaculture has been estimated to use 63 and 81%, 2004 in total volume. Farmed fish production surpassed beef respectively, of global fishmeal and fish oil. Fish feeds for production in 2012. In absolute terms, the greatest growth in carnivorous, high trophic fish species typically contain large fish and shellfish farming has been in Asia. The highest relative amounts of protein – often sourced from fishmeal and fish growth has taken place in Oceania. While the economic oil – which could potentially have detrimental effects on importance of marine aquaculture in Small Island Developing poorly managed wild fish stocks. While their shares in feeds States (SIDS) varies, it is low overall. Africa was expected to are decreasing due to replacement by alternative ingredients, see a ‘dramatic increase’ in marine aquaculture over the past fishmeal and fish oil will continue to be used to meet decade, but this increase has not been realized so far. With the nutritional requirements but at lower levels. Fish processing decline in production of tiger shrimp, the size of the sector has offcuts have been identified as a potentially important shrunk in Africa. source of high-quality feed ingredient and already provide 25% of all fishmeal and fish oil used. Alternatives should not Europe is the only region where the share of marine be considered in isolation. For example, replacing fishmeal aquaculture in total aquaculture production is growing. To and fish oil with plants such as soy or rapeseed might have a great extent, this is due to successful farming of Atlantic unwanted detrimental impacts on terrestrial ecosystems. salmon, one of the species with the highest production (2 million tonnes globally in 2012). Molluscs also continue to Another important development is the relocation of shrimp contribute a significant portion of production (over 20%). farms from tidal mangrove habitats to sites (and natural habitats) further upland, using more intensive production Recently there has been notable growth in production of a patterns requiring greater investments and technical number of aquaculture species, including groupers, milkfish, expertise. According to the Global Aquaculture Alliance, today Indo-Pacific swamp crab, pompanos, turbot, sole and whiteleg mangrove losses due to shrimp farming have virtually ceased shrimp. Production of whiteleg shrimp overtook that of to occur. tiger shrimp in 2003. It requires less expensive feed than tiger shrimp due to a lower protein requirement, and overall Fishmeal and fish oil production costs are lower. Immense populations of forage fish and low trophic Fish feeds for carnivorous, high trophic level fish species species such as anchovy, herring and krill live in the typically contain large amounts of protein – often sourced ocean. They are often the cornerstones of marine food from fishmeal and fish oil – with potentially detrimental webs. So-called ‘reduction fisheries’ produce protein and effects on poorly managed wild fish stocks. Since production nutrient-rich fishmeal and fish oil used as feed in trophic level of fishmeal and fish oil is stabilizing and prices aquaculture – where it can be indispensable – and for are rising, the aquaculture sector is seeking alternatives. In raising animals such as poultry. They are also increasingly Norway, for example, the share of fishmeal, fish oil and plant used as direct human nutrition (e.g. in fish oil in capsules). protein in Atlantic salmon production changed from 64, The largest fishery in the world (for Peruvian anchovy) is a 23 and 0% respectively in 1990 to 26, 17 and 37% in 2010. forage fishery where less than 1% of fish are used for Overall, a decrease in the trophic level of cultured finfish was human consumption. reported between 1950 and 2006, with a slight increase since the mid-1980s.

20 fish and shellfish farming Marine aquaculture with less impact

Consumer awareness of, and interest in, more sustainable Significant health related technological advances have taken aquaculture products is increasing. Sector-based activities place in marine aquaculture. For example, specific pathogen free such as the Global Salmon Initiative are important responsive tiger and whiteleg shrimp broodstock, or vaccinations of salmon, mechanisms that can also support sustainability certification. can reduce the need to use chemicals in farming for disease A number of aquaculture related certification schemes have treatment with their associated environmental impacts. In net been developed in past years. They include Naturland, the pens, wrasses have been used as cleaner fish to treat sea lice. Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA) Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) standards, and the Aquaculture Stewardship Council The increase in the number of closed aquaculture systems (ASC). The ASC has adopted standards for salmon as well as whose exchanges with natural ecosystems are limited, could tilapia, pangasius, trout, abalone and bivalves. It adopted a potentially reduce the impacts of wastewater and chemicals shrimp standard in March 2014. Many farms have already from aquaculture on water quality. been certified to these standards. The technical guidelines of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) on aquaculture The FAO has published an extensive series of technical certification were recently approved at intergovernmental guidelines which support the public and private sector in level. taking concrete steps to make marine aquaculture sustainable.

Independent sustainability certification can be a powerful tool A significant global contribution to sustainability could be that goes beyond improvement of production standards and made by shifting from cultivation of high to lower trophic labeling of certain products to inform consumers. It can also level species, particularly mussels. Further strengthening of bring about enhanced sector transparency and the provision the amount of sustainably produced plant ingredients in feeds of better information on impacts. Certification is an effective would also help reduce marine aquaculture’s environmental lever for further development of industry standards and footprint. governance mechanisms.

Integrated aquaculture is a practice that combines different kinds of aquaculture (e.g. fish, shellfish and seaweed cultivation) to minimize environmental impacts by creating balanced ecological systems in which, for example, shellfish and seaweeds filter excess nutrients produced by the fish while providing another economic mainstay. This approach is commonly practiced in freshwater environments, particularly in Asian carp farming, but its potential has yet to be realized in the marine environment. The use in aquaculture operations of offshore structures such as wind farms – which could reduce competition for space – is another approach with great potential.

© Thomas Bjørkan UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 YEAR UNEP

21 Fish and shellfish farming in marine ecosystems Capitalizing on progress

As marine aquaculture has been experiencing rapid growth, strengthen the operational and environmental knowledge significant technological advances have been made that base, and to shape cross-country and cross-sector learning address some of the sector’s environmental impacts. The networks. environmental footprint of aquaculture (including marine aquaculture) is likely to be lower than that of other protein Healthy marine ecosystems are fundamental to reaching production methods, depending on their particular impacts. development goals – not only with respect to securing However, due to continued growth overall environmental food, but also to providing jobs. Marine aquaculture’s impacts from aquaculture are expected to at least double current impacts and predicted growth call for continued by 2030. While the private sector’s role and responsibility to and strengthened efforts towards environmentally sound respond to marine aquaculture’s environmental challenges development of the sector to avoid the loss of important will continue to be critical, governments remain key to ecosystem services. Technical innovations, the experience promoting and stimulating sustainable practices. and growing skills of aquaculture producers, and improved knowledge of environmental impacts and operational and Marine aquaculture cannot be seen as an isolated sector. governance opportunities provide reasons to hope for a Its management should be based on (and part of) sustainable marine aquaculture sector supporting a growing overall ecosystem-based management, including the world population with food and livelihoods. use of approaches such as marine spatial planning and environmental impact assessment. The FAO defines an ecosystem approach to aquaculture as ‘a strategy for the integration of the activity within the wider ecosystem such that it promotes sustainable development, equity and resilience of interlinked social-ecological systems.’ Thus, the involvement of sector and public stakeholders is critical for this approach’s success.

Setting operational standards (e.g. for protecting coastal ecosystems or use of chemicals) is important to help ensure a level playing field across the sector. Technical regulations and targeted subsidies for investments in low-impact technology can be an incentive for more sustainable practices. While standards might have to be set nationally, international organizations such as FAO – as well as sector roundtables and © JoeLena/iStock non-governmental initiatives – should continue to facilitate progress, supported by capacity building and training For video links please go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zpAvBeZnKiA initiatives that help the marine aquaculture industry develop and embrace best environmental practices.

Stricter regulation can also lead to innovation that drives down costs and impacts, as seen in farmed salmon production. This can be supported by targeted research to

22 fish and shellfish farming Further information about fish and shellfish farming

Bouwman, A.F., Pawlowski, M., Liu, C., Beusen, A.H.W., FAO (2012). Farming the waters for people and food Shumway, S.E., Glibert, P.M. and Overbeek, C.C. (2011). http://www.fao.org/fishery/nems/40153/en Global Hindcasts and Future Projections of Coastal FAO (2013). FAO Aquaculture Information Products Nitrogen and Phosphorus Loads Due to Shellfish and http://www.fao.org/fishery/aquaculture/information- Seaweed Aquaculture. Reviews in Fisheries Science, products/en 19(4): 331-357 FAO (2013). Expanding mariculture farther offshore Bouwman, A.F., Beusen, A.H.W.; Gilbert, P.M; Overbeek, – Technical, environmental, spatial and governance C.C., Pawlowski, M. Herrerra, Jorge; M., Sandor; Yu, challenges. FAO Technical Workshop. 22-25 March 2010. R. and Zhou, M. (2013). Mariculture: significant and Orbetello, Italy (Lovatelli, A., Aguilar-Manjarrez, J., and expanding cause of coastal nutrient enrichment. Soto, D., eds) http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3092e/ Environment research letters, 8(4): 1-5 i3092e00.htm Bouwman, A.F., Beusen, A.H.W., Overbeek, C.C., FAO (2014). The State of World Fisheries and Bureau, D.P., Pawlowski, M. and Glibert, P.M. (2013). Aquaculture http://www.fao.org/fishery/sofia/en Hindcasts and Future Projections of Global Inland and Coastal Nitrogen and Phosphorus Loads Due to FAO (2014). Data for marine environment, crustaceans, Finfish Aquaculture. Reviews in Fisheries Science, 21(2): molluscs and all fish species 1950-2012 http://www.fao. 112-156 org/fishery/statistics/global-aquaculture-production/ query/en Chamberlain, A. (2011). Fishmeal and fish oil - The facts, figures, trends and IFFO’s responsible supply standard Global Agriculture Alliance (GAA) (2011). Mangroves http://www.iffo.net/system/files/FMFOF2011_0.pdf http://www.gaalliance.org/newsroom/whitepapers- detail.php?Mangroves-12 Earth Policy Institute (2013). Farmed Fish Production Overtakes Beef http://www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_ Hall, S.J., et al. (2011). Blue Frontiers: Managing the updates/2013/update114 Environmental Costs of Aquaculture http://www. worldfishcenter.org/resource_centre/media/pdfs/ Ecoplan International (EPI) (2008). Global assessment blue_frontiers/report.pdf of closed system aquaculture http://www.davidsuzuki. org/publications/downloads/2008/Closed-System- Nofima (2011). Today’s and tomorrow’s feed ingredients Aquac-Global-Review.pdf in Norwegian aquaculture http://www.nofima.no/en/ publication/3A106947AA44C668C125799100336E38 Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) (2004). Farming The Sea, Costing The Earth: Why We Must Green The Stokstad, E. (2010). Down on the Shrimp Farm. Blue Revolution http://www.ejfoundation.org/sites/ Science, 328, 1504-1505 http://www.researchgate.net/ default/files/public/farming_the_sea.pdf publication/44683419_Down_on_the_shrimp_farm FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) (no date). Tacon, A.G.J. and Metian, M. (2008). Global overview Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme: on the use of fish meal and fish oil in industrially Penaeus vannamei http://www.fao.org/fishery/ compounded aquafeeds: Trends and future prospects. culturedspecies/Litopenaeus_vannamei/en Aquaculture, 285, 146-158 http://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/S004484860800567X FAO (2008). The potential of spatial planning tools to support the ecosystem approach to aquaculture http:// Tacon, A.G.J., et al. (2010). Responsible Aquaculture www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1359e/i1359e00.htm and Trophic Level Implications to Global Fish Supply. Reviews in Fisheries Science, 18, 1, 94-105 http://www. FAO (2009). Impact of rising feed ingredient prices on researchgate.net/publication/233078215_Responsible_ aquafeeds and aquaculture production http://www.fao. Aquaculture_and_Trophic_Level_Implications_to_ org/docrep/012/i1143e/i1143e00.htm Global_Fish_Supply FAO (2009). Integrated mariculture. A global review UNEP (2006). Fish and shellfish farming in marine http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1092e/i1092e00.htm ecosystems. In: GEO Year Book 2006 http://www.unep. FAO (2009). Environmental impacts assessment org/yearbook/2006 and monitoring in aquaculture http://www.fao.org/ World Bank (2013). Fish to 2030: Prospects for Fisheries docrep/012/i0970e/i0970e00.htm and Aquaculture http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/ FAO (2010). World Aquaculture 2010 http://www.fao. i3640e/i3640e.pdf org/docrep/014/ba0132e/ba0132e00.htm FAO (2010). Aquaculture Development 4. Ecosystem approach to aquaculture http://www.fao.org/ docrep/013/i1750e/i1750e00.htm FAO (2011). Technical Guidelines on Aquaculture Certification http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2296t/

i2296t00.pdf BOOK 2014 YEAR UNEP

23 Illegal trade in wildlife Another turn for the worse for endangered species High environmental, social and economic costs

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Illegal Trade in Wildlife At the start ofthe20 At thestart The highenvironmental, socialandeconomic costs support humanswithfood andotherresourcessupport –andmake environments. The resulting biodiverse ecosystems notonly of theforage theyeat, helpingto create anddiverse rich grasses andtrees, anddispersingtheseeds bark stripping engineers’. They changethelandscapeby uprooting consequences. As anexample, elephants are ‘ecological organized crime.Loss ofspeciescanhave devastating illegalactivity, includingotherformsfurther oftransnational Profits from theillegalwildlife trade are used often to finance growth, socialbalance andenvironmental protection. attemptsundermines to achieve sustainableeconomic illegal logging, associated illegaltrade, andcorruption, Widespread failure offorest governance, characterized by biodiversity onwhicheconomic development depends. often of development aswell asthreatening theecosystems and trade, whichhinderinvestments intourism andothertypes environmental, socialandeconomic costs ofillegalwildlife Numbers likethesedonoteven begin to capture the processing, at US$30-100billion. at US$10-23.5billionayear andillegallogging, including 150 billionperyear. The catch globalillegalfisheries is valued Today illegalwildlife trade isestimated US$50- to beworth ofdrugs,arms. peopleand alongsidetrafficking – ranking one ofthelargest sources intheworld earnings ofcriminal in animals, plants (includingtimberandcharcoal) andfishis desire for status symbols, trade amongotherfactors. Illegal in commercial goods(e.g. timber)andexotic pets, anda in traditional EastAsian medicine, theinternational trade forDemand illegalwildlife isbasedontheiruse products in illegaltrade ofelephant tusksandrhinoceros horns. in the1990s, beganto again withanunprecedented rise spike Levels ofpoachingandillegaltrade inivory, whichhadfallen white hadnever rhino beenlower.number ofwildnorthern dexterousdistinctive upperlip, whilethe hadbecome extinct, 2007thereBy were fears that the Western blackrhino, withits estimated belonging millionblackrhinos to four sub-species. th century Africa was hometo an century 2007 YearBook. moreRead aboutglobalization andtheenvironment inthe timber, wildlife andotherforest biological resources. inillicit international trafficking forest including products, on international cooperation inpreventing andcombatting Prevention Justice andCriminal adopted in2007 aresolution governance isessential. The UNCommission onCrime environmental crime, strong, international andcoordinated fuel demandsfor illegalwildlife products. To control such help information andcommunication technology (ICT) international commerce, andtheuseof transportation, consumers around theworld. The expansion ofeconomies, globalization, producers withillegaltrade connecting and evident, there of isalsobetter understandingoftheimpact While theresurgence ofillegalwildlife trade hasbecome more or extremeweather. are alsomore resilient intheface ofthreats from e.g. diseases environmentally possible–they sustainabletourism activities important role to playimportant inthisregard. entered into force in2003)anditsprotocols, allhave an Convention against Transnational Organized (which Crime enforcement andlegal frameworks, andtheUN combat anderadicate suchtrafficking. National law legal assistance amongcountries canhelpprevent, and laxpenalties. Internationalcooperation andmutual profits andlowrisks associated with weak governance operating across borders. They are attracted by high wildlife outby groupsIllegal criminal tradecarried isoften Transnational organized crime illegal wildlife trade 25

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Illegal trade in wildlife Recognition of illegal wildlife trade as a serious crime

Illegal wildlife trade is no longer an emerging issue: the that rebel armies use money obtained through the illegal numbers tell the story. Today more elephants are being ivory trade to buy guns and ammunition illustrate the slaughtered than at any time in the past 20 years. Officials impact this activity can have on both local stability within have estimated that close to 25,000 elephants were killed in countries and international security. In January 2014, the UN 2013 to supply the illegal ivory trade, with ivory reportedly Security Council adopted two resolutions sanctioning wildlife priced at over US$2200 per kg on the streets of Beijing, China. trafficking, primarily designed to target armed rebel groups Over the past few years, the number of elephants killed that use the illegal ivory trade as a way to generate finances. annually has doubled compared to 2007. For the rhinoceros the statistics are even more bleak. Over 1000 were slaughtered While the problem continues to worsen, the international in 2013 in South Africa, more than any other single year. community is becoming increasingly focused on wildlife Between 2007 and 2013, rhino poaching increased by 7000% crime, recognizing the seriousness of its environmental, in South Africa. Rhino horn, with its supposed but unproven social and economic impacts. The fundamental institution medicinal qualities, can bring over US$66,000 per kg on the regulating wildlife trade, the Convention on International black market. About 20,000 white rhinos and 4880 black Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), rhinos remained in the wild as of February 2013. was strengthened at its last Conference of the Parties in 2013, when over 200 timber species and a variety of marine Organized crime is attracted by the possibility of huge profits animals (e.g. sharks, manta rays, turtles) were added to the with little risk, and penalties that are both disproportionately protected species list. In April 2013, the UN Commission on small and not always enforced. However, local communities Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice sought to toughen may suffer most from the presence of violent gangs as well existing laws by declaring wildlife trafficking a ‘serious crime’ as the deterioration of the environment. Two iconic species, with offences carrying a minimum penalty of four years of rhino and elephant, are threatened with extinction because of imprisonment. the illegal wildlife trade, driven by growing demand primarily from South East Asia and China.

Trends in illegal logging are also rising. Illegally logged timber from East Asia and the Pacific, which ends up in furniture and homes around the world, accounts for a staggering US$17 billion a year – an amount equal to the value of illegal trafficking of people, drugs and counterfeit goods in this region. In Africa, evidence is growing that illegal charcoal trade is linked to threat finance.

Encouraged by poverty, poorly monitored borders, corruption, and weak regulations and enforcement, wildlife poaching and trafficking continue to grow. The supply chain from producer to consumer involves more people in more countries (including some police, customs officers, and legal and © UNEP Sudan Environmental Database political figures) as illegal products are transported using sophisticated smuggling techniques and routes. Reports

26 Consortium on CombatingConsortium Wildlife Composed (ICCWC). Crime illegal wildlife trade, withtheformation ofthe International resulted inanothermajoradvance inthefight against Collaboration between international organizations has astheymoveillegal products from source to purchaser. involved infighting illegalwildlife trade could helppickup between regions,co-operation countries andorganizations control alongwithincreased ofcommunication sharing and orexit. andborder Rigorousandincreased inspection entry ofallgoodsbeingdeclaredto determine for thelegitimacy works to ensure that customs enforcement operations act material at borders. The World Customs Organization (WCO) Customs officialsplay avital roleinapprehending illegal also resulted inmore than400arrests inAsia andAfrica. of logsfrom protected trees. This groundbreaking operation ofendangered animals,thousand skins andhundreds oftonnes netted horns, 36rhino moreIt thanthree tonnes ofivory, over a together for amonth as onastingoperation known ‘Cobra Two’. and environmental andlaw enforcement agenciesworked producing someexciting results. in2014,28countries Early with communities and countries –are –inpartnership efforts escape routes, emerging international law andpolicing Although weak laws andlocalcorruption give criminals laundering, andto intheseareas. applylessonslearned crime,other serious suchasdrugsmugglingandmoney patterns andcross-overs between illegalwildlife trade and have Crime (UNODC) onDrugsandbegun toassess Office The international police organization INTERPOL andtheUN consumers inEastAsia, Europe, andelsewhere. America North countries, transnational syndicates, criminal andtraders and borders. There are poachersinsource linksconnecting However, thesupplychainishighlycomplex, crossing many tofight back. unified effort iscomingcommunity together to makeastronger, more found to disrupttheillegalwildlife trade. The international cooperative andplanninginnovative efforts solutionscanbe The isreal, crisis butthere are hopefulsigns that with Are we acorner? Smallsteps turning towards success diverse audiences. to breakin theirability through theclutter andreach large and illegal wildlife influential products. Celebrities are particularly efficient global way toeducate and reduce thedemand for of socialmediaisbuildingmomentum asaneffective and organizations (NGOs)andothersto profile theissues. The use raising initiatives have beenlaunched by non-governmental Therefore, Many education isofkeyimportance. awareness- and thetrade’s leadto impacts, informed poorly decisions. of illegalwildlife trade, how are theseproducts obtained Misinformation andlackofunderstandingaboutthescale and fish, consumers may live almostanywhere inthe world. asaffordable.now seesivory In thecaseoftimberproducts consumers reside inAsia, where awealthier middleclass – consumer demand. horn andrhino ofivory The majority are beingusedto address thefinallinkinsupplychain Awareness raising campaigns, socialmediaandmarketing movements.their origins, destinations andtransboundary used to increase andimprove monitoring ofwildlife products, latest technology, suchasDNAand isotope analyses, canbe sourcestimber andfishfrom issmallbut certified growing. The Nepal. The volume ofinternationally traded suchas products tigersininaccessibleBengal areas National Park ofChitwan in cameras are beingusedto keepa eye’‘virtual and onrhinos pilotprojects, drones In equippedwithvideo participants. enforcement, capture trends, andshare theinformation among African countries to track illegalwildlife trade, monitor legal forEnforcement example, helps System Monitoring (WEMS), through anddataMonitoring collection the Wildlife technology for analysis andcommunication. detection, Enforcement advantage are ofthelatest taking efforts intergovernmental initiative inthefight againstwildlife crime. crime. Today theICCWC isrecognized astheworld’s leading justiceof theircriminal responses to wildlife andforest governments inidentifying thestrengths andweaknesses the Wildlife andForest Analytical Crime Toolkit to assist responseco-ordinated to wildlife 2012itdeveloped crime. In and WCO, theICCWC was created to ensure astrong and of theCITESSecretariat, INTERPOL,UNODC,the World Bank illegal wildlife trade 27

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Illegal trade in wildlife Combatting illegal wildlife trade through international collaboration

Illegal wildlife trade must be controlled. It threatens the environment, deprives communities of their livelihoods, decreases revenues for governments and businesses, and increases the probability of conflicts creating security risks – in addition to jeopardizing the survival of some species.

The key to success in the fight against illegal wildlife trade is collaboration among countries and international agencies. Efficient control of transboundary movements of wildlife products requires good information exchange and cooperation, involving importing, exporting and transit countries. Mechanisms need to be enhanced to facilitate rapid exchanges of intelligence between enforcement agencies.

Illegal wildlife trade still has a relatively low priority compared to other transnational crimes such as drug smuggling, human © UNEP trafficking or counterfeit products. As the routes used to transport illegal wildlife products are the same as those used could be incorporated and strengthened as an integral for drugs, people and weapons, successful approaches in part of the implementation of multilateral environmental these areas need to be considered to combat illegal wildlife. agreements (MEAs). In addition, more support needs to A protocol on environmental crime under the Convention on be given to enforcement agencies in countries, including Transboundary Crime might provide a regulatory framework inspectors, customs officers, police and the judiciary, such as for doing this. training of personnel, promotion of cooperation to control transboundary movements of environmental goods, and As regulations are only as good as their enforcement, investigation and prosecution of criminals. provisions for enforcement need to be strengthened, with clear mandates and roles, sufficient resources, and effective Above all, educating communities in which there is a demand penalties to discourage illegal wildlife trade. Enforcement for illegal wildlife products is essential. Campaigns to change the public opinion are powerful tools for reducing this Five parts of the Wildlife and Forest Crime Analytic Toolkit Five parts of the Wildlife and Forest Crime Analytic Toolkit demand. Targeting communities where supplies originate,

LEGISLATION ENFORCEMENT by providing increased training and education and offering • Enforcement agencies • International law • Human resources • Domestic law alternative livelihoods, also needs to be part of the strategy. • Intelligence • Wildlife and forest offences • Enforcement powers • Related offences • Investigation procedures and techniques • Regional and specialized initiatives Ensuring the exchange of information, the traceability of • Border control and Customs DATA AND ANALYSIS • International cooperation in criminal matters • Technical assistance and aid goods and widespread knowledge in society of the scale and • Data collection • Accountability and integrity • Databases • Performance indicators impact of illegal wildlife trade is paramount. • Analytic research DRIVERS AND PREVENTION JUDICIARY AND PROSECUTION • Context analysis • Wildlife and forest management • Judiciary • Social capacity-building • Prosecution • Trade and legal markets • International cooperation in criminal matters • Awareness-raising • Sentencing and sanctions • Restitution, compensation and restoration Source: Wildlife and Forest Crime Analytic Toolkit

For video links please go to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r0hgJnE5T1Y

28 Enforcement-Responses-to-Tiger-Crime/ crime/Executive-Summary-Assessment-of- interpol.int/Media/Files/Crime-areas/Environmental- of Enforcement to Responses Tiger http://www. Crime INTERPOL (2014).Executive–Assessment Summary download/pdf/sd/ymbvol203num1e.pdf World Congress Bulletin, 203,1http://www.iisd.ca/ Environmental Sustainability, 17-20June2012. UNEP World Congress on Justice, Governance andLaw for ofthe (2012).Summary Services IISD Reporting stepping-cites-enforcement-eu www.ifaw.org/united-states/resource-centre/ifaw-case- case for stepping up CITES enforcement in the EUhttp:// IFAW (InternationalFund for Animal Welfare) (n.d.). A S0169555X1100314X www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ Geomorphology, 157-158,99-107http:// andecosystemas earth-movers engineers. Haynes, relatives) G.(2012).Elephants (andextinct nih.gov/pubmed/19120165 Academy ofSciences, 1149,16-19http://www.ncbi.nlm. and theillegalwildlife trade. Annals oftheNew York A.andAguirre,Gómez, diseases A.A.(2008).Infectious 400-suspects/ com/2014/02/17/global-wildlife-crime-sting-arrests- StingCrime Arrests 400+Suspects.http://ens-newswire. ENS (Environment (2014).Global News Service) Wildlife news/pr/2013/20130314_cop16.php of otherplants andanimals. http://www.cites.org/eng/ of tropical timber, sharks, manta rays andawiderange CITES conference to takesdecisive haltdecline action Endangered Speciesof Wild Fauna andFlora) (2013). CITES (Convention onInternational Trade in strengthening_transboundary_information.pdf ias.unu.edu/resource_centre/bytes_beyond_borders- initiative http://archive. SystemMonitoring (WEMS) on wildlife through crime the Wildlife Enforcement information strengthening sharing transboundary Chandran, R.,etal. (2013).Bytes beyond borders: S1146609X11000154 www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ dispersal. Oecologica, Acta 37,6,pp.542-553 http:// of theforest –therole ofelephants inseed Campos-Arceiz, A.andBlake, S.(2011).Megagardeners events/#ftn9 international-wildlife-crime-an-iisd-overview-of-recent- http://biodiversity-l.iisd.org/policy-updates/Service – Biodiversity Policy &Practice. IISDReporting ofRecent Eventswildlife An IISDOverview crime: Anderson, L.(2014).Policy Update #1:International pdfs/Dismantling-Wildlife-Crime.pdf executive www.traffic.org/general-crime: summary Akella, A.S.andAllan, C.(2012).Dismantling wildlife dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004570 extent ofillegalfishing. PloS One, 4,2,e4570 http:// Agnew, D.J., etal., (2009).Estimating theworldwide Further information aboutillegalwildlife trade are-latest-conflict-resource africarenewal/magazine/december-2013/elephants- Africa RenewalOnline, 27,3,28http://www.un.org/ Rao, P. (2013).Elephants are thelatest conflict resource. rhino-extinct/ extinction-countdown/2013/11/13/western-black- http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/Blog Network Countdown Extinction inScientific American Extinct. Platt, J.R. (2013).How the Western BlackRhino Went to-halt-wildlife-trafficking-is-just-the-beginning/ com/2014/02/14/a-landmark-international-agreement- Beginning. Time, 14February. http://science.time. Agreement to Halt Wildlife Trafficking IsJustthe Paramaguru, International (2014).ALandmark K. . applaud-global-wildlife-protection gov/asia-regional/press-releases/conservationists- Global Wildlife Protection Operation http://www.usaid. Nyberg, R.(USAID) Applaud (2014).Conservationists wiley.com/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2010.01238.x ofEcology,African Journal 49,2,133-140http://doi. innorthern on herpetofaunal speciesrichness Tanzania. modification by elephantAfrican (Loxodonta africana) N.A.,etal.Nasseri, (2011). oftreeThe impact usembassy.gov/news20130510b.html Trafficking Issue http://southafrica. Security as National Monster, H.W. Discusses (2013.).Roundtable Wildlife dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0059469 elephants incentral Africa. PloS One, 8,3,e59469http:// Maisels, F., etal., (2013).Devastating declineofforest wildlife-conference-declaration-140213.pdf system/uploads/attachment_data/file/281289/london- Declaration https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/ London Conference ontheIllegal Wildlife Trade – London Declaration onIllegal Wildlife Trade (2014). Africa/0214Wildlife.pdf org/sites/files/chathamhouse/public/Research/ Erosionand Institutional http://www.chathamhouse. Illegal Wildlife Trade - The Costs ofCrime, Insecurity and Lawson, K. Vines, ofthe A.(2014).GlobalImpact article/view/64 http://www.pachydermjournal.org/index.php/pachy/ Cameroon. Pachyderm, innorthern survey 43,19-28 western blackrhino, Diceros bicornis longipes: 2006 Lagrot, I.,etal. (2008). Probable ofthe extinction details/39319/0 Black Rhinoceros) http://www.iucnredlist.org/ bicornis ssp. BlackRhino, longipes (Western Western (n.d.) Listof IUCNRed Threatened Species:Diceros IUCN (InternationalUnionfor ofNature) Conservation Security-Task-Force-Manual-2012/ Environmental-crime/NEST/National-Environmental- http://www.interpol.int/en/Media/Files/Crime-areas/ Agencies Together to Environmental Maintain Security Task Force –Bringing Compliance andEnforcement INTERPOL (2014).National Environmental Security org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34395.pdf Trade in Wildlife: Threats andU.S. Policy http://www.fas. Wyler, P.A. L.S.andSheikh, (2013). InternationalIllegal wildlife-crime-worth-8-10-billion-annually.html?ref=fs4 http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2014/May/ and drugdealinginterms ofprofits: UNODCchief annually,arms italongsidehumantrafficking, ranking UNODC (2014). Wildlife USD8-10billion worth crime Publications/2013/TOCTA_EAP_web.pdf unodc.org/documents/southeastasiaandpacific/ the Pacific – A Threat Assessment http://www. Transnational Organized inEastAsia Crime and Crime) (2013). onDrugsand UNODC (UNOffice Default.aspx?DocumentID=2723&ArticleID=9560&l=en –UNEPhttp://www.unep.org/newscentre/ Ivory Illegal UNEP (2013).NewForensic Technique May Help Track www.unep.org/pdf/RRAlogging_english_scr.pdf Tropical Forests. Assessment Response http:// ARapid Logging, Tax Fraud inthe andLaundering Worlds UNEP (2012).Green Carbon, Black Trade: Illegal yearbook/2007/PDF/6_Feature_Focus72dpi.pdf Year 2007,43-60http://www.unep.org/ Book GEO In: Opportunities. Risks, Seizing Minimizing UNEP (2007).Environment andGlobalization: org/pdf/RRAivory_draft7.pdf – Dust The African Elephant http://www.unep. Crisis (2013).Elephants inthe UNEP/CITES/IUCN/TRAFFIC download.asp?ID=4732 Sustainable Development, 1-9www.unep.org/unea/ Environmental, andEconomic Social Consequences for UN/UNEP (2014).Illegal Trade in Wildlife: The org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051156 trade. PloS One, 7,12,e51156http://dx.plos. a novel approach to monitoring theillegalwildlife Hansen,A.L.,etal. Sonricker (2012).Digital surveillance: moment?-for-combating-wildlife-crime/ articles/cites-cop16-bangkok-2013-a-?watershed- http://biodiversity-l.iisd.org/guest- Services Reporting Wildlife -Biodiversity Crime Policy &Practice. IISD Bangkok 2013:A “Watershed Moment” for Combating #17:CITESCoP16, J.E.Scanlon, (2013).GuestArticle future cites-from-stockholm-in-‘72-to-rio20-back-to-the- http://uncsd.iisd.org/guest-articles/ Services Reporting Sustainable Development Policy &Practice. IISD in Stockholm -Backto‘72 to thefuture Rio+20 – #13:CITES:From J.E.Scanlon, (2012).GuestArticle illegal wildlife trade 29

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Methane from hydrates Methane hydrates What are the climate change and energy implications?

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Methane from Hydrates higher warmingpotential dioxide thancarbon (CO isapotentMethane greenhouse gaswithaconsiderably at depthsofaroundfound 500metres. starting water temperatures are approximately 2-4°C,gashydrates are theopenocean,Arctic permafrost. where In average bottom- continental margins. The remainder are mainlyfound beneath 99% ofallgas hydrates occur inthesediments ofmarine low temperatures andhighpressures. Globally, anestimated when highconcentrations ofmethaneandwater combine at frozen asmethanehydrates. hydrates Methane are formed hydrates asaresult ofglobalwarming. thismethanedid If be released to theatmosphere from destabilized methane concerned abouthow much methanecould potentially only afew degrees Celsius. Therefore, somescientists are hydratesMethane destabilize inresponse to warmingof of natural gas. petroleum andnatural gas. isthemaincomponent Methane of fuel combustion, anddistribution andtheproduction cultivation, deforestation, coal incomplete production, fossil emissions, includingwetlands, ruminant animals, rice are many natural andanthropogenic sources ofmethane What is known isthatWhat ofmethane(CH avast reservoir isknown global methanehydrate inventory isunknown. combined.and gasreserves The reality isthat thesize ofthe potential could belarger thanthat ofalltheworld’s oil known last decade, stimulated by claimsthat theirenergy production There hasbeenasurge ofinterest inmethanehydrates inthe hydratesMethane methane hydrates ormethaneclathrates. Those inwhichmethaneissequestered are referred to as amounts ofmethaneare sequestered ingashydrates. appropriate pressures andtemperature conditions. Large methane orsomeothergasescombine withwater at hydratesGas substances formed are when ice-like hydratesGas 2 ). There 4 ) is occurrence relative to thegeologic environment General schematic modesofgashydrate showing typical UNEP Year 2008. Book moreRead aboutmethanehydrates inthe natural andtransport. gasproduction slopes),and leaksduring on theseafloorandsubmarine example, ofoffshore theimpacts (including oilandgasdrilling our growing ofmethanehydrates knowledge as well as, for of environmental willneedto risks beassessedbasedon hydrates. commercialization If becomes likely, abroad range from ofsustainedmethaneproduction gas the viability outto testterm production demonstrate hasbeencarried is theglobalenergy mixinyears to come. As yet, nolong- and helpaddress globalenergy one needs. An important provide somecountries withgreater energy self-sufficiency hydrates-based natural could gasproduction eventually influence the A numberoffactors extent to whichmethane greater causefor concern. places field closetocould bea theedgeofstability certain well withinthegashydrate field.Hydrates stability located in warming. However, mosthydrates deepoceans are invery reach theatmosphere, itwould exacerbate inturn global M r educ inimal gash Dense fracturellsinmuds ed gassupply ~350 t “Chimney struc o 600mwat y drat es , tur er depth(dependingonbott es ” Strat

Methane depleted zone hydrat fractured muds “Strate-bound” a-bound Source: R.Boswell 2011adapted by GRID-Arendal es om-wat deplet M THERMOGENIC GASGENER ethane ed z er t one emperatur e) A TION ANDMIGR H (most climat y drat e atupperedgeofstabilit

Disseminat Sea- oor A TION e sensitiv ed inundat Relic permafr , e) ed shelv ost onr y es (climat ec ently (some pr e sensitiv both bet def H marine cla H F r y y ee gas drat drat ormed cla e e e - existing fr e) w -bearing -bearing methane hydrates een andbelo y s y ee gasac w permafr permafr stabilit G sand W cumulation) sand H as a y t h drat er-bearing y drat y-boundar ost ost e -bearing e y 31

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Methane from hydrates Recent observations and knowledge

Scientists are interested in quantifying the amount of this methane comes from. The enhanced methane from these methane being released from all emission sources in the cracks could be produced by a form of ocean ventilation, rapidly warming Arctic. They also want to better understand whereby the ocean interacts with the air and methane the effects that climate change has on these releases. escapes into the atmosphere. However, they strongly disagree about whether global warming could conceivably trigger – in the foreseeable It is not only in the Arctic that scientists are finding out more future – catastrophic atmospheric releases of methane from about methane emissions and methane hydrates. According destabilized methane hydrates in this region. to a recent study of the Antarctic ice sheet, pressure and temperature conditions favour methane hydrate formation As global warming continues, methane releases to the down to sediment depths of about 300 metres in West atmosphere related to thawing Arctic permafrost (but not to Antarctica and 700 metres in East Antarctica. The authors have the methane hydrates beneath the permafrost) are expected calculated that the sub-Antarctic hydrate inventory could be to continue. A recent study shows that methane emissions of the same order of magnitude as that of recent estimates from the East Siberian Arctic Shelf are more than twice made for Arctic permafrost. They do not suggest, however, what were previously believed. The authors suggest that that these methane hydrates could be a source of atmospheric these emissions result from the degradation of submarine methane emissions. permafrost over thousands of years. This appears to be a source of methane emissions to the atmosphere at least as The Antarctic ice sheet significant as Arctic tundra, which is considered a major source of methane emissions. The Antarctic ice sheet is the Earth’s largest single mass of ice, extending over almost 14 million km2 and containing Unexpected levels of methane have also been discovered over 90% of the freshwater in the form of ice on the coming from cracks in Arctic sea ice and areas where there is planet. In East Antarctica the ice sheet rests on a major partial sea ice. Further research is needed to determine where land mass, while in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2500 metres below sea level. It was recently reported that a large section of the West Antarctic ice sheet is melting into the sea.

© USGS Gas Hydrates Lab

32 Estima end ofthisdecade. technology commerciallymake itsextraction viableby the eventual commercialization. Japanhasannounced plansto researchthe critical anddevelopment step onthepath to frommethane production gashydrates isviable. This is months) now outto needsto prove becarried that sustained test Japan along-term production (e.g.In onelastingover 18 technologies for commercially viablenatural gasproduction. methane hydrate at depositswhilesimultaneouslylooking Japan andothercountries are assessingtheextentofavailable conditions. retrieve thesesamplesandkeepthemat theirnatural, stable Highly sophisticatedoff Japan. techniques were required to from layers beneath thedeepseafloorinNankai Trough studying sediment samplescontaining gas hydrates obtained the sametime, an international team ofresearchers hasbeen andengineersScientists are analyzingthe data collected. At the hydrate-bearing sediments. source, 2010 Estimated globalanthropogenic methaneemissionsby area. About 120,000m layersindicating methanehydrate-rich inthis sedimentary Japan. The test site was chosenbasedonseismicandwell data testproduction was offthe conducted coast ofHonshuIsland, March 2013theworld’sIn firstoffshore methane hydrate possibilities ofproducing natural gasfrom methanehydrates. in anumberofcountries, the withtheaimofexploring and Scientific technological advances are beingmade Searching for answers to somecomplex questions t Oil andGas20% ed GlobalAnthr W ast ew Landfills 1 Other at er 9% Ag S 1% opogenic M Coal Mining6% ources 7% 3 ofmethanegaswas produced from ethane Emissionsb Rice Culti A gr icult Biomass 3% Stationary andMobile S ur vation 1 © Global Methane Initiative © Global Methane e (Manur 0% Enteric F e) 4% y S our ermentation 29% ources 1% c e , 2010 Atmospheric Research (EDGAR). inventory canbefound intheEmissionsDatabase for Global and trends. The mostcomprehensive globalmethane regularly updated calculations oftheglobalmethane budget Initiative andtheGlobalCarbon Project, whichproduces cooperative are out by theGlobalMethane carried efforts links between fossil fuelcombustion andclimate change. Such to addressare environmental necessary issues, includingthe iswidelyrecognizedIt that international cooperative efforts ofcontinuing toimpacts usenatural gasasafuel. how to achieve this, butalsoabout thefuture environmental complex questionsremain to beanswered –notonlyabout viable insomeregions andfor somereservoirs. Nevertheless, methane from methanehydrates may become economically conditions, of natural basedonextraction gasproduction technologyWith andfavourable thenecessary market hydrates. be amore viableroute to commercialization ofmethane experiment indicates that decompression techniques may continued even longer. The success ofthissecond land-based on-site expressed confidence that production could have to heating.resorting After the experiment ended, technicians obtained in2008by lowering thereservoir’s pressure without hydrate site by heating thereservoir. Still better results were methanefrom gas succeeded theMallik inextracting 2000sateam theearly ofCanadian andJapanesescientistsIn these projects andmanythese projects other activities. the world. The GMIdatabase contains information about overcome toaround projects methanereduction barriers Initiative (GMI)Methane and aimto buildcapacity Countries andorganizations cooperating intheGlobal The Initiative Methane Global methane hydrates 33

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Methane from hydrates Addressing big questions and continuing international cooperation

Methane hydrates represent a potentially large source of natural gas, although we do not know the size of the global methane hydrate inventory. Lessons being learned in countries today about oil and gas drilling, including the extraction of unconventional natural gas, may be relevant to the development of future methane hydrate policies.

Unconventional natural gas

Sources of unconventional natural gas include shale gas (found in shale deposits), coal bed methane (extracted from coal beds) and tight gas (trapped underground in impermeable rock formations). As of 2012, these types of unconventional gas had reached an estimated 18% of global natural gas production. Shale gas output is © LINN Energy concentrated in the United States, but is rapidly spreading Research in recent decades, aimed at resolving some of the to other parts of the world. uncertainty about methane hydrates as a potential energy source, has involved international and interdisciplinary cooperation and wide information sharing. It has also benefited from work in which the public and private sectors are both engaged. Important questions that need to be addressed through such efforts include:

• What can scientists tell us about potential releases of methane to the ocean-atmosphere system due to the breakdown of methane hydrates? • How likely does production of methane from hydrates appear to be? What is a reasonable timeline for commercialization, and what factors might affect this timeline? • What is the relationship between methane hydrates (and eventual offshore drilling to extract them) and seafloor destabilization? © JOGMEC • What would the environmental, economic and social impacts of methane hydrates-based natural gas production be?

34 seafloor.html http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/hydrates/ Hydrates Project. SlopeDestabilization Submarine USGS (nodate). The U.S. Gas Geological Survey research// usgs_top_story/groundbreaking-gas-hydrate- 13 February. http://www.usgs.gov/blogs/features/ HydrateGroundbreaking Gas Research. News release, USGS (United (2013). States Geological Survey) lab/ grants-uci-1-million-for-deep-ocean-power-science- news.uci.edu/press-releases/w-m-keck-foundation- power science lab. News http:// release, 18January Foundation grants UCI$1millionfor deep-ocean (2013). University ofCalifornia at Irvine W.M. Keck com/ngeo/journal/v7/n1/full/ngeo2007.html Shelf. Nature Geoscience, 7,64-70http://www.nature. induced methane release from Arctic theEastSiberian N.,etal.Shakhova, (2014).Ebullitionandstorm- Paper_SP_2_4_Hydrates.pdf https://mitei.mit.edu/system/files/Supplementary_ Future ofNaturalMITStudy Gas. An Interdisciplinary of to Institute MIT(Massachusetts Technology). In The Hydrates andtheFuture ofNatural Gas. Supplement Paper Hydrates.Supplementary onMethane Methane Ruppel, C.(2011b). MITEINatural Report, Gas contemporary-climate-change-24314790 scitable/knowledge/library/methane-hydrates-and- Knowledge, 3,10,29http://www.nature.com/ Contemporary Climate Change. Nature Education Ruppel, C.D. Hydrates (2011a).Methane and com/2013/07/25/arctic-methane-credibility-bomb/ New York Times, 25 July. http://dotearth.blogs.nytimes. Credibility Bomb. A.(2013).ArcticMethane Revkin, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12831 Potential Hydrate ofMethane for theUnited States National Research Council theEnergy (2010).Realizing com/ngeo/journal/v5/n5/full/ngeo1452.html#access Nature Geoscience, 5:318-321http://www.nature. Arctic Ocean methaneemissionsupto 82°north. E.A., of etal. (2012).Atmospheric observations Kort, fire-from-ice-1.12858 http://www.nature.com/news/japanese-test-coaxes- far beneath theocean shows promise Nature, 23April First methanefrom attempt frozen to extract hydrates Cyranoski, D. (2013).Japanesetest coaxes fire from ice. Hydrates, Gas onMethane Global Outlook Vol. 2 Beaudoin, Y.C., et al. (eds.) (inpress). Frozen Heat: Further information aboutmethanehydrates com/wp-content/downloads/wor3/WOR3_english.pdf http://worldoceanreview. andRisks – Opportunities World (2014). Oceans Review ResourcesWOR 3.Marine full/nature11374.html http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v488/n7413/ beneath Antarctica.reservoirs Nature, 488,633-637 Wadham, J.L., etal. (2012).Potential methane methane hydrates 35

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Realizing the Potential of Citizen Science Getting involved: citizen science Getting involved: citizen science

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Realizing the Potential of Citizen Science Count does itfor love of birds andtheexcitement offriendly regional Bird intheChristmas editors, whotakes part everyone feeder-watchers to count andfieldobservers compilers and in1900. America Count beganinNorth that They report ‘from Cornell LabofOrnithology/Audubon Society’s Bird Christmas are amongthelargest andoldestcitizen science initiatives. The than professional research teams. Projects that involve ‘birders’ sample widegeographic areas andat lower more quickly cost Volunteers inenvironment-related part taking studiescan decisions.informed policy awareness, increases localinterest, andcontributes to more worldwide. Taking incitizenalsoraises science activities part patterns, andchangesinagricultural andfisheries production example, urbanization airpollution,biodiversity conservation, helpsanswer complexdeep data. It questionsabout, for science canhelpresearchers and obtainawideperspective inscientific research.this meanspublicparticipation Citizen in different ways. This iscalledcitizen science. Simplyput, analyzing data, aswell ascontributing to scientific studies byharnessed science. Volunteers are and/or collecting Today people’s is increasingly being curiosity inborn crops grow well. what todepended onknowing plant where, andhow to make for 1200years. Successful have agricultural harvests always treesyears; hasbeenmarked inJapantheflowering ofcherry China locustoutbreaksIn have beentracked for thousands of and fauna,water bodies, theweather andotherphenomena. reasons we pay careful attention to andmakerecords offlora the world around us, andthepleasure we takeinit, are other the natural world inorder to However, survive. about curiosity Since prehistoric timespeoplehave andrecorded observed involved:Getting citizen science participate on a voluntary basis. onavoluntary participate dissemination oftheresults ofactivities. They mainly of technology, testing ofnatural phenomenaand systematic andanalysis ofdata, collection development ofscience— inoneormore aspects scientists takepart citizen scienceIn peoplewhoare notprofessional What iscitizen science? collection maycollection takeplace over longperiods. amounts ofdata, from far-reaching locations, anddata are abletolarge provide numbersofparticipants enormous demonstrate three ofthemainadvantages ofcitizen science: Backyard Bird Count took place in2013. These projects sinceconducted 1998. The firstglobal version oftheGreat Society’s international Great Backyard Bird Count hasbeen at 228locations. part 400,000 peopletaking The Audubon one oftheworld’s largest citizen science withover activities, The BigGarden Bird Watch isalso intheUnited Kingdom adifferencemaking for science andbird conservation.’ are thatcompetition theirefforts –andwiththeknowledge For videolinkspleasegoto http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N6eN3Pll4U8 ©GillConquest/ ExCiteS, University College London citizen science © techNyou 37

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Realizing the Potential of Citizen Science Trends and recent developments in citizen science

Citizen science can go beyond simple data collection to help shape fundamental questions about our world and provide Social demand and data collectors intriguing answers. Participation has grown partly due to the Internet, social media, and other new and increasingly Data are being collected by citizen scientists worldwide. affordable technologies. Once the public was mainly involved This includes collection of data on radiation following the in activities concerned with, for example, the environment Fukushima nuclear accident in 2011, to projects like and astronomy. Today opportunities to volunteer to take part MammalMAP (which aims to put all visual evidence of in scientific research have exploded into many disciplines, mammals in Africa into an open access database to help conservation planning), to using cameras attached to from analyzing cancer data to tracking genetic mysteries to kites and balloons to measure and monitor oil spills’ theoretical physics. impact on the environment. Scientists are increasingly recognizing the benefits of public knowledge and open participation. The statistical power smartphone apps, which are widely used today throughout provided by large amounts of data can be used to obtain the world. Volunteers can become data collectors and users valuable insights into scientific questions. For example, even in remote locations. gamers taking part in FoldIt, an online game whose purpose is to decipher how proteins fold, figured out the structure of an Citizen science faces a number of challenges in terms of enzyme involved with HIV within three weeks of being given both coordination and organization, but potential solutions the problem. exist. These include: the use of innovative information and communication technology, such as online searchable Data and other information generated through citizen science database modularization; well-defined and structured project projects have been shown to be reliable and accurate. High- leadership; and mechanisms to sustain people’s interest in quality data generated from these projects are reinforced participation, as well as to respond to the range of individuals’ through appropriate research protocols, proper training and motives for participating, such as intellectual challenges, oversight measures, as well as the application and utilization direct livelihood benefits, or the opportunity to take part in of new statistical and high-performance computing tools updating traditional knowledge. that eliminate sample bias and remove measurement errors or spatial clustering. There is evidence that data from citizen science research projects are increasingly accepted in the academic literature.

Not only does citizen science contribute to scientific knowledge, but the experience generated through public participation provides the benefits of better access to information and motivation of local communities.

Technologies contributing to the growth of citizen science include satellites, which provide a wealth of data in need of analysis (possibilities to analyze large data sets are available to citizen scientists), global positioning systems (GPS) and

© Jerome Lewis/ ExCiteS, University College London 38 that canbeusedby people whoneitherread nor write. On a Similarly, Cybertracker is aninnovative program software logging companies. havecollected beenusedasevidence to helpnegotiate with empowered to monitor theforests insuchaway that thedata trees, andto document logging activities. They have been use handhelddevices to mapandprotect sacred andvaluable help themmapandpatrol theirforests. The forest inhabitants is developed by Citizen theExtreme Sciencegroup at UCL,to communities by developing applications, which calledSapelli, specialistsare helpingBayaka communication technology (ICT) theCongoIn Basin,researchers, andinformation and artists community-based ecosystem restoration. citizen science canbeappliedin andtraditional knowledge protection. Riverinitiative showsThe successful how Jukajoki areas andtakenanumberofsteps to improve water measures, have identified damagedsites inthecatchment scientific as well andsupporting astraditional knowledge Local people, usingacollaborative management approach River.restoration ontheheavily damagedJukajoki activities LocalKarelia. (together fishermen withSnowchange) have led Borealhas beentakenplace region intheSouthern ofNorth FinlandIn majorrestoration ofariver anditscatchment areas greater voice inthemanagement oftheirresources. livelihoods andcultures. Through theseprojects, peoplehave a indigenous peopleontopics relevant to theirenvironments, people. Several research have projects involved with working isalsoaconcept ofsciencenew knowledge. It that serves for peopleindeveloped countries whoenjoy helpingto acquire of theItisnotonlya valuable hobby world. some far-flung parts grows,As participation citizen science in ishaving animpact andunderstandingtraditionalRenewing knowledge traditions andfoster adialoguewithscience. indigenous andlocaltraditional societiesto advance their 2000, hasworked for adecadeandhalf withboth The Snowchange Cooperative, whichbeganinFinland in Snowchange Cooperative environment. communities andstrengthen whileprotecting the civilsociety presented by citizen science isthegrowing to involve capacity intheexploration ofourworld,to takepart oneopportunity As technological advances are made, enablingmore people environment. to withrespect structure boththeirnatural resources andthe their resources andultimately influencingthegovernance other environmental stakeholderswhilehelpingto protect help putvulnerable groups onamore equalfooting with citizen science, andhow approach thiscommunity can traditional groups canmakemajorcontributions through suchastheseillustrateActivities how varioussocialand Cybertracker. 700independent in75countriesOver projects have usedthe fire management, andthepresence of anddensity weeds. record information aboutwater quality, movement ofanimals, women rangers inremote areas alsouseCybertracker to Australia, indigenous Northern In traditional expertise. are beingstrengthened efforts thanks conservation to this to environmentaland tracking monitoring projects. Wildlife contribute ofanimalbehaviour theirknowledge Kalahari recorded. usingCybertracker, By peoplelivinginthe theSan that are madeinthefield to beinstantly andaccurately of pictograms linkedto aGPSsystem, allowing observations rugged handheldcomputer atouch screen displays amenu © Selkie Optic History Archive 2014 Optic History © Selkie citizen science 39

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Realizing the Potential of Citizen Science Improving coordination to achieve greater impacts

One of the recognized benefits of citizen science is that it brings people together, either directly or through social networking – including local communities, administrative authorities and policy-makers. When applied to local natural resources management, for example, it can lead to solutions and decision-making processes that consider the viewpoints of all those concerned.

The current and potential role of citizen science is increasingly recognized regionally and internationally. For example, the European Commission’s Green Paper on Citizen Science © Citizen Cyberlab recognizes the value of the participatory science approach For video links please go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HQtfrMs-hl4&list=U and its relevance to EU strategy. Practitioners worldwide UhsdtAyejxQmiZ6RjxtYTAw participate in coordination and policy platforms, such as the Citizen Science Association and the European Citizen Science Barriers to realizing the full potential of citizen science Association. Establishing such communities of practices aims nevertheless exist. Approaches to overcoming them include: to promote collaboration and knowledge sharing. • Better coordination among scientists, project developers and others to make use of (and collaborate with) relevant already established and proven citizen science projects; this could reduce project redundancy, which can confuse the public and appear to constitute ‘re-inventing the wheel’ • Stronger recognition by scientific communities of the value of data generated by citizen science) - especially in peer-reviewed processes – so that information and knowledge generated from citizen science projects can gain better appreciation and inspire more confidence • Coordination internationally to better aggregate and analyze data generated by citizen science, which could help reveal valuable data sets useful to scientists, policy- makers and others © Gill Conquest / ExCiteS, University College London

40 of-citizen.html www.openscientist.org/2011/09/finalizing-definition- Science” and “Citizen Scientists”. Retrieved from http:// Openscientist. (2011).Finalizing adefinitionof “Citizen tsv.fi/index.php/fennia/article/view/7637 international ofgeography. journal 191(2)http://ojs. river.watershed inJukajoki knowledge Fennia of landscaperestoration and –co-management Mustonen, T. (2013).Oral histories asabaseline article/10.1007/s13280-013-0425-3 43(2):234-243. March 2014http://link.springer.com/ death: Case ofLinnunsuopeat Ambio. production. Mustonen, T. (2014).Power discourses of firsh esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/110278 Ecology andtheEnvironment, 285http://www. inecological research.participation Frontiers in Miller-Rushing, A.etal. (2012). ofpublic The history SSRN-id2167538211.pdf scistarter.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/ collaborative projects. Research Policy, 43:1-20http:// The organization ofscientific research inopen Franzoni, H.(2014).Crowd C.andSauermann, science: book/?GCOI=80140100107290 http://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/ Research. Comstock Publishing Associates Science: Public Participation inEnvironmental J. L.and Bonney,Dickinson, R.(2012).Citizen annurev-ecolsys-102209-144636?journalCode=ecolsys http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/ ofEcology,Annual Review Evolution, and, 41:149–72 ecological research tool: Challengesandbenefits. J. L.etal.Dickinson, (2010).Citizen science asan biu001.abstract oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2014/02/18/biosci. BioScience, Vol. 64No. 3http://bioscience. of tropical resource monitoring by localcommunities. Danielsen, F. assessment etal. (2014).Amulticountry gamers-solve-riddle/ http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/foldit- weeks.Retrieved June9,2014. Scientific American. Foldit within3 gamerssolve ofHIVenzyme riddle Coren, M.J. andFast Company. (2011,September20). springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10661-010-1582-5 Assessment,Monitoring 176(1-4):273-91http://link. Environmentmonitoring: issuesandopportunities. citizen science andcommunity-based environmental Conrad, C.C.andHilchey, (2011).Areview of K.G. v.343-p.1436-7.pdf files/Bonney%20et%20al%202014%20Science%20 Science, 343http://ccrec.ucsc.edu/sites/default/ Bonney, R.etal.steps for (2014).Next citizen science. Science%202013.pdf default/files/Green%20Paper%20on%20Citizen%20 on Citizen Sciencehttp://www.socientize.eu/sites/ European (2013).Green Commission Paper (EC) Further information aboutcitizen science S0006320713003820 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ of citizen science. Biological169:31–40. Conservation, integrated approach to development andapplication Sullivan, B. L.etal. (2014). The eBird enterprise: An extreme-1.10054 http://www.nature.com/news/citizen-science-goes- Nature. February 2012doi:10.1038/nature.2012.10054 (2012).CitizenRowland, science goes K. ‘Extreme’. citizen science 41

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Air pollution: world’s worst environmental health risk Deterioration of air quality The unacceptable human, environmental and economic costs

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Air Pollution: World’s Worst Environmental Health Risk carcinogenic to humans. Ground-level ozone (O matter concluded in2013that is Cancer particulate (IARC) concentration. The for InternationalAgency Research on into thelungsandbloodstream andisdangerous at any US$17-35 billionperyear by emissionsofPM 2030.Reducing wheat crops dueto ground-level ozone pollutioncould be crops. isestimated that globallosses to It soybean, maize and airpollutant, which damageshumanhealthand important Particulate matter 2.5micrometres orlessindiameter (PM ofmunicipalwasteburning andagricultural residues. solid fuels(e.g. coal, wood, crop waste), forest fires andopen powergas production), plants, andheating with cooking to oil and (fromvehicles), making sectors brick industrial Sources ofairpollutionincludetraffic (especiallydiesel developing countries. major causeofpoorhealthandpremature death, especiallyin and otherhealthproblems. airpollutionisanother Indoor chronic andacute respiratorydiseases(includingasthma) have increased disease, ofstroke, risks lungcancer, heart acceptable pollutant levels. People wholive inthesecities meet the guidelinesforWorld HealthOrganization (WHO) citieswhereMost outdoor airpollutionismonitored donot The healthofmany more affected. isseriously year becauseoflong-term exposureevery to airpollutants. both developing anddeveloped countries dieprematurely results at somelocations intheworld, millionsofpeoplein globally. measures Although airquality have hadpositive There isanurgent needto reduce levels ofairpollution Unacceptable environmental, socialandeconomic costs pollution. Between 2005and2010,thedeathpollution. Between rate rose by 4% 3.5millionpeopledieeachyearOver from outdoor air helps achieve food security. air quality, butalso mitigates near-term climate changeand and ground-level ozone notonlyhasanimmediate effecton the thickness ofahumanhair,the thickness PM biomass andoneofthebiggestconcerns. One-hundredth is produced by incomplete combustion offossil fuelsand 2.5 canpenetrate deep 3 ) isanother 2.5 ) 2.5

sections on harmful substances onharmful andclimate change.sections moreRead aboutairpollutionintheUNEP Year 2010 Book 2020 alone. deathswith theearly of230,000peopleavoided intheyear deaths linkedto reducing PM of theeconomic benefits would bedue to fewer premature be upto 90 timesthecost ofimplementing them.About 85% under the1990CleanAir Amendments Act are estimated to benefits of reducing PM economic benefits.In theUnited States, economic thedirect hasthepotentialImproving airquality to provide enormous and crop damage–was aboutUS$140-230 billion. facilities in2009–includingthrough lostlives, poorhealth causedbyharm airpollutionfrom the10,000largest polluting from costs aboutUS$137billionperyear road and transport Development (OECD). Europe, In exposure to airpollution study by theOrganisation for Economic and Co-Operation according inIndia in ChinaandUS$0.5trillion to arecent in2010was to estimatedpollution society at US$1.4trillion worldwide, by Cost 5%inChinaandby ofair 12%inIndia. US$1.7 trillion. outdoor airpollutionin2010isestimated to have been ofdeath andillnessdueto impact countries themonetary peryeartrillion inlivesOECD lostandillhealth.In andChinaisestimatedeconomies plusIndia to beUS$3.5 The cost ofairpollutionto theworld’s mostadvanced The economic cost ofairpollution 2.5 andground-level ozone pollution 2.5 intheoutdoor environment, air quality 43

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Air pollution: world’s worst environmental health risk Air pollution: the leading cause of environmentally related deaths

The health impacts of air pollution are much larger than was could contribute 50% of global emissions in 2030, according thought only a few years ago. The World Health Organization to some estimates. A World Bank study found that in (WHO) estimates that in 2012 around 7 million premature Sub-Saharan Africa implementation of low-sulphur fuels (50 deaths resulted from air pollution, more than double previous ppm) and cleaning up of vehicles, including motorcycles, estimates. The new estimate is based on increasing knowledge would result in health benefits estimated at US$43 billion over of air pollution-related diseases and use of improved air a ten-year period. quality measurements and technology. According to WHO, outdoor air pollution caused 3.7 million premature deaths in Effective policies and strategies to reduce air pollution work. 2012. Indoor air pollution is responsible for about 4.3 million In many countries, emissions and concentrations of harmful premature deaths every year. pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide

(SO2) and lead are lower than a few decades ago. Africa Outdoor air quality is rapidly deteriorating in major cities in has made good progress in introducing cleaner fuels with low and middle income countries (LMICs). The WHO guideline the phase-out of leaded petrol. Swiss studies confirm the for average annual particulate matter (PM10) levels is 20 substantial health benefits of air quality improvements, even micrograms per cubic metre. For fine particles (PM2.5) the in a country with relatively low levels of air pollution. average annual level is 10 micrograms per cubic metre and 25 micrograms per cubic metre for a 24 hour period. Air pollution Many efforts to reduce air pollution go hand in hand with levels in cities in LMICs sometimes far exceed these levels. technological enhancements that also improve energy

In Kathmandu, Nepal, for example, PM2.5 levels of over 500 efficiency, thereby producing additional economic and micrograms per cubic metre have been measured. environmental benefits. Although technology is available to make vehicles, agriculture, industrial installations, power About 3 billion people in the world cook and heat their plants, waste treatment facilities and other sources less homes with coal and biomass. Air pollutant emissions need polluting, innovations and their adoption may take time. to be reduced not only from these inefficient energy systems, Moreover, progress in emission reductions per unit can often but also from agricultural waste incineration, forest fires be outweighed by rapid increases in the number of units (e.g. and charcoal production. In Africa, due to the rapid growth vehicles). of its cities and megacities, a large increase in air pollutant emissions from burning of fossil fuels and traditional biomass Air pollution in developed countries has decreased in recent use for energy services is expected in the near future. They years, partly due to tighter emission controls, including on vehicles. Nevertheless, evidence suggests that road transport Choking to death accounted for 50% of the cost of the health impacts of air

Key: pollution – both death and illness – in OECD countries in 2010 ambient air pollution in 2012, by region (’000) LMI = low- and middle income HI = high-income America (or close to US$1 trillion). With the rapid growth of traffic in LMI 131 Europe HI America 295 Southeast Asia HI 96 developing countries such as China and India, air pollution has 2 275 68 Africa outpaced the adoption of tighter vehicle emission standards. 679 Europe LMI 287 There is insufficient evidence to estimate the share of road transport in total health impacts due to air pollution in Deaths attributable in 2012, by disease Eastern Acute lower respiratory disease 596 000 Mediterranean LMI developing countries. LMI Lung cancer 443 100 2 817 394 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 1 187 900

Stroke 2 296 900 Eastern 14 Mediterranean HI Ischaemic heart disease 2 529 700 Source: WHO 2012

44 the Climate andCleanAir Coalition (CCAC) helpsdevelop andheating stovesthem. Ahouseholdcooking initiative of on theadvantages ofthenewstoves andhow to install Youth volunteers have trained around 16,000localwomen efficient than the open fires traditionallyusedin rural areas. polluting firewood-burning stove that isup to 60%more Empowerment Program inKenya has developed aless been developed. For example, theRuiru Youth Community the years, many ofimproved types stoves cooking have reduce emissionsofairpollutants from cookstoves. Over outinanumber ofcountriesResearch to isbeingcarried million premature deaths peryear. a smallamount. avoids anestimated 1.3 The PCFVphase-out petrol. 2013,onlysixcountries As were ofOctober still using in 2002,approximately halftheworld’s countries usedleaded fleet isbecoming lesspolluting. When thePCFV was launched promote to low-sulphur ashift fuels–suggestthat theglobal – andmore recent to reduce actions PM the UNEP-led Partnership for CleanFuel and Vehicles (PCFV) international cooperation to phaseoutleadedpetrol under fuel economy oftheglobalvehicle capacity fleet. Successful The GlobalFuel Economy to improve Initiative isworking the cap was placed onnewvehicle salesin2013. meet emissionstandards offthe roads by theendof2014.A announced plansto takeupto 6millionvehicles that donot many pollutingcompanies were fined. The government has theprevioussame period year, andmore thanthree timesas the firstthree months of2014 were ten timesthe total inthe China’s airpollution,fines campaign tofor pollutingin tackle Enforcement ofexisting regulations of isessential. As part as additionalbenefitssuchenergyare efficiency realized. improvements to reduce airpollutioncanpay for themselves past successes inany country. many In casestechnological issue, from andlessons canbelearned transboundary than allowing airpollutionto worsen. Air pollutionisa air cleanerwillcost countries farlessinthelongrun Investing inimplementing effective policies to make challengeofairpollution The transboundary 2.5 emissionsand Annual Average PM 10Levels Cities ofMajor mobile phonesto monitor indoorairpollution. real-time monitoring information. UNEP’s uses project Surya Also underdevelopment are onlineplatforms for releases of and lookat real-time data onmajoroutdoor airpollution. apps, forSmartphone example, allow usersto checkairquality developed to measure airpollutionlevels andexposures. severalIn countries monitoring low-cost devices are being solutions.cooking that projects scaleupalternativesuch stoves. alsosupports It test protocols andstandards to ensure lower emissionsfrom 100 150 200 250 50 0 A Ac nnual A cra Lagos JohannesbuDakr ar v er

g age P Dar es S Tunis

= 20u alaam Grea M 10L ter C g/m WHOPM10A Kuw air ait C o 3 ity ev R iyadh els ofM Abu Dhabi

Urumqi ajor C nnual A Beijing Nanjing ities

ir Q Shanghai

u Hong Kong alit y Guideline Medan K athmanduYangon

Valley Seoul Bangkok

Dhak a Delhi Kolk ata Mumbai Lahor Islamabade © Safia Osman © Safia S arajev o Beirut Istanbul air quality S S an

our tiago

c Bogota e: Me WHO xic o C 45 ity

, 2012 Lima 20 UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Air pollution: world’s worst environmental health risk Meeting agreed standards to achieve economic and health benefits

Countries are curbing air pollution by enforcing air quality between government agencies and other bodies at national standards and stimulating the development of cleaner and regional levels through networks and other mechanisms technologies. Target-setting to improve air quality should can be further expanded. Air quality assessments would help be based on the latest science – including the best possible identify gaps in countries’ capacity to address air pollution and estimates of impacts of air pollution on the health of people identify new opportunities for cooperation. and ecosystems. Scientists and policy-makers worldwide have ready access to internationally agreed guidelines such as the Data collection and sharing is of fundamental importance World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines, the in addressing air quality issues and measuring policy Environmental Health Criteria documents and International effectiveness. Despite some progress, air quality data are often Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) studies. scattered or incomplete and not easily available.

Emissions of outdoor air pollution from major sources can be International air quality guidelines reduced through policies and investments that support less polluting and more energy-efficient transport, housing and The WHO air quality guidelines provide assessments of industries, as well as improved power generation, municipal the health effects of air pollution and thresholds for waste management and agricultural practices. Actions that pollution levels that are harmful to health. They inform reduce air pollution can also reduce climate impacts. Black policy makers and provide appropriate targets for a broad carbon, for example, is one of three short-lived climate range of air quality management policy options in pollutants targeted for reduction by the CCAC along with different parts of the world. Environmental Health Criteria methane (CH ) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). It has been documents address the effects of chemicals or 4 estimated that ‘fast action’ on black carbon and methane combinations of chemicals and physical and biological would potentially cut the rate of climate change in half for agents on human health and the environment. The work the next several decades, as well as reducing air pollution- of the IARC is focused on cancer. related deaths by as much as 2.4 million per year and avoiding annual crop losses of 50 to more than 100 million tonnes. Some countries are more advanced than others in regard to Opportunities clearly exist to tackle air pollution and other establishing limit and target values as well as requirements to severe health and environmental problems cost-effectively reduce emissions from pollutant sources, monitor emissions using integrated approaches. and concentrations, and determine exposures. Countries lacking experience can profit from the knowledge already acquired by more advanced ones, keeping in mind local and regional differences including climatic conditions, income levels and consumption patterns.

It has long been recognized that air pollutants are easily transported across borders. Over 50 countries are engaged in effective cooperative work under the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution. Existing cooperation © UNEP For video links please go to http://vimeo.com/80295930

46 php http://www.iarc.fr/en/publications/books/sp161/index. tion No. Straif, 161(K. A.Cohen andJ. Samet, eds.) (2013). Air Pollution andCancer. Scientific IARC Publica- for (InternationalAgency IARC Research onCancer) 22(3):235-242 of Exposure ScienceandEnvironmental Epidemiology, matter inKathmandu particulate Valley, Nepal. Journal Gurung, A.andBell, M.L.(2012).Exposure to airborne springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10584-013-0847-8 mortality. Climatic Change, 121(2):239-253http://link. mate changeonglobalairpollution-related premature Fang, Yuanyuan cli- of21stcentury etal. (2013).Impacts lite.pdf - patarnott.com/satsens/pdf/globalMortalityPM_satel imagery. Environmental Research, 120,20,33-42http:// airpollutionusingsatelliteattributable to particulate Evans, J., etal. (2013).Estimates ofglobalmortality EEA_Copenhagen.pdf it/cost/meetings/docCopen/11-BOOKLET_TD1105_ for Air-Pollution http://www.cost.eunetair. Monitoring EEA (2013b). NewSensing Technologies andMethods media/newsreleases/reducing-the-20ac-45-billion air pollutionfrom http://www.eea.europa.eu/ lorries the€45billionhealthcostEEA (2013a).Reducing of leases/industrial-air-pollution-cost-europe EEA reveals http://www.eea.europa.eu/media/newsre air pollutioncost Europe upto €169billionin2009, EEA (European Environment (2011).Industrial Agency) by_40_percent_in_anti-pollution_drive/3994/ e360.yale.edu/digest/beijing_to_limit_new_cars__ anti-pollution drive. 5November News article, http:// to (2013). Beijing limitnewcarsby 40percente-360 in millions-cars-reduce-air-pollution environment/chinas-choice/2014/may/27/china-scrap- 27May http://www.theguardian.com/News article, road inabidto improve insmog-hitregions. airquality ease pollution.Chinato take6millionoldcarsoffthe J.Duggan, (2014).Chinato scrap millionsofcarsto ehp.1307049 http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/1307049/ Environmental HealthPerspectives, DOI:10.1289/ able to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter Exposure. for Estimating theGlobalBurden ofDiseaseAttribut R.T.,Burnett, etal. (2014).An Integrated Function Risk 394 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11427388 tion. Environmental HealthPerspectives, Suppl. 3,389- chronic consequences ofacute exposure to airpollu- lethal London fog of1952:novel indicators ofacute and Bell, M.L. and Davis, D.L. (2001).Reassessmentofthe ence/article/pii/S1352231011000070 45, 13,2297-2309http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci- scenarios ofO3pollution.Atmospheric Environment, lossesandeconomicproduction damageundertwo ozone exposure:to surface 2. Year 2030potential crop Avnery, S.etal. (2011).Globalcrop due yieldreductions Further information aboutairpollution - - sensors.html Collaboration Event http://www.epa.gov/nerl/features/ developed EPA’s during Evaluation Air Sensor and US EPA (2013b). evaluate Scientists airsensors green.epa.gov US EPA (2013a).EPA Village Green Project http://village tive2-2.html 2020 http://www.epa.gov/cleanairactbenefits/prospec (2011).SecondProspectiveAgency) Study –1990to US EPA (United States Environmental Protection tion-measurement-methods www.umass.edu/newsoffice/article/updating-air-pollu- Quality, HealthEffects. News http:// release, 6January Amherst Airlution Measurement withUMass Methods (2014).Updating AirUniversity ofMassachusetts Pol- fault.aspx#sthash.89chc6YI.dpuf org/ccac/Publications/Publications/tabid/130293/De Forcers http://www.unep. -AUNEPSynthesis Report Air Benefits: Actions for Controlling Climate Short-Lived UNEP (2011)Near-term Climate Protection andClean pdf org/yearbook/2010/PDF/3_climate_change_2010_low. Harmful_substances_2010_low.pdf http://www.unep. ronment http://www.unep.org/yearbook/2010/PDF/2_ New ScienceandDevelopments Changing inOur Envi- “Climate Change” chapters inUNEP Year 2010: Book Substances“Harmful andHazardous Wastes” and UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) (2010). net/stories/1060000041 OECD finds. News story,May 22 http://www.eenews. Pyper, J. (2014).Air pollutionisa$1.7Thealth problem, cost-of-air-pollution.htm http://www.oecd.org/environment/of road transport OECD (2014). The cost ofairpollution:Healthimpacts quencesofinaction.htm outlooks/oecdenvironmentaloutlookto2050theconse www.oecd.org/environment/indicators-modelling- to 2050(Chapter 6, “Health andEnvironment”) http:// Development) (2012).OECDEnvironmental Outlook OECD (Organization for and Economic Co-operation pubmed/24694836 J Cancer. 33(4):189-96http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ ofoutdoor airpollution:focusgenicity onChina.Chin evaluationResearch onCancer ofthecarcino (IARC) Loomis, D., etal. (2014). The for InternationalAgency org/1748-9326/9/3/035003/article tal Research Letters, 9,3,035003http://iopscience.iop. combustion emissionsfrom 2005to 2030.Environmen- Liousse, C.,etal. (2014).Explosive growth inAfrican pr221_E.pdf http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2013/pdfs/ cause ofcancer deaths. News release, 17October OutdoorIARC: airpollutionaleadingenvironmental and IARC HealthOrganization) (2013). WHO (World - - - - - Urban-China.pdf content/dam/Worldbank/document/EAP/China/WEB- Sustainable Urbanizationhttp://www.worldbank.org/ China: (2014). Urban Toward Inclusive, Efficient, and of theState Council, thePeople’s ofChina Republic World BankandtheDevelopment Research Center environmental-health-natural-resources challenges-vol-1-3-analysis-physical-monetary-losses- india-diagnostic-assessment-select-environmental- worldbank.org/curated/en/2013/06/18009327/ environmentalselect challengeshttp://documents. resources. Vol. -Diagnostic assessment 1ofIndia lossesofenvironmentalmonetary healthandnatural World Bank(2013). An analysis ofphysical and databases/faqs_air_pollution.pdf?ua=1 http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/ and HouseholdAir Pollution andHealth.Update 2014 WHO (2014d).Frequently Asked Questions. Ambient who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/ Fact SheetNo. 313,update March 2014http://www. WHO (2014c).Ambient andhealth. (outdoor) airquality pollution/en/ www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/air- linked to air pollution.Newrelease, 25March http:// WHO (2014b). 7millionpremature deaths annually mediacentre/news/releases/2014/air-quality/en/ world’s cities. News release, 7May http://www.who.int/ deterioratingWHO (2014a).Air quality inmany ofthe WHO_SDE_PHE_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf?ua=1 assessmentof risk http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/ oxide andsulfurdioxide. Globalupdate 2005.Summary matter, guidelinesfority particulate ozone, nitrogen di- HealthOrganization) (2005). WHO (World WHO airqual- daily.com.cn/china/2014-01/07/content_17219181.htm technology. 7January. News article, http://www.china - Wang Hongyi(2014).University unveils newairpurifier epa.gov/research/airscience/air-cleancookstove.htm US EPA (2014).CleanCookstove Research: http://www. htm www.epa.gov/research/airscience/air-sensor-research. US EPA generation airmonitoring (2013c).Next http:// air quality 47

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Plastic debris in the ocean

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Plastic Debris in the Ocean possible adverse impacts onecosystemspossible adverse impacts and humanhealth. organismsother marine that andthe ingestplasticdebris growing concern isthepossiblecontamination offish and which canenter nets, foul propellers andlitter beaches. A are economically affected by thepresence ofplasticdebris, inmanyaddition, thefishingand industries tourism countries ocean, focusing often onitsenvironmental In impacts. worldwide problem accumulating ofplasticdebris inthe organizations (NGOs)have improved awareness ofthe ofnon-governmental andtheactivities reports Media persistent environment. inthemarine waters nearcoastal areas.in surface Plastic isextremely temperatures at thesedepths)than plasticonbeachesor fragment (dueto lackofUVpenetration and the cold water Plasticreduction. ontheseafloorwilltakefarlonger to biological processes results infragmentation and size Exposure ofplasticto theocean’s physical, chemicaland • • • • • documented. includes: It of sight. Environmental damage dueto is well plasticdebris of thematerial sinksto theocean floor, where it remains out circulation features that tend to trap floating material.Some on shorelines, italsoaccumulates ‘gyres’ inmid-ocean currents. ismostcommonly Although plasticdebris observed Floating great plasticcanbetransported distances by ocean including inthepolarregions, farfrom itssource. plasticisfoundin theocean isunknown, allover theworld tourism, andpoorwaste management. While thetotal amount from and suchasfisheries bothland-andsea-basedactivities, yearEvery large amountsenter ofplasticdebris theocean Continous flows ofplastic environmentto themarine invasive speciesonplasticfragments Potential of changesinbiodiversity dueto thetransport ingestion ofsmallplasticparticles Chemical contamination organisms ofmarine through ofsedimentssmothering Damage to ecosystems critical suchascoral reefs and in nylon fishinggear(likenets) and otherplasticdebris animals such as turtles, small-toothed whales andseabirds animals suchasturtles, Mortality or sub-lethal effectswhenplasticisingested by orsub-lethal Mortality Entanglement of animals such as dolphins and large whales Entanglement ofanimalssuchasdolphinsandlarge whales , natural UNEP Year 2011. Book moreRead intheocean aboutplasticdebris inthe -60 -40 -20 20 40 60 80 0 0 and South Pacific,and South Ocean.Indian andthe Atlantic andSouth Ocean, theNorth occur intheNorth subtropical convergence zones orgyres. These gyres and tends to accumulate inalimited numberof by ocean tocurrents transport issubject debris Marine Gyres 0.01 50 2 100 150 4 © NOAA Marine Debris Programme© NOAA Debris Marine 200 6 250 300 8 plastics debris 350 10 © IPRC 400 49

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Plastic debris in the ocean Growing concern about microplastics

Growth in plastics production 1950-2012 Plastic is now the most frequently reported material in Growth in plastics production 1950-2012 300 2012: 288 encounters between debris and fish, sea birds, marine Europe World reptiles (e.g. turtles) and mammals (e.g. whales). As science 250 progresses, more is being learned about the relationships 200 between different types of mass-produced plastic and the 150 organic contaminants they transport. million tonnes 100 2012: 57 Concern is growing about the threat microplastics could present 50 to marine life, including as a pathway for the transport of harmful 0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 chemicals through the food web. Ingestion of microplastics has Year Source: PlasticsEurope 2013 been widely reported in a range of marine organisms including seabirds, fish, mussels, lugworms and zooplankton. Microplastics Increasing attention is being given to the use of microplastics have also been identified as an emerging threat to much larger in a wide range of consumer goods. ‘Microbeads’ are found organisms, such as the endangered northern right whale, a in toothpaste, douche gels and facial cleansers, among other surface-feeding baleen whale potentially exposed to microplastic products, sometimes replacing natural ingredients (e.g. ingestion as a result of its filter-feeding activity. The evidence is pumice or ground seeds). These microplastics tend not to be still insufficient, however, to quantify the nature and full extent of filtered out during wastewater treatment, but to be released the effects of microplastics. directly to the ocean or other water bodies such as lakes and rivers. Microplastics are also found in effluent as tiny fibres Microplastics after synthetic textiles are washed.

Microplastics are formed when plastic items fragment and Diverse communities of microbes have been discovered disintegrate. The rate of fragmentation is highly colonizing and thriving on microplastics at multiple locations dependent on the environmental setting, especially in the North Atlantic described as the ‘plastisphere’. One temperature and the amount of UV light available. concern about the plastisphere is that it can facilitate the Microplastics are also manufactured for use in plastic transport of harmful microbes, including disease-causing production, for other industrial purposes such as sand pathogens and harmful algal species. blasting, or for use in consumer (e.g. personal care) products. The term ‘microplastics’ is widely used to describe plastic particles with an upper size limit of 5 mm in diameter, which is the size range most readily ingested by many organisms. However, microplastics in products can be as small as 0.004 µm.

Plastic is increasingly found in the world’s marine ecosystems. Every part of the ocean examined so far has revealed its presence. Microplastics were recently discovered in Arctic sea ice. Since sea ice is thinning, these small particles will likely be shed back into the water where they can be ingested by plankton, fish and other organisms.

50 © NOAA Marine Debris Programme Environmental Protection (GESAMP). Marine of ontheScientific Aspects the Joint Group ofExperts fate andeffectsofmicroplastics environment inthemarine by of microplastics. Oneisaglobal assessment ofthesources, are underway to determine thephysical andchemical effects Several America. international cooperativeNorth initiatives have andtheGreat beenfound inLakeGardaLakes in inItaly expanding to freshwater systems. For example, microplastics ecosystemsmarine hasrapidly increased andresearch isnow The numberofscientific studies concerned withplasticin pollution oftheAtlantic Ocean. United States to Sydney, Australia, to attention bring to plastic plastic andwaste products, sailedfrom Francisco San in the of 12,500reclaimed plasticbottlesandotherrecycled PET On adifferent scale,a18-metre catamaran the Plastiki, made fromcollected theshoreline canconvey message. apowerful (e.g.plastic objects shoes, toothbrushes, cigarette lighters) Forthese activities. comprising familiar example, artwork Awareness of raisingoneofthemain objectives isoften aimedat governmental advocacy to bodies. policy part, and from beachclean-upsinwhichlocalcommunities take gathering innovative ideasfrom individuals andbusinesses; research andeducation for youngparticipatory people, to intheocean.of plasticdebris These range from providing others continue to organize to address activities theproblem NGOs, teachers, student groups, research institutes and changes inattitudes andbehaviour by everyone. the amountinocean. ofplasticdebris That willrequire be effective inbringing aboutsignificant in reductions cost-effectively. However, legislation aloneisunlikely to potential control measures that could reduce theseinputs a regional level. Many countries have begunto investigate monitoring guidance aimedat reducing inputsofplasticat bodieshaveRegional Seas introduced controls and ontheenvironment. activities shipping andothermaritime Convention, of whichisdesigned to limittheimpact Organizationof theInternationalMaritime (IMO) MARPOL The disposalofplasticat seaisoutlawed underAnnex V Cooperation at international, regional andnational levels of marine litterof marine andto andbestpractices. enhance knowledge multi-stakeholder forum to increase awareness of theimpacts litter.of marine The GPML works asanoverall coordinating and theenvironment through andmanagement thereduction was ofprotecting establishedwiththeobjective humanhealth Litter (GPML) June2012,theGlobalPartnership onMarine In producing containing orsellingproducts microplastics. care andretail companies have announced theywillstop inform customers viaanapp. As aresult, anumberofpersonal on companies to ban useofmicroplastics and inproducts The themicrobead’‘beat campaign aimsto putpressure to contribute invariousways to solutionsfor litter. marine issuedadeclaration committing itself global plasticsindustry been madeinplasticrecycling techniques. 2011,the In advances have intheoceanplastic debris andimportant engagedindiscussionsabout hasbeenactively Industry levels ofmicroplastics infour ofEurope’s majorrivers. investigationsExploratory are underway to determine the visibleto thehumaneye andmicroscopicparticles particles. is thevolume litter. ofmarine This indicator covers bothlarger environment withthehelpofeleven indicators, oneofwhich Strategy Framework Directive thestatus describes ofthemarine data ontheenvironment. The European Union(EU)Marine the useofcitizen science and mobile technology to collect more recent activity. Increasingly, thefocus iswideningtowards of microplastics from consumer inwater products bodiesisa hastakenplacedebris for sometime. thelevels Determining somecountries, In monitoring andcentral ofmarine reporting © Aani Adriani ©Aani andGraham Uden plastics debris 51

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Plastic debris in the ocean The key to reducing inputs of plastic debris is at the source

Every effort should be made to prevent more plastic debris entering the ocean. However, production trends, use patterns and changing demographics are expected to result in ever greater amounts of plastic debris – including microplastics. Even if it were possible to keep more plastic from entering the environment, the amount already in the ocean will continue to break down into smaller fragments and to form microplastics for hundreds of years to come.

There is wide agreement that a safer and cleaner marine environment (including protection of marine animals and of human health) is a desirable goal, but feasible ways to remove the plastic and harmful chemicals already in the environment still appear to be very limited. Nevertheless, there are many opportunities to keep more plastic items from finding their © Bill Macdonald way to the ocean. An important contribution is required from industry, together The Plastic Disclosure Project encourages businesses with universities and other research bodies, to find ways to and institutions to measure annual plastic use or waste reduce the impacts of plastic throughout its life cycle. This aggregation in their operations. Awareness campaigns could include research on biodegradable resins, alternative continue to be needed to discourage littering and convince ingredients, redesigned products, and next-generation people to reuse or ban plastic bags, among other actions. additives that do not adversely impact the environment Introducing financial incentives for re-use or recycling (e.g. and human health. Apart from innovations in solid waste introducing levies on plastic packaging) and enforcing management, sewage treatment could be improved in order legislation to decrease the amount of plastic debris in the to trap smaller particles before effluent is discharged to environment can lead to far greater recycling and waste surface water and sludge is deposited. prevention. Proposals are frequently made to turn plastic debris into a variety of products, or to use the plastic as fuel. There is an immediate need to fill knowledge gaps and better understand the capacity of various types of plastic to sorb persistent, toxic and bioaccumulating chemicals (PBTs). Since plastic particles contaminated with these chemicals can potentially be ingested by marine organisms, the potential delivery of toxins through the food web via this mechanism needs to be further investigated and quantified if this can be shown to occur.

© Plastic Disclosure Project For video links please go to http://vimeo.com/88804648

52 workgroups/working-group-40 assessment www.gesamp.org/work-programme/ environment inthemarine micro-plastics –aglobal ing Group 40(2013).Sources, fate andeffectsof Environmental ofMarine Aspects Protection) Work on theScientific GroupGESAMP ofExperts (Joint com/science/article/pii/S0025326X12004122 Pollution Bulletin,11,2374-2379 www.sciencedirect. terranean finwhale(Balaenoptera physalus). Marine the threat ofmicroplastics?- AcasestudyoftheMedi Fossi, M.C.,etal. (2012).Are baleenwhalesexposed to Chemicals-in-the-Ocean.pdf The-Complex-Interaction-between-MD-and-Toxic- http://water.epa.gov/type/oceb/marinedebris/upload/ ronmental Science& Technology, 46,22,12302-12315 and toxic debris marine chemicalsintheocean. Envi- Engler, R.E. (2012). The complex interaction between item/16968/first-survey-of-microplastics-in-rivers rivers http://www.deltares.nl/en/news/news-item/ Deltares (2014).First ofmicroplastics in survey es400663f 12, 6646-6655.http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ plankton. Environmental Science& Technology, 47, Cole, by M.,etal. Zoo Ingestion (2013).Microplastic pubmed/22001295 Bulletin, 62,12,2588-2589www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ environment:in themarine areview. Pollution Marine Cole, M.,etal. ascontaminants (2011).Microplastics S0025326X13006048 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ an seabirds. Pollution Marine Bulletin,77,15,220-226 M.(2013).PlasticCodina-Garcia, inMediterrane debris thegef.org/files/publication/cbd-ts-67-en.pdf tus andPotential www.thegef.org/gef/sites/ Solutions Current Sta onBiodiversity: - Debris ofMarine Impacts Panel-Global EnvironmentAdvisory Facility) (2012). Biological and Diversity andtheScientific Technical CBD/STAP-GEF (Secretariat oftheConvention on es201811s?journalCode=esthag 9175-9179 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ Sinks. Environmental Science& Technology, 45,21, croplastic onShorelines Worldwide: Sources and Brown, M.A.,etal. (2011).Accumulation- ofMi issue?pii=S0960-9822%2813%29X0023-5 2388-2392 http://www.cell.com/current-biology/ to Health andBiodiversity. Current Biology, 23, and Additives to Worms, Functions Reducing Linked Brown, J.A., etal. Moves (2013).Microplastic Pollutants com/science/article/pii/S0025326X12004687 PollutionMarine Bulletin,64,12www.sciencedirect. HAUSGARTEN. observatory at theArcticdeep-sea Bergmann, M.andKlages, M.(2012).Increaseoflitter S0025326X11003055 1605 www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ environment. Pollution Marine Bulletin,62,1596- Andrady, inthemarine A.L.(2011).Microplastics Further information intheocean aboutplasticdebris - - - for_small_island_developing_states.pdf Process http://www.unep.org/pdf/Emerging_issues_ Developing States. oftheUNEPForesight Results fecting SIDS’ inEmerging issuesfor Small Island UNEP (2014). ‘Globally-emitted Contaminants Af- yearbook/2011 in ourGlobalEnvironment http://www.unep.org/ UNEP (2011). Year 2011:Emerging Book Issues cmsctech/272/272we13.htm publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmselect/ Committee, Parliament www. ofthe United Kingdom plastics submitted to theScienceand Technology Thompson, R.C.(2013). Written evidence onmicro es303700s 3, 1646-1654http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ Debris. Environmental Science& Technology, 47, Types ofPlastic Pellets: for Implications Plastic Marine ofOrganicment Contaminants ofSorption to Five C.M.,etal.Rochman, (2013),Long-Term Field Measure pone.0095839 org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal. Basins.Deep PLOS ONE, http://www.plosone. 30April inEuropeanand Density Seas, from theShelves to etal.Litter Distribution (2014). Marine Pham, C.K., http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/ Administration) Programpheric Debris (2013).Marine NOAA (United States National Oceanic andAtmos- S0025326X13003780 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ Initiative. Pollution Marine Bulletin,15,74,1,165-169 Georgiaby the Seaeffort Debris Center Marine Turtle removal: J.M. debris (2013).Marine Oneyear of Martin, to-reduce-pollution-from-microplastics221.php www.wm.edu/news/stories/2013/partnership-aims- News release, Virginia Science ofMarine Institute ads” meant to breakdown before entering waterways. from “microplastics”.lution Biodegradable “microbe D. Malmquist, (2013).Partnership aimsto reduce pol- pii/S0048969713009376 Environment www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ hydrophobic organic chemicals. Scienceofthe Total Lee, for ofplasticdebris etal.capacity (2013).Sorption article/pii/S0025326X11005674 Bulletin, 64,653-661www.sciencedirect.com/science/ floating inthe debris world’s oceans. Marine Pollution Lebreton, L.C.-M.,etal. modelingof (2012).Numerical doi/abs/10.1021/ma9025948 Macromolecules, 43,5,2093-2107http://pubs.acs.org/ andChallengesfor Polymerportunities Synthesis. Kiesewetter, etal. (2010). Organocatalysis: M.K., Op cle.cfm?id=microplastic-pollution-in-the-great-lakes 25June.American, - www.scientificamerican.com/arti for perch andotherGreat Lakesspecies?Scientific cells from yourdead skin face eachnight meandoom Great Harming Life.Be LakesMarine Could removing Johnston, C.(2013).Personal Grooming Products May - - - - http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es401288x vironmental Science& Technology, 47,13,7137-7146 CommunitiesMicrobial Debris. En- onPlastic Marine Zettler, E.R., etal. (2013).Life inthe “Plastisphere”: pubmed/23545014 mental Pollution, 178,483-92www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ microplastics organisms: onmarine areview. Environ- Wright, S.L.,etal. (2013). The physical of impacts current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(13)01343-2 Biology, 23,1031-1033http://www.cell.com/ decreases worms. energy inmarine reserves Current Wright, S.L.,etal. ingestion (2013).Microplastic do?pid=7545&tid=3622&cid=171469 ‘Plastisphere. News release www.whoi.edu/page. tists Discover Thriving Colonies inOcean ofMicrobe Woods- HoleOceanographic (2013).Scien Institution Watters%20et%20al.%202010.pdf Bulletin, 60,131–138.http://www.lovelab.id.ucsb.edu/ deep seafloorhabitats off California. Marine Pollution Watters, D.L., etal. in (2010).Assessing debris marine plastics debris 53

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Securing soil carbon benefits 2012 emerging environmental issue The benefits of soil carbon: managing soils for multiple economic, societal and environmental benefits

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Securing Soil Carbon Benefits release dioxide carbon (CO and unsustainablelandmanagement causessoilsto practices decomposition dueto landusechange(e.g. deforestation) is stored inthetop metre oftheworld’s soils. Accelerated doubletheamountheldinatmosphereOver ofcarbon to providethe ability ecosystem services. global landarea and hasdeclinedinagricultural productivity ofthe lossesinthelast25yearssoil carbon orso, one-quarter land for food, feed, fibre andfuelproduction. As a result of intensification oflanduseand conversion ofuncultivated in soilorganic ismainlyattributableto carbon worldwide disappear at arate 20timesgreater thantherate at which Peatland drainage peat worldwide to iscausing carbon-rich the rate at whichnatural soilformation takesplace. canoccurpractices at rates upto 100timesgreater than erosionSoil associated withconventional agricultural has beenlostsince the19 Around intheworld’s 60%ofthecarbon soilsandvegetation vulnerable to humanactivities. numerous ecosystem However, services. ishighly soilcarbon supplies andbiodiversity –andtherefore inproviding soil plays avitalrole inregulating theworld’s climate, water isessential forSoil agricultural production. The in carbon benefits Managing soilsfor multipleeconomic, societalandenvironmental th 2 century. The current rate ofchange ) andothergreenhouse gases. © ElkeNoellemeyer density, 0-1mdepth Global variation insoilorganic (SOC) carbon UNEP Year 2012. Book moreRead benefitsinthe aboutsoilcarbon greenhouse gasmitigation. benefits for food and water security, and biomassproduction increase stocks soilcarbon canprovide multiple, wide-ranging vital control point where to managed humaninterventions collectively termed theEarth’s Critical Zone. Thus soilisa andbelow-groundlinks theabove-ground environments, isanintegratingSoil component oftheEarth’s that surface alsoofferscarbon hope for solutions to globalchallenges. ofitscentralBecause role insomany ecosystem soil services, willcontinueecosystem to bediminished. services whilea widerange ofvital and fuelcrop at production risk, global soildegradation. These losseswillputfood, feed, fibre exacerbating climate changeandincreasing theextentof rapid to lossesofsoilcarbon theatmosphere inthefuture, it accumulated. present If trends continue, there willbe Global v SOC D transitions, throughout Zone. theCritical environmental change, such as climate andlanduse that propagates theeffectsofabove-ground resources. isanessential linkinthechainofimpact Soil layer provides this thinsurface mostlife-sustaining ground environments, isreferred to as ‘critical’ because The andbelow- Zone, Critical the above-ground linking The Earth’s Critical Zone t C/ha ensit >150 85 -150 60 -85 40 -60 5-40 ar y ia tion inSOCdensit y , 0-1mdepth S our c e: F A O/IIASA/ISRIC/ISSC soil carbon AS/JR C, 2012 55

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Securing soil carbon benefits Improved soil management: crucial for climate change and food production Scientific understanding of the benefits of soil carbon has increased in recent years – stimulated by the potential contribution of soils to climate change mitigation and the need for more sustainable agricultural development, including better management of soils. Due to the complexity of soil systems, knowledge about soil carbon is fragmented across many science disciplines and economic sectors. Recently, scientists undertook a Rapid Assessment Process integrating scientific evidence of the multiple benefits of soil carbon and exploring how new policy and management practices can help deliver these benefits more rapidly and more widely around the world.

Rapid assessment process on soil organic carbon © Hans Joosten Following production of the UNEP Year Book 2012 chapter Intensive commercial agriculture tends to reduce carbon stocks, on soil carbon, the Scientific Committee on Problems of while sustainable agriculture has the potential to increase the Environment (SCOPE) initiated a Rapid Assessment them. Significant changes in soil organic carbon stocks can Process that amassed scientific evidence from more than occur within several decades. The results of sustainable soil 80 experts worldwide, resulting in the preparation of 27 chapters over an 18-month period on the multiple management could be noticeable over similar periods. benefits of soil carbon and their implementation in policy and practice. This work culminated in a five-day workshop A wide range of ecosystem services require healthy soils in 2013 that prepared four cross-cutting chapters of and soil biodiversity. Yet the pressure on soil for various recommendations for policy in soil and land management land uses remains enormous, undermining the very basis of practice and a SCOPE publication. agricultural production. It is clear that maintaining minimum levels of soil organic carbon is essential to overall soil health, apart from the contribution this resource makes to climate Studies continue to show that soil carbon stocks throughout change mitigation. Increasing soil organic carbon above the world are strongly affected by land use and land minimum levels is a form of pro-active management to management, as well as by environmental conditions. Soil achieve additional benefits. While governments consider organic carbon is the largest constituent of soil organic matter, goals and targets for food security, soil scientists are carrying which also contains nutrients essential for plant growth such as out assessments and looking for practical ways to determine, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and micronutrients. The amount measure and maintain healthy levels of soil organic carbon. and dynamics of soil organic matter are major determinants of the quantity and quality of ecosystem services. Improving land use and management to enhance carbon storage is integral to global efforts to feed a growing population and address climate change (e.g. through carbon sequestration).

56 sourcing to support monitoring ofglobalforestsourcing to support status. itusessatellite40 partners, technology, open data andcrowd Created by UNEP, the World Resources andmore Institute than – whichcanhave stocks. onsoilcarbon significant impacts is to empowerto better manageforests peopleeverywhere near real-time information aboutchangesinforests. goal Its is anonlineforest system that gives monitoring andalert they are changing. The recently launchedGlobalForest Watch provide anupdate onthestate oftheworld’s forests andhow Resources Assessments are produced five every years to The Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO) GlobalForest biodiversity conservation. stocks.carbon These benefitsinclude water regulation and multiple benefitsinaddition to protecting and enhancing degradation (e.g. undertheUN-REDDprogramme) has as aresult offorest clearance. Preventing forest loss and cleared annuallyinrecent years. islostrapidly carbon Soil and livingspace. offorest 5millionhectares Over hasbeen population growth anddemandfor food, feed, fibre, fuel– The rate ofglobalforest clearance hasaccelerated dueto depends onlocalconditions, andclimate. includingsoiltypes inputstocarbon agricultural soilsandreduce losses carbon alleviating poverty. The effectiveness ofmeasures to increase reducing itslosseswhileimproving farmers’ incomes and countries are aimedat increasing soilorganic and carbon example, conservation agriculture initiatives indeveloping development is to improve efforts landmanagement. For agriculture,In ofmany thepurpose ongoingresearch and benefits andenhancingsoilcarbon Maintaining 2010. worldwide on117millionhectares in practised reportedly and crop rotations. agriculture Conservation was minimalsoildisturbance,principles: permanentsoilcover, livelihoods for farmers, through theapplication ofthree sustainable andprofitable agriculture, andimproved agricultureThe ofconservation isto purpose achieve Conservation agriculture including carbon sequestrationincluding carbon andstorage. and utilization to provide multipleecosystem services, in recent years to encourage wetlands protection, restoration out is oneofanumberresearch carried andotheractivities plants, asaRenewableResource’,‘Reed took place in2013. This first international conference ontheuseofemergent wetland and contribute to avoiding greenhouse gasemissions. The management cangreatly benefitsoil carbon conservation andrestoring andimproving peatlands Conserving their For videolinkspleasegoto http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXbIRCKWTfU change mitigation. improved management istherefore for critical climate emissions. Peatland restoration conservation, and peatlands emitalmost6%ofanthropogenic CO as longthepeatland remains drained. Drained instantaneous –thosefrom drained peatlands continue associated withforest clearance –whichare largely drained anddegraded. emissions Unlikecarbon of peatlands are stillinanatural state, many have been contain some30%oftotal soilcarbon. While themajority Peatlands cover about3%oftheEarth’s landarea, but Peatland protection © Concern Worldwide© 2

soil carbon 57

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Securing soil carbon benefits Seeking synergies with other policy objectives

Appropriate soil management helps to meet some of the its Committee on Science and Technology, and renewed food greatest challenges the world faces, including food and security policy activities. energy security, water availability and quality, climate change adaptation and mitigation, biodiversity conservation, and the The Global Soil Partnership’s five pillars of action health and well-being of billions of people. • Promote sustainable management of soil resources Opportunities exist at every level (global, regional, national, for soil protection, conservation and sustainable local) to enhance soil carbon and avoid losses of this precious productivity resource. In some countries these may include, for example, • Encourage investment, technical cooperation, policy, restricting the conversion of woodland and grassland to education, awareness and extension in soil arable crops. A major challenge is to improve understanding • Promote targeted soil research and development of the urgency of using these opportunities. This is essential focusing on identified gaps and priorities and if adequate resources are to be made available for planning, synergies with related productive, environmental and developing and implementing the necessary policies, actions social development actions and incentive mechanisms. • Enhance the quantity and quality of soil data and information through data collection and generation, Policy-makers are increasingly called upon to make decisions analysis, validation, reporting, monitoring, and that involve conflicting demands for food, feed, fibre, integration with other disciplines fuel and forest crops, as well as climate regulation, water, • Harmonize methods, measurements and indicators biodiversity conservation, living space and other needs. It for the sustainable management and protection of may be necessary to protect soils that provide important soil resources soil carbon storage and other benefits, such as peatlands, despite pressures to convert them to uses that could be more economically profitable in the short term.

The Global Soil Partnership, an international initiative launched in 2011 and operated by the FAO, is aimed at improving global governance of soil resources by advocating (and coordinating) initiatives to ensure that knowledge and recognition of soils are appropriately represented in global change dialogues and decision-making processes. Its work is carried out under five pillars of action.

Recommendations made during Global Soil Week 2013 (convened within the framework of the Global Soil Partnership) included strengthening the policy-science interface and increasing soil carbon synergies in policy- © UNCCD making process through the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and

58 user_upload/agp/icm16.pdf Paper 168.FAO, http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/ Rome application intheUnited of Republic Tanzania. Forestry andmodeling.using surveys and Generaldescription R.,etal. monitoring carbon (2012).Soil Mäkipää, 8238.2012.00799.x/abstract http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1466- Global Ecology andBiogeography, 22,461-469. woodland from available GISdata onthree continents. concentration intropical andtemperate forest and Ladd, B., etal. (2013).Estimates ofsoilcarbon esdb_archive/eusoils_docs/other/EUR25225.pdf Luxembourg.(JRC-IES, http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ forCentre-Institute Environment andSustainability database. European Commission, Joint Research estimatescarbon andtheharmonized world soil Hiederer, R.andKöchy, M.(2012).Globalsoilorganic global-benefits thegef.org/gef/pubs/managing-soil-organic-carbon- Environment Facility, Washington, D.C. http://www. for ASTAP GlobalBenefits: Global Report. Technical Govers, G.,etal. Organic (2013).ManagingSoil Carbon content/109/44/18226.abstract States, 109,44,18226-18231http://www.pnas.org/ the National Academy ofSciencestheUnited stocks under organic farming. Proceedings of Gattinger, A.,etal. (2012).Enhanced top soilcarbon files/publications/ni_r_10-04_3rd_edition.pdf USA. http://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/sites/default/ for Institute EnvironmentalNicholas Policy Solutions, United States: Asynthesis oftheliterature (3rd ed.). Potential ofAgricultural inthe LandManagement Eagle, A.J., etal. (2012).Greenhouse Mitigation Gas science/article/pii/S1161030112000238 Agronomy 40,18-27http://www.sciencedirect.com/ systems inaMediterranean area. European of Journal increased soilorganic content carbon ofrain-fed cereal P.P., Sanctis, De etal. (2012).Long-term notillage org/fileadmin/user_upload/agp/icm16.pdf Crop Management, Vol. 16.FAO, http://www.fao. Rome Agriculture:Conservation A literature review. Integrated from and Greenhouse EmissionReductions Gas Corsi, S.,etal. Organic (2012).Soil Carbon Accumulation press) benefits. SCOPESeries Vol.CABI, 71. Wallingford (in Carbon: for Science, multiple management andpolicy S.A.,Noellemeyer,Banwart, E., Milne,E. (2014).Soil Management. Specialissue, 2014 April Assessment Rapid Workshop. BiofuelsandCarbon Committee onProblems oftheEnvironment (SCOPE) ontheoutcomes ofaninternational Scientific Report S.,etal. Banwart, ofsoilcarbon: (2014).Benefits Further information benefits aboutsoilcarbon pdfs/UYB_2012_CH_2.pdf Environment. http://www.unep.org/yearbook/2012/ UNEP Year 2012:Emerging Book Global Issues inOur economic, societalandenvironmental benefits.”In: Managing soils benefitsofsoilcarbon: for multiple “The UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) (2012). article/pii/S0167880912003635 164, 80-99.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ organic Agriculture, carbon. Ecosystems &Environment, ofsequestration ofsoil andunknowns unknowns U.,Stockmann, etal. (2013). The knowns, known web_tcm18-222767.pdf http://www.rsc.org/images/081203%20OSCAR%20 Sustainable Agriculture: strategy. Ascience-led London. for Soils (2012).Securing ofChemistry Royal Society doi/10.1002/gbc.20068/full Cycles, 27,3,711-722.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ potential ofcropland inChina.GlobalBiogeochemical Qin, Z.,etal. organic sequestration (2013).Soil carbon article/pii/S0167880911004361 149, 37-49.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ sequestration. Agriculture, Ecosystems &Environment, on crop productivity, inputandsoilcarbon carbon Ogle, management impacts S.M.,etal. (2012).No-till soil carbon 59

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Rapid change in the Arctic UNEP Year Book 2013 emerging issue: Rapid change in the Arctic – A view from the top

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Rapid Change in the Arctic regarding itslocaland indigenousinhabitants. region, includingenvironmental andsocialconcerns risks alsopresent challenges fisheries. Suchopportunities for the gas andmineral exploitation are expanding, asare commercial shippingroutes isalready increasing.northern andoil, Mining exploitation, trade, andeconomic development. Use of Retreating seaice offersfor resource newopportunities hold more dioxide carbon (CO especially prone to ocean acidification, as colder waters can bears, walruses andsealsare at risk. The ArcticOcean is particular, iconic animalsthat live ontheice suchaspolar due to Arctic warmingaffectlifeIn onland andinthesea. stressor for Arcticbiodiversity. changing ice Rapidly conditions Global climate changeisemerging asthemostimportant contribute to globalsealevel rise. Permafrost thawing andthelossofsnow andice onlandboth greenhouse gasemissionsfrom thethawing. ofpermafrost patterns, speciesthat migratory visittheArctic, andpotential consequences for globalocean circulation andweather biodiversity. Arcticwarmingalsocould alsohave far-reaching loss ofsummerseaice, Arcticwarmingthreatens theregion’s 18% below theprevious record minimumin2007.Besides At 3.4millionkm summer seaice in2012asaresult ofwarmingintheArctic. The UNEP Year unprecedented 2013reported Book lossof A viewfrom the top reinforcing climate change. greenhouse gases(CO irreversible releases intheform ofsomethecarbon of volumes oforganic As carbon. thesesoilsthaw, climate warms. Permafrost contain soilsoften large retreating northwards inmany places intheArcticas been below 0°Cfor at leastseveral years. hasbeen It where thetemperaturethe surface, hascontinuously Permafrost isalayer offrozen soilat somedepth below Permafrost: long-frozen ground 2 , theminimumseaice extentthat year was 2 andmethane)willoccur, thereby 2 ) thanwarmerones. Book 2013. Book moreRead aboutrapid changeintheArcticUNEP Year that needsto betaken. action most important environment, reducing globalgreenhouse gas emissionsisthe change dominates thecurrent transformation oftheArctic within theregion andfrom thewiderworld. Since climate changesintheArcticrequireRapid urgent responses world. sea levelwill affect riseinthe rest ofthe to themeltingglaciersandpermafrost thaw grounds ofthosespecies, andwhat happens whatwill affect happens inthe overwintering happens to migratory speciesintheArctic of warming astherest oftheworld. What The ischanging Arctic twice asfastinterms September 2012 Royal Swedish Academy ofSciences © NSIDC, NASA Earth Observatory © NSIDC,NASAEarth September 1979 – TerryCallaghan, Arctic 61

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Rapid change in the Arctic Arctic update: science and shipping

In general, rapid warming in the Arctic is continuing. This affects marine and land ecosystems within the region, as Black carbon: a short-lived climate pollutant well as people and livelihoods. Cooler temperatures across the central Arctic Ocean, Greenland and North Canada in the Formed by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels summer of 2013 helped to moderate the record loss of sea and biomass, black carbon is emitted directly to the ice and melting of the Greenland ice sheet experienced the atmosphere in the form of fine particles. It is a major previous year. Nevertheless, the extent of summer sea ice was component of soot (a complex dark mixture) and it the sixth lowest since observations began in 1979. contributes to global warming by absorbing heat in the atmosphere and by reducing the ability to reflect sunlight when deposited on snow and ice. Unlike CO , which has a New assessments are highlighting the impact of climate 2 long atmospheric lifetime, black carbon remains in the change on Arctic marine and terrestrial environments. A atmosphere only several days to weeks. comprehensive report on ocean acidification in the region, released by the Arctic Council, confirms that among the world’s oceans the Arctic Ocean is one of the most sensitive exploiting the Barents Sea region north of Norway and Russia to ocean acidification, and that Arctic marine ecosystems are was recently stimulated by the announcement of large, highly likely to undergo significant changes as a result. previously undiscovered reserves. In some other parts of the Arctic, however, drilling has been postponed or delayed due Another Arctic Council report, the ‘Arctic Biodiversity to safety concerns. Assessment’, confirms that climate change is the most important stressor for Arctic biodiversity and will exacerbate Marine shipping in the Arctic is increasing. As of September all other threats. Increased human activities such as oil 2013, the Northern Sea Route Administration had issued 495 exploration and shipping will place additional stress on the permits to navigate and operate along this route – a nearly region’s biodiversity. four-fold increase compared to 2012. However, most of the 2013 permits were for the western parts of Russian waters Scientific understanding of black carbon as a global climate rather than for transit routes. warming agent is advancing rapidly. There is also better understanding of its importance in Arctic warming. When black carbon is deposited on snow and ice, the soot-covered surface absorbs more sunlight, leading to surface warming. Owing to the large amount of snow and ice in the Arctic, this region is likely to be especially sensitive to black carbon. Black carbon emitted within the Arctic has an almost five times greater warming effect than black carbon from outside the region. There are currently few sources of black carbon within the Arctic, but such sources are expected to grow with increased oil and gas production, shipping and other human activities.

Investments and activities for the purpose of extracting oil and gas in the Arctic are growing. For example, interest in © Björn Alfthan/GRID-Arendal

62 the Strait. paves theway for nature ajoint US-Russian spanning reserve Strait. The creation ofanewnational ontheRussianside park will touch theUnited States border maritime intheBering in theremote Far Eastern Region ofChukotka. This newpark Russia hasannounced thecreationBeringia, ofanational park, surrounding thetwo poles. matters relevant to shipsoperating ininhospitablewaters training, search andrescue andenvironmental protection the fullrange equipment, ofdesign, construction, operational operating inpolarwaters (thePolar Code), whichwould cover developing Internationalcode adraft ofsafety for ships OrganizationThe InternationalMaritime (IMO) iscurrently shipping. ofArcticmarine from theimpacts growing uses–suggestingways marine to protect theseareas significance inlight ofthechanging climate andmultiple identifying areas ofheightened ecological andcultural emissions inArcticstates. Moreover, Arcticstates have been recommendations for reducing andmethane blackcarbon indevelopinghas beenactive thescientific agendaand emissions. The Task Force Climate onShort-Lived Forcers Convention onMercury, mercury whichlimitsharmful recognized for itscontribution to thenewMinamata Assessment hasbeenwidely oftheGlobalMercury as part Arcticscientific global action. work in somecasesspurring contribution to understanding rapid changeintheArctic, The ArcticCouncilgroups working have madeanessential Search Agreement, andRescue signed in2011. environment follows anditsinhabitants. It from theArctic firststep towardsimportant thesafety ensuring ofthe Arctic procedures for combating oilspillsintheArctic. This isan operation intheevent ofanemergency, inorder to improve provides intheArctic.Response It aframework for co- Cooperation OilPollution onMarine Preparedness and Council, signed anew, legallybindingAgreement on 2013theArcticstates,In undertheauspices oftheArctic Adapting to rapid change knowledge. processes to documenting andenhancinguseoftraditional indecision-making strengthening indigenousparticipation indigenous organisations, runprojects, ranging from Participants oftheArcticCouncil, aswell asmany other waysseeking to adaptto these changes. All thePermanent monitoring rapid changesintheenvironment andare organizationsMany Indigenous are involved actively in meetings-overview/kiruna-ministerial-2013 For videolinkspleasegoto http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/events/ © Lawrence Hislop/GRID-Arendal © ArcticCouncil Arctic 63

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Rapid change in the Arctic Combatting climate change and building resilience

To respond to the rapid change in the Arctic, building resilience and adapting to inevitable climate change is of great importance. Resilience is the long-term capacity to deal with change and continue to develop and adapt within critical thresholds.

Ecosystem and social resilience

Ecosystem resilience is a measure of how much disturbance an ecosystem can handle (e.g. in the form of storms, fire or pollutants) without shifting into a qualitatively different state. It is the capacity of a system to both withstand shocks and surprises and to rebuild itself if damaged. Social resilience is the ability of human communities to withstand and recover from stresses such © Phillip Burgess/International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry as environmental change or social, economic or political upheaval. Resilience in societies and their life-supporting ecosystems is crucial in order to maintain options for In view of the potential for major environmental damage, future human development. careful consideration needs to be given to a precautionary approach to economic development. A precautionary approach requires measures such as development moratoriums until full assessments have established risks to the environment and human systems – and until adequate management frameworks are in place. Because of the rapid pace of change in the fragile Arctic region, it is essential to develop strengthened systems for monitoring and for provision of early warnings.

The leading scientific research being carried out in the Arctic, and successful inter-governmental cooperation on protecting the region’s environment, provide examples for the rest of the world.

© Lawrence Hislop/GRID-Arendal

64 Klosters, Switzerland 22-25 January 2014 Klosters, Switzerland 22-25January Forum GlobalAgenda Council ontheArctic. Davos- Authored by ofthe theMembers World Economic World Economic Forum (2014).Demystifying theArctic. Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP DivisionofEarly Warning andAssessment, Yearbook 2013:Emerging IssuesofourEnvironment. responses to arapidly changing Arctic. UNEP In: UNEP (2013). The View from the Top: Searching for and Physics,Atmospheric Chemistry 13,8833-8855. role and ofgasflaring residential combustion engines. intheArctic:under-estimated (2013). Blackcarbon Shevchenko, V.P., Kopeikin, V.M. andNovigatsky, A.N. Stohl, Z.,Eckhardt,S.,Kupiainen, A.,Klimont, K., 2013. Card: UpdateCarbon for intheArctic.ArcticReport In: Chan, E., P.K. Quinn, (2013).Black J.K. andBurkhart, S.,Ogren,Sharma, J.A.,K., Jefferson, A.,Eleftheriadis, Geophysical Research, 116,D15, linked to summerstorm activity. abnormal of Journal interannual changesofperennial Arcticseaice Screen, J.A., Simmonds, I.andKeay, (2011).Dramatic K. of Geophysical Research, 118,14,7788-7798. withinArcticormid-latitudes.of blackcarbon Journal temperature(2013). Arcticsurface changeto emissions Sand, M.,Berntsen, T.K., Seland, Ø. J.E. andKristjánsson, Tracking recent environmental changes. Card:(eds.) Update for (2013).ArcticReport 2013. Jeffries, M.O.,Richter-Menge, Overland, J.A. and J.E. arcticbiodiversity.is/ and Trends inArcticBiodiversity http://www. (2013).ArcticBiodiversity Assessment:CAFF Status arctic-governance-in-an-evolving-arctic-region.pdf evolving Arcticregion http://www.arcticparl.org/files/ Arctic Parliamentarians, Arcticgovernance inan Arctic-Indigenous-Peoples InEnglish/SCIENCE-COMMUNICATIONS/Arctic-region/ PeoplesIndigenous http://www.arcticcentre.org/ Arctic Centre, University ofLapland(2013).Arctic AMSA-IIc/869 significance-Arctic-Marine-Shipping-Assessment- marine-areas-of-heightened-ecological-and-cultural- amap.no/documents/doc/Identification-of-Arctic- ShippingAssessmentMarine (AMSA) IIchttp://www. heightened ecological andcultural significance: Arctic (2013). Identification areas ofmarine Arctic of SDWG (SustainableDevelopment Working Group) AMAP/CAFF (Conservation ofArcticFlora andFauna)/ amap-assessment-2013-arctic-ocean-acidification/881 Acidification http://www.amap.no/documents/doc/ (2013). AMAP Assessment 2013:ArcticOcean AMAP (Arctic andAssessment Monitoring Programme) Further information abouttheArctic Arctic 65

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 Acknowledgements

Excess nitrogen in the environment Illegal trade in wildlife Science writer Science writer John Smith, Austin, United States Penny Park, Science Media Centre of Canada, Toronto, Canada

Reviewers Reviewers Anjan Datta, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya Ludgarde Coppens, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya Jan Willem Erisman, Louis Bolk Institute, Driebergen, Bianca Notarbartolo di Sciara, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya The Netherlands Lisa Rolls Hagelberg, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya John Scanlon, Convention on International Trade in The emergence of infectious diseases Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Geneva, Switzerland Science writer Penny Park, Science Media Centre of Canada, Toronto, Canada Realizing the potential of citizen science Reviewers Science writer Kerry Bowman, University of Toronto Joint Centre for Bioethics, Penny Park, Science Media Centre of Canada, Toronto, Canada Toronto, Canada Reviewers Richard Ostfeld, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, United States Susanne Bech, UN-Habitat, Nairobi, Kenya Carolyn Stephens, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Tucumán, Rick Bonney, Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, New York, Argentina United States Denis Couvet, National Museum of Natural History Fish and shellfish farming (Department ‘Ecology and Management of Biodiversity’), École Polytechnique, Palaiseau, Paris, France Science writer Muki Haklay, University College London, London, Christian Neumann, GRID-Arendal, Arendal, Norway United Kingdom Tero Mustonen, Snowchange Cooperative, North Karelia, Reviewers Finland Lex Bouwman, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, The Hague , The Netherlands Methane from hydrates Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO), Aquaculture Science writer Branch, Rome, Italy Patricia Glibert, University of Maryland Center for Environmental John Smith, Austin, United States Science, Cambridge, United States Reviewers Esther Luiten, Aquaculture Stewardship Council, Utrecht, The Netherlands Yannick Beaudoin, GRID-Arendal, Arendal, Norway Michael Phillips, WorldFish, Penang, Malaysia Robert Corell, Global Environment and Technology Foundation Pinya Sarasas, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya and its Center for Energy and Climate Solution, Washington, DC, Greg Sherley, UNEP, Apia, Samoa United States Posa Skelton, Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Carolyn Ruppel, US Geological Survey’s Gas Hydrates Project, Programme (SPREP), Apia, Samoa Woods Hole, United States WWF, Gland, Switzerland Koji Yamamoto, Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC), Tokyo, Japan

66 Heidi Savelli, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya United States Waters Assessment Programme (GEF TWAP), Pembroke Pines, GlobalEnvironmentLiana McManus, Facility Transboundary Aquaculture Science, Lowestoft, United Kingdom Peter Kershaw, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Lawrence Hislop, GRID-Arendal, Arendal, Norway GRID-Arendal, Alfthan, Björn Arendal, Norway Science writers changeintheArctic Rapid Vargas,Ronald Shepherd,Gemma UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya United Kingdom Steven Kroto Banwart, Research Institute, University ofSheffield, Reviewers John Smith,Austin, United States Science writer soilcarbonbenefits Securing Reviewers John Smith,Austin, United States Science writer Plastic debrisintheocean Janak Pathak, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya Climateto Reduce Short-Lived Pollutants (CCAC), Paris, France Otto, Secretariat oftheClimate andCleanAirMartina Coalition Switzerland Künzli, SwissNino Tropical andPublic HealthInstitute, Basel, deJong,Rob UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya China Wei Huang, Peking ofPublic University School Health,Beijing, Volodymyr UNEP, Demkine, Nairobi, Kenya and Development (OECD), Paris, France Nils-Axel Braathen, Organisation for Economic Co-operation Reviewers John Smith,Austin, United States Science writer health risk Air pollution:world’s worst environmental

FAO, Rome, Italy

Adam Stepien, University ofLapland, Rovaniemi, Finland Norway SINTEFMaterialsandChemistry,Jon Samseth, Trondheim, Peter Prokosch, GRID-Arendal, Arendal, Norway Svein UArctic Mathiesen, EALÁT Institute, Kautokeino, Norway Finland ScienceCommunications, ArcticCenter, Heikkilä, Markku Oulu, DC, United States and itsCenter for Energy andClimate Solutions, Washington, Corell,Robert GlobalEnvironment and Technology Foundation Reviewers Chapter imageArctic:©Lawrence Hislop/GRID-Arendal Chapter ©HansJoosten imagesoilcarbon: AntarcticChapter ©British Survey imageplasticdebris: Chapter imageairpollution:©ssuaphotos/Shutterstock Chapter imagecitizen science: ©GillConquest/ExCiTeS Chapter imagemethanehydrates: ©USGS Chapter imageillegalwildlife trade: © WWF GerardChapter © imagefishfarming: Koudenburg/Shutterstock Chapter imageinfectiousdiseases:©motorolka/Shutterstock Chapter imagenitrogen: ©Anton Foltin/Shutterstock Back cover bottom rightimage:© Tyler Olson/Shutterstock Back cover image:©Sergey Nivens/Shutterstock bottom left Back cover top rightimage:© Vladislav Gajic/Shutterstock Back cover image:©Sayanjo65/Shutterstock top left Front cover Andrushko/Shutterstock imagebottom: ©Galyna Front cover Library/Shutterstock imagemiddle:©HPHImage Front cover imagetop: ©Shyamalamuralinath/Shutterstock Credits Arendal, Norway andJudithMaréchal, Barnes Rob GRID-Arendal, Hungary; UNON,Nairobi, Bálint, Kenya;Budapest, Márton Michuki, Audrey Ringler, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya; JinitaShahandMartin and Mungai Chris David Koch,Ali Malik, Josephat Kariuki, Graphics, design andlayout John Smith,Austin, United States Copy editor Hungary the Environment (SCOPE), Paris, France; Bálint, Budapest, Márton Susan Greenwood Etienne, Scientific Committee on Problems of Trang Nguyen andFranklin Odhiambo, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya; Mwangi, Nyokabi Ali Malik, Tessa Goverse (editor-in-chief), Project team UNEP Year team 2014production Book

67

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 UNEP Digital UNEP Year Book 2014 for iPad and Android United Nations Environment Programme

United Nations Environment Programme environment for developmentUNEP YEAR BOOK EmERgiN g issUEs iN OUR chANgiNg ENviRONmENt

2014 UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP United Nations Environment Programme Excess Nitrogen in the Environment The Emergence of Infectious Diseases Fish and Shellfish Farming in Marine Ecosystems

Ten years after the first Year Book in this series appeared (http://www.unep.org/yearbook/), a special e-book anniversary edition – UNEP Year Book 2014 – presents a fresh look at ten envrionmental issues highlighted over the past decade.

UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update Illegal Trade in Wildlife Methane from Hydrates Realizing the Potential of Citizen Science Air Pollution: World’s Worst Environmental Health Risk

United Nations Environment Programme environment for development soil carbon What is being done to manage soil carbon better? Maintaining and enhancing soil carbon benefits

In agriculture, the purpose of many ongoing research and development efforts is to improve land management. For example, conservation agriculture initiatives in developing countries are aimed at increasing soil organic carbon and reducing its losses while improving farmers’ incomes and alleviating poverty. The effectiveness of measures to increase carbon inputs to agricultural soils and reduce carbon losses depends on local conditions, including soil types and climate.

Securing Soil Benefits Carbon The rate of global forest clearance has accelerated due to population growth and demand for food, feed, fibre, fuel – and living space. Over 5 million hectares of forest has been Enhancing soil carbon through conservation agriculture brings socio-economic benefits. cleared annually in recent years. Soil carbon is lost rapidly © Concern Worldwide as a result of forest clearance. Preventing forest loss and degradation (e.g. under the UN-REDD programme) has multiple benefits in addition to protecting and enhancing carbon stocks. These benefits include water regulation and biodiversity conservation. UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update UNEP Year Book 2014 emerging issues update The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Global Forest Resources Assessments are produced every five years to Plastic Debris in the Ocean Securing Soil Carbon Benefits Rapid Change in the Arctic provide an update on the state of the world’s forests and Tap on the image for web link Tap on the podcast icon to learn more

how they are changing. The recently launched Global Forest about the Carbon Benefits Project BOOK 2014 YEAR UNEP The Global Forest Watch and the Carbon Benefits Project are examples of initiatives that help measure the effectiveness of efforts to preserve soil carbon. © Elke Noellemeyer

To view UNEP Year Book 2014 digital edition for iPad go to iTunes App Store or for Android go to Google Play and search for ‘UNON PSS App’, install and enjoy...

UNON Publishing Services Section, Nairobi, ISO 14001:2004-certified, UNON Publishing Services Section, Nairobi, UNON Publishing Services Section, Nairobi, ISO 14001:2004-cer- tifiedUNON Publishing Services Section, Nairobi, ISO 14001:2004-certified UNON Publish- ing Services Section, Nairobi, UNON Publishing Services Section, Nairobi, ISO 14001:2004-

App created by UNON Publishing Services Section http://dcs.unon.org

68 4 P R K 1 0 E 2 O A E N O United Nations Environment Programme IN OUR GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT IN OUR GLOBAL EMERGING ISSUES EMERGING B Y U

UNEP YEAR BOOK 2014 EMERGING ISSUES IN OUR GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT DEW/1793/NA 978-92-807-3381-5 a y amme g g Ken ogr r .or obi, t P .or g air .or onmen .unep vir .unep uneppub@unep www +254 20 762 3927 +254 20 762 1234 ax: el.: tions En T F a x 30552 - 00100 N o e-mail:

www B . ed N

.O P Unit

and stunning images from around the around help tell world and stunning images from the stories. innovative solutions that been created those to have solve challenges.innovative Video,animations, data visualization multi-media experience thatmulti-media experience helps illustrate the challenges face environmental today we and some of the the past decade. This UNEP Year Book 2014 takes advantage of the latest technology, providing a of the advantage takes latest providing technology, Book 2014 the This past decade. UNEP Year e-book anniversary edition – UNEP Year Book 2014 – presents a fresh look at ten issues highlighted over look at ten fresh highlighteda issues – presents over Book 2014 e-book anniversary – UNEP Year edition Ten years after the first Year Book in this series appeared (http://www.unep.org/yearbook/), a special a after years in this Book seriesthe (http://www.unep.org/yearbook/), appeared Ten first Year