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The Approach of the EU Towards the Conflict of Western Sahara Questioning the Legality of the Fisheries Agreements with Morocco

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The Approach of the EU Towards the Conflict of Western Sahara Questioning the Legality of the Fisheries Agreements with Morocco Master‟s Degree programme – Second Cycle (D.M. 270/2004) in International Relations Final Thesis The approach of the EU towards the conflict of Western Sahara Questioning the legality of the fisheries agreements with Morocco Supervisors Ch. Prof.ssa Sara De Vido Ch. Prof. Matteo Legrenzi Graduand Anna Lucia Angelillo Matriculation Number 998030 Academic Year 2016 / 2017 The approach of the EU towards the conflict of Western Sahara: Questioning the legality of the fisheries agreements with Morocco 2 The approach of the EU towards the conflict of Western Sahara: Questioning the legality of the fisheries agreements with Morocco 3 The approach of the EU towards the conflict of Western Sahara: Questioning the legality of the fisheries agreements with Morocco 4 The approach of the EU towards the conflict of Western Sahara: Questioning the legality of the fisheries agreements with Morocco Index ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………… 7 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………….. 11 I. WESTERN SAHARA …………………………………………….. 21 1.1 The land and the people …………………………………….. 22 1.1.1 The origins of Spanish Sahara …………………... 24 1.1.2 The Sahrawi nationalism: the Polisario Front…… 27 1.2 The failure of the decolonization process …………………… 30 1.2.1 The Spanish decolonization at the United Nations …………………………………………….. 30 1.2.2 The advisory opinion of the ICJ ………………….. 35 1.2.3 The Green March and the intervention of the Security Council …………………………………... 40 1.2.4 The Madrid Accords ………………………………. 43 1.2.5 The war …………………………………………….. 46 1.2.6 The UN Settlement Plan ………………………….. 50 1.3 The failure of the UN process and the problem of the identification …………………………………………… 52 1.3.1 The interpretation of Pérez de Cuéllar …………. 53 1.3.2 The mandate of Kofi Annan and the Baker Plan ………………………………………………….54 II. LEGAL FRAMEWORK OF THE WESTERN SAHARA QUESTION ……………………………………………………...... 58 2.1 Western Sahara as a NSGT…...................................................... 58 2.2 International obligations towards NSGTs …………………..60 2.2.1 The role of Spain as administering Power and related obligations ………………………………… 63 2.3 Morocco as occupying power ………………………………... 71 2.3.1 Occupation under International Law…………….. 72 2.3.2 The controversy over the legal status of Morocco: de facto occupation vs de jure administration ……………………………………… 79 2.4 Rules governing the use of natural resources ………………. 80 2.4.1 The PPSNR ……………………………………….. 80 2.4.2 The Corell opinion ……………..…………………. 86 2.4.3 The PPSNR in the occupation: rights and duties of the occupying powers ………………………….. 88 2.5 The duty of non-recognition …………………………………. 93 5 The approach of the EU towards the conflict of Western Sahara: Questioning the legality of the fisheries agreements with Morocco III. THE FISHERIES AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE EU AND MOROCCO ……………………………………………….... 99 3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………. 99 3.2 Background of the EU-Morocco relations ………………….. 100 3.3 The EU‟s Common Fisheries Policy …………………………. 103 3.3.1 The FPAs ………………………………………..… 106 3.4 Historical background of the fisheries agreement between Spain and Morocco ………………………………………..… 106 3.5 The fisheries agreements between the EC and Morocco …... 109 3.6 The 2006 EC-Morocco FPA ………………………………..… 112 3.6.1 The geographical scope of the 2006 FPA and the delimitation of the fishing zone …………………………………………............. 114 3.6.2 The 2006 Legal Service‟s Opinion ………………… 117 3.6.3 The 2009 Legal Service‟s Opinion …………………. 120 3.7 The Blocking of the 2011 Protocol…………………………….. 124 3.8 The 2013 FPA …………………………………………………. 128 3.9 Considerations on the FPAs between the Kingdom of Morocco and the EU ………………………………………….. 133 3.10 The attitude of the organs of the EU ………………………... 141 3.10.1 The European Parliament …………………………..….142 3.10.2 The European Commission …………………………....145 IV. THE CHALLENGES BEFORE THE EUROEPAN UNION COURT OF JUSTICE …………………………………………………….. 149 4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………… 149 4.2 Action brought on 14 March 2014 – Front Polisario v Council…………………………………………………………..151 4.3 Western Sahara Campaign UK regarding labelling of goods ..…............................................................................... 153 4.4 The annulment of the trade agreement between Morocco and the EU……..……………………………………………….. 155 4.4.1 The Advocate-General Opinion…………………..167 CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………………………………… 171 BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………….…. 179 6 The approach of the EU towards the conflict of Western Sahara: Questioning the legality of the fisheries agreements with Morocco Abstract A partire dalla fondazione delle Nazioni Unite, più di ottanta ex colonie hanno raggiunto l‟indipendenza, un processo che ha coinvolto più di un miliardo di persone e nel quale le Nazioni Unite hanno svolto un ruolo determinante. Il processo di decolonizzazione del continente africano è considerato uno dei più grandi successi delle Nazioni Unite; tuttavia, il caso del Sahara occidentale rimane, insieme ad altri, ancora non risolto e la popolazione saharaui non ha ancora esercitato il diritto a decidere sul futuro del proprio territorio. Il continuo diniego del diritto all‟autodeterminazione del popolo saharaui affonda le sue radici nell‟invasione del territorio, ex colonia spagnola, da parte del Marocco nel 1975. Nel corso degli anni, il Marocco ha consolidato la propria amministrazione e il proprio controllo attraverso la costruzione di un muro che attraversa il Sahara occidentale per circa 1500 chilometri e che oggi rappresenta il confine de facto tra la parte amministrata dal Marocco e quella amministrata dal Fronte per la Liberazione del Sahara occidentale, il Fronte Polisario. Il Sahara occidentale è ancora oggi considerato dalle Nazioni Unite un territorio non autonomo mentre la presenza del Marocco è stata definita dalla stessa, occupazione militare. Inoltre, l‟assoggettamento dei saharaui all‟occupazione marocchina risulta essere molto più ostile rispetto alla precedente colonizzazione spagnola del territorio durata fino al 1975. Il fatto che la Spagna abbia abbandonato il territorio del Sahara occidentale circa quaranta anni fa e che la questione della sovranità rimanga tuttora irrisolta, è la testimonianza di un fallimento odierno delle istituzioni internazionali e del diritto internazionale nel generare un meccanismo adeguato per dare avvio ai principi universalmente riconosciuti di decolonizzazione e del diritto all‟autodeterminazione dei popoli indigeni. Il caso del Sahara occidentale è sempre stato considerato nella dimensione politica del diritto all‟autodeterminazione; tuttavia, durante il processo di decolonizzazione, si è sviluppato il cosiddetto principio di sovranità permanente dei popoli sulle risorse naturali, considerato corollario del principio 7 The approach of the EU towards the conflict of Western Sahara: Questioning the legality of the fisheries agreements with Morocco di autodeterminazione e diretto a garantirne la dimensione economica e permettere ai paesi colonizzati di poter usufruire delle proprie risorse. L‟area occupata del Sahara occidentale è uno tra i paesi più ricchi al mondo di risorse alieutiche, di fosfati e in parte di petrolio e di gas. La sua ricchezza in termini di risorse naturali è stata tuttavia anche la sua condanna e la motivazione principale dietro l‟occupazione marocchina del Sahara occidentale. L‟invasione illegale del Marocco, infatti, sembra ricevere un solido supporto dal commercio internazionale. Nel momento in cui le potenze commerciali straniere cooperano con le autorità marocchine per avviare attività nella zona occupata del Sahara occidentale, si vengono a determinare problematiche etiche, giuridiche e sociali. Le società coinvolte affermano che il loro intervento intende contribuire a fornire uno sviluppo economico positivo in Marocco. Tuttavia, lo sviluppo si trasforma in un contributo attivo nel supporto dell‟occupazione illegale da parte del Marocco del Sahara occidentale. Secondo le norme del diritto internazionale infatti, l‟uso delle risorse di un territorio occupato da parte della potenza occupante, è considerato legittimo qualora la popolazione locale goda dei relativi benefici. Tuttavia, la maggior parte dei saharaui vive nei campi profughi nel deserto dell‟Algeria, in condizioni di povertà, senza ricevere i benefici che derivano dal commercio delle risorse della propria terra. I saharaui che vivono nella zona occupata dal Marocco, invece, sono soggetti ad una violazione sistematica dei diritti umani da parte del governo marocchino, come è stato riportato in diverse occasioni dalle organizzazioni governative Amnesty International e Human Rights Watch. Le compagnie straniere e l‟UE ricoprono un ruolo sempre più importante nel conflitto del Sahara occidentale. Esse, infatti, forniscono occupazione ai colonizzatori marocchini nonché entrate economiche alla potenza occupante, nonostante debbano rispettare il principio di non riconoscimento di situazioni illegittime e le loro azioni commerciali nella zona occupata del Sahara occidentale sia stata denunciata dalla società civile e considerata illegittima dal Sottosegretario ONU agli Affari giuridici, Hans Corell. 8 The approach of the EU towards the conflict of Western Sahara: Questioning the legality of the fisheries agreements with Morocco Grazie alla sua posizione geografica strategica, il Marocco ha relazioni molto strette con l‟Unione Europea. Il Marocco inoltre è cosciente del fatto che l‟Unione Europea preme per una cooperazione stretta per aiutare a risolvere problemi legati al terrorismo, all‟immigrazione e al traffico di droga ed è riuscito a diventare
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