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Defining Critical Feminist Justpeace: Women’S Peacebuilding Praxis And DEFINING CRITICAL FEMINIST JUSTPEACE: WOMEN’S PEACEBUILDING PRAXIS AND FEMINIST POLITICAL THOUGHT A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Notre Dame in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Karie Cross Eileen Botting, Director Graduate Program in Peace Studies and Political Science Notre Dame, Indiana June 2017 DEFINING CRITICAL FEMINIST JUSTPEACE: WOMEN’S PEACEBUILDING PRAXIS AND FEMINIST POLITICAL THOUGHT Abstract by Karie Cross The central concerns of my dissertation are the meaning of gender-just peace and the methods for pursuing it. Entering an ongoing debate within peace studies about the United Nations’ top-down, institutions-oriented “liberal peace,” I use ethnographic research with women’s peacebuilding groups in India alongside feminist political thought to argue for a “critical feminist justpeace,” developed from the bottom-up and taking the diverse experiences of marginalized women as motivation. Women in Manipur, India, try to build peace across ethnic, religious, and class-based boundaries. I analyze their practices, synthesizing them into a peacebuilding “praxis”—reflection combined with action with the goal of transformation—which we can fruitfully compare to Western feminist thought. This comparison of praxis and theory suggests that where the liberal peace fails women, a radically inclusive critical feminist justpeace will come closer to success. Such Karie Cross a peace is never achieved, but is rather an on-going process of contestation and relationship-building across divisions of power and privilege. For the women of Manipur: may they find peace. ii CONTENTS Tables ................................................................................................................................. vii Acknowledgments............................................................................................................. viii Chapter 1: Introduction to women’s peacebuilding: theory, praxis, and feminist methods ................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Literature review: women, gender, and peacebuilding ................................... 8 1.2.1 Difference approaches ..................................................................... 10 1.2.1.1 War, militarism, and peace are gendered ........................ 13 1.2.1.2 Women leverage motherhood for peace ......................... 14 1.2.1.3 Women focus on structural violence and positive peace 16 1.2.1.4 Women are more than just victims .................................. 18 1.2.1.5 Gender relations are a good indicator of violence ........... 20 1.2.2 Diversity approaches........................................................................ 23 1.2.3 Deconstructive or post-structural approaches ................................ 30 1.2.4 Situating myself in the literature ..................................................... 38 1.3 Research site: the Indian state of Manipur .................................................... 40 1.4 Research methods .......................................................................................... 43 1.4.1 Qualitative, interpretive, and feminist ............................................ 43 1.4.2 Research on the ground ................................................................... 49 1.4.3 Comparative political theory and praxis .......................................... 53 1.5 Peacebuilding, liberal feminism, and human development in this project .... 57 1.6 Peacebuilding, critical feminism, and human rights in this project ............... 61 1.7 Summary of conclusions: critical feminist justpeace ...................................... 63 Chapter 2: Political history and armed conflict in Manipur.............................................. 66 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 66 2.2 Political history ................................................................................................ 67 2.2.1 Origin stories .................................................................................... 69 2.2.2 The British colonial era .................................................................... 72 2.2.3 Indian independence and the “forced merger” .............................. 77 2.3 Armed conflict ................................................................................................. 83 2.3.1 The Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) ............................... 83 2.3.2 Responses to AFSPA: the rise of armed insurgency ........................ 87 iii 2.3.3 Inter-ethnic violence in Manipur ..................................................... 93 2.3.4 Current status: low-intensity armed conflict in Manipur ................ 96 Chapter 3: Peacebuilding in Manipur: praxis coming to life .......................................... 105 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 105 3.2 Structural violence: provoking and constraining the women peacebuilders of Manipur ................................................................................................... 108 3.2.1 Social inequalities: ethnicity and religion ...................................... 114 3.2.2 Geographic inequalities: hills and valleys ...................................... 120 3.2.3 Political inequalities: national, state, and local politics ................. 122 3.2.4 Economic inequalities: development, corruption, and extortion . 128 3.2.5 Militarization: life under occupation ............................................. 132 3.3 Women’s peacebuilding praxis ..................................................................... 136 3.3.1 Interethnic peacebuilding .............................................................. 141 3.3.1.1 Manipur Women Gun Survivors Network ...................... 141 3.3.1.2 Extrajudicial Execution Victims’ Families Association (EEVFAM) ........................................................................ 147 3.3.2 Meitei peacebuilding ..................................................................... 154 3.3.2.1 Meira Paibis .................................................................... 154 3.3.2.2 “The iron lady,” Irom Sharmila ....................................... 159 3.3.3 Kuki peacebuilding: Women’s Welfare Association Asia .............. 161 3.3.4 Naga peacebuilding ........................................................................ 165 3.3.4.1 Shanao Long .................................................................... 165 3.3.4.2 Naga Women’s Union Manipur ...................................... 166 3.3.4.3 Intra-ethnic, interstate peacebuilding: NWUM and the Naga Mothers’ Association ............................................. 169 3.4 Women’s peacebuilding agency: contributions to justpeace ....................... 171 Chapter 4: Liberal feminism and human development .................................................. 185 4.1 Why liberal feminism and human development? ........................................ 185 4.2 Introduction to human development ........................................................... 186 4.2.1 A brief history of the approach ...................................................... 186 4.2.2 Amartya Sen ................................................................................... 189 4.2.3 Martha Nussbaum ......................................................................... 195 4.3 Comparative analysis: Sen, Nussbaum, and peacebuilding praxis ............... 201 4.3.1 Guiding criteria: “the list” .............................................................. 203 4.3.1.1 Does the list promote or hinder substantive freedom? . 203 4.3.1.2 Does the list enable an individual to act as an agent in her own life? .......................................................................... 207 4.3.1.3 Sen: agency distinct from well-being .............................. 208 4.3.1.3.1 Sen: agency, autonomy, and empowerment .. 211 4.3.1.3.2 Sen: agency and change................................... 214 4.3.1.3.3 Nussbaum: agency indivisible from well-being 216 iv 4.3.1.3.4 Nussbaum: agency as interpersonal ................ 221 4.3.1.3.5 Nussbaum: reasonable, emotional, religious, and anxious agents .................................................... 223 4.3.1.3.6 Sen and Nussbaum: agency and time .............. 227 4.3.1.4 3. Does the list assist with the problem of adaptive preferences? ................................................................... 229 4.3.2 Deliberative inquiry........................................................................ 233 4.4 Conclusions ................................................................................................... 248 Chapter 5: Critical feminism, human rights, and conflict transformation...................... 251 5.1 Why critical feminist human rights and conflict transformation? ............... 251 5.2 Brooke Ackerly’s critical feminist approach ................................................. 253 5.2.1 Third World feminist social criticism ............................................. 253 5.2.1.1 Skeptical scrutiny ............................................................ 255 5.2.1.2 Guiding criteria ..............................................................
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