Genetics and Mechanism of Pheochromocytoma–Paraganglioma Syndromes Characterized by Germline SDHB and SDHD Mutations
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Role of SDH in B E Baysal and E R Maher 22:4 T71–T82 Thematic Review pheochromocytomas/ paragangliomas 15 YEARS OF PARAGANGLIOMA Genetics and mechanism of pheochromocytoma–paraganglioma syndromes characterized by germline SDHB and SDHD mutations Bora E Baysal and Eamonn R Maher1 Correspondence should be addressed Department of Pathology, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York 14263, USA to B E Baysal 1Department of Medical Genetics, Cambridge NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Email University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK [email protected] Abstract Pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas (PPGL) are rare neuroendocrine neoplasms that Key Words derive from small paraganglionic tissues which are located from skull base to the pelvic floor. " pheochromocytoma Genetic predisposition plays an important role in development of PPGLs. Since the discovery " neuroendocrine tumors of first mutations in the succinate dehydrogenase D (SDHD) gene, which encodes the " neoplasia smallest subunit of mitochondrial complex II (SDH), genetic studies have revealed a major " molecular genetics role for mutations in SDH subunit genes, primarily in SDHB and SDHD, in predisposition to " molecular biology Endocrine-Related Cancer both familial and non-familial PPGLs. SDH-mutated PPGLs show robust expression of hypoxia induced genes, and genomic and histone hypermethylation. These effects occur in part through succinate-mediated inhibition of a-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases. However, details of mechanisms by which SDH mutations activate hypoxic pathways and trigger subsequent neoplastic transformation remain poorly understood. Here, we present a brief review of the genetic and mechanistic aspects of SDH-mutated PPGLs. Endocrine-Related Cancer (2015) 22, T71–T82 Introduction Paragangliomas are neuroendocrine neoplasms that may (Tischler 2008). Thus they are functionally and histolo- arise from parasympathetic or sympathetic paraganglia. In gically similar to pheochromocytomas (in older literature general, those arising from parasympathetic paraganglia they were often described as extra-adrenal pheochromo- are non-secretory, associated with head and neck para- cytomas). Occasionally HNPGL can also secrete catechol- ganglia and are usually referred to as head and neck amines (Erickson et al. 2001). paragangliomas (HNPGL), or more specifically ‘carotid Familial HNPGL was first described more than 80 years paraganglioma’, ‘jugulotympanic paraganglioma’, etc., ago (Chase 1933), and 25 years ago evidence of autosomal rather than by older terms such as ‘chemodectoma’ or dominant inheritance with parent of origin effects ‘glomus jugulare’. Paragangliomas arising from sym- (tumors were only manifest after paternal transmission, pathetic nervous system paraganglia usually arise in the Fig. 1) was reported (van der Mey et al. 1989). Ten years abdomen and thorax, and secrete catecholamines later, Baysal et al. (2000) reported the seminal finding that http://erc.endocrinology-journals.org q 2015 Society for Endocrinology This paper is part of a thematic review section on 15th Anniversary of Paraganglioma DOI: 10.1530/ERC-15-0226 Printed in Great Britain and Pheochromocytoma. The Guest Editors for this section were Wouter de Herder Published by Bioscientifica Ltd. and Hartmut Neumann. Downloaded from Bioscientifica.com at 09/24/2021 06:18:29AM via free access Role of SDH in Thematic Review B E Baysal and E R Maher 22:4 T72 pheochromocytomas/ paragangliomas juvenile encephalopathy (Bourgeron et al. 1995), were demonstrated to be a rare cause of (dominantly inherited) predisposition to PPGL (though penetrance appears to be very low) (Burnichon et al.2010). Though germline mutations in SDHC have been shown to be associated on rare occasions with PPGL (Mannelli et al.2007), these are much less frequent than SDHB and SDHD mutations. Genetic heterogeneity of PPGLs is further highlighted by identification of germline mutations in the VHL, RET, NF1, TMEM127,andMAX genes (Dahia 2014). Here we review our current knowledge of SDHB-and Affected mutation carrier SDHD-related disorders. Unaffected non-mutation carrier Unaffected mutation carrier Germline SDHB and SDHD mutations Mutation spectrum Figure 1 A comprehensive database of germline SDHB and SDHD Sample family tree illustrating how disease can be hidden within families due to maternal imprinting of the SDHD gene. The susceptibility gene is mutations is maintained at http://chromium.liacs.nl/ carried and transmitted by females but only manifests as disease when LOVD2/SDH/home.php (Bayley et al. 2005). A wide variety inherited from a father. of intragenic mutations have been described and, more recently, single or multiple exon deletions (and, occasion- familial HNPGL was associated with germline mutations ally, intragenic duplications; McWhinney et al. 2004, in succinate dehydrogenase D (SDHD; PGL1 locus) and Cascon et al. 2008, Neumann et al. 2009). A number of subsequently, SDHD mutations were also demonstrated to frequent SDHB and SDHD mutations were observed and be associated with sporadic and familial pheochromocy- these may result from a high mutation rate or to founder toma (Gimm et al. 2000, Astuti et al. 2001a). SDHD encodes effects. Thus the relative frequency of some mutations can the D subunit of the SDH heteterotetrameric enzyme that, vary with geographical location. In the Netherlands, two Endocrine-Related Cancer together with SDHC, anchors the SDH complex to the inner major SDHD founder mutations have been identified mitochondrial inner membrane. SDH has critical roles in (c.274GOT (p.Asp92Tyr) and c.416TOC (p.Leu139Pro)), the Krebs cycle and respiratory chain electron transport (as and these account for O90% of SDHD mutation carriers part of mitochondrial complex II, Fig. 2). The SDHB gene product, containing three iron–sulfur clusters, is part of the hydrophilic catalytic domain and binds to the SDHA gene SDHA product that contains a covalently attached flavin adenine SDHAF2 dinucleotide (FAD) co-factor and the substrate binding site. SDHB SDHB and SDHD gene products bind to each other and attach the complex II holoenzyme to the mitochondrial inner membrane. Soon after the associations of SDHD mutations with human disease, germline SDHC (PGL3) SDHD mutations were reported to cause familial HNPGL (inher- SDHC ited as an autosomal dominant trait without parent- of-origin effects) (Niemann & Muller 2000) and germline SDHB (PGL4) mutations were found to cause inherited Figure 2 susceptibility to HNPGL and pheochromocytomas and Schematic structure of SDH subunits is shown. SDH is comprised of four structural subunits encoded by SDHA, SDHB, SDHC,andSDHD. The SDHC paragangliomas (PPGL) (Astuti et al. 2001b). Subsequently and SDHD gene products are hydrophobic, sandwich a heme moiety and germline mutations in the SDH-associated protein span the inner mitochondrial membrane. The SDHA and SDHB gene SDHAF2 were found to be a rare cause of HNPGL products are cytosolic and contain a covalently bound FAD and three iron–sulfur clusters respectively. Germ line mutations in SDHAF2 (SDH5), (Hao et al. 2009, Bayley et al. 2010) and SDHA mutations, which encode a non-structural assembly protein critical for flavination of initially reported in the context of an autosomal recessive the SDHA gene product, also predispose to PPGL. http://erc.endocrinology-journals.org q 2015 Society for Endocrinology Published by Bioscientifica Ltd. DOI: 10.1530/ERC-15-0226 Printed in Great Britain Downloaded from Bioscientifica.com at 09/24/2021 06:18:29AM via free access Role of SDH in Thematic Review B E Baysal and E R Maher 22:4 T73 pheochromocytomas/ paragangliomas (van Hulsteijn et al. 2012). A SDHD c.33C/A (p.Cys11X) preservation of IGF2 expression from the paternal allele founder mutation has been reported in central Europe (Hensen et al.2004, Margetts et al.2005). In contrast, it can (Poland; Peczkowska et al. 2008). The common SDHD be hypothesized that, in individuals harboring a maternally c.242COT (p.Pro81Leu) mutation has been reported as inherited SDHD mutation, loss of the paternally-derived both a recurrent and a founder mutation (Baysal et al. chromosome 11 would, whilst biallelically inactivating 2002). In the Dutch population, SDHB founder mutations SDHD,resultinlossofIGF2 expression and retention of arelesscommon.Themostfrequent(asplicesite CDKN1C expression. Such a combination is not usually mutation c.423C1G) intragenic mutation was about 15 sufficient to drive tumorigenesis. In support of this timeslesscommonthantheSDHD c.274GOT hypothesis is the observation that in one case of para- (p.Asp92Tyr) founder mutation, and a founder SDHB ganglioma after maternal transmission of a SDHD mutation, exon 3 deletion has also been reported (Bayley et al. there was loss of the paternal SDHD allele and loss of the 2009a,b, Hensen et al. 2012). In Spain, SDHB founder maternal 11p15.5 imprinted region (Yeap et al.2011). mutations (exon 1 deletion and SDHB c.166_170delCCT- An alternative model to explain the parent-of-origin CA) have also been reported (Cascon et al. 2008, 2009). effects in transmission of SDHD-related paragangliomas suggests regulation of SDHD gene expression by a long- range epigenetic mechanism (Baysal et al. 2011). This Penetrance and genotype–phenotype correlations model proposes that an imprinted small CpG island A major difference between the clinical presentation of associated with a long intergenic non-coding RNA at the germline SDHB and SDHD mutations is the parent-of-origin boundary of gene-rich