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A Developmental Perspective on the Origin of Morphological Disparity in Domesticated Horses

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A Developmental Perspective on the Origin of Morphological Disparity in Domesticated Horses Zurich Open Repository and Archive University of Zurich Main Library Strickhofstrasse 39 CH-8057 Zurich www.zora.uzh.ch Year: 2018 A developmental perspective on the origin of morphological disparity in domesticated horses Heck, Laura Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-153088 Dissertation Published Version Originally published at: Heck, Laura. A developmental perspective on the origin of morphological disparity in domesticated horses. 2018, University of Zurich, Faculty of Science. A Developmental Perspective on the Origin of Morphological Disparity in Domesticated Horses Dissertation zur Erlangung der naturwissenschaftlichen Doktorwürde (Dr. sc. nat.) vorgelegt der Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Zürich von Laura Heck aus Deutschland Promotionskommission Prof. Dr. Marcelo R. Sánchez-Villagra (Vorsitz und Leitung der Dissertation) PD Dr. Torsten Scheyer Prof. Dr. Marcus Clauss Dr. Eva Bärmann (Gutachterin) Zürich, 2018 DISSERTATION A DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE ORIGIN OF MORPHOLOGICAL DISPARITY IN DOMESTICATED HORSES ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................3 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG ..........................................................................................................................5 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................7 CHAPTER I Gestation length variation in domesticated horses and its relation to breed and body size diversity. ..........................................................................19 CHAPTER II Do domesticated mammals selected for intensive production have less variable gestation periods?. .............................................................................29 CHAPTER III Shape variation and modularity of skull and teeth in domesticated horses and wild equids .....................................................................................37 CHAPTER IV Are miniature horse breeds miniature horses? A study of skull shape and growth .......................................................................................................69 CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES ......................................................................................................97 APPENDIX On the lack of a universal pattern associated with mammalian domestication: differences in skull growth trajectories across phylogeny ............................111 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................................125 AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS ............................................................................................................127 CURRICULUM VITAE ......................................................................................................................129 2 Abstract The morphological disparity of domesticated animals provides a rich subject to investigate the developmental bases of shape variation and its limitations within a species. Additionally, it offers a worthwhile comparison with evolutionary patterns at the macroevolutionary scale. This PhD thesis aims to investigate the influence of domestication on life history variables and morphological disparity among horses. It has been claimed that in horses, morphological and life history changes from wild relatives have been less pronounced than in the case of other domesticated mammals, e.g. dogs or pigs. Empirical studies, however, including various breeds, are scarce. Chapter 1 aims to investigate the variation in gestation length among different horse breeds and its relation to size. Differences in prenatal growth, e.g. expressed by differences in average gestation length, are potentially linked to size and shape differences among breeds. In horses, it has been claimed that the variation in gestation length is particularly high. Some of the environmental and genetic factors influencing gestation length are already known, while the influences of breed affiliation and size have rarely been studied. Results indicate an influence of domestication on the gestation length in domesticated horses by presenting differences in average gestation lengths among breeds. Size, however, is not linked to gestation length in horses, hinting towards differences in prenatal growth rates among breeds as the reason for size differences at birth. Chapter 2 examines how domestication and strictly controlled breeding influence gestation length in various domesticated mammal species. As gestation length is an important life history variable for production management, e.g. in the milk industry, the variation of gestation length should be low in stricter controlled production animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. It has further been hypothesized that the variation of gestation length in horses is higher than in other domesticated mammals. Comparison of gestation lengths from the literature for production and non-production animals showed that production animals have a decreased variation in their gestation length and that horses fall well within the range of non-production animals. With their higher variation, goats form an exception to the rule, probably based on their less constrained breeding standards. Chapter 3 aims, for the first time, to assess, quantify, and evaluate the morphological differences and patterns of modularity in cranium, mandible, and teeth between domesticated horses and extant wild equids. Results show a larger shape variation of domesticated horses compared to wild equids in all tested features. The crania of domesticated horses group with the Przewalski’s horses and tend to separate from zebras and donkeys in shape space, while mandible and teeth shapes are indistinguishable among groups. Furthermore, six cranial modules were confirmed with the lower values of integration in domesticated horses than in wild equids, being associated with higher disparity values across all cranial modules in the former. In Chapter 4 it was investigated if novel skull shapes in horses represent a form of paedomorphism. Due do their considerable size range, horses are an excellent study subject to investigate patterns of size-related shape change. Using three-dimensional geometric morphometrics, allometric growth could be shown in ontogenetic series of horse skulls. The two investigated miniature breeds, Falabella and Shetland pony, are not miniature forms of regular- sized breeds, but exhibit paedomorphic features, such as enlarged orbits relative to cranial length 3 Abstract and larger crania compared to wither height. The results of this PhD thesis show that domestication and artificial selection greatly increased the variation in the life history and skull shape of horses. 4 Zusammenfassung Die morphologische Variation von domestizierten Tieren bietet ein reiches Angebot, um die entwicklungsbiologischen Grundlagen und die Limitierungen von Formveränderungen innerhalb einer Art zu erforschen. Zusätzlich bietet es lohnenswerte Vergleichsmöglichkeiten mit evolutionsbiologischen Vorgängen auf makroevolutionärer Ebene. Diese Dissertation hat die Absicht, den Einfluss der Domestizierung auf den Lebenszyklus und die morphologische Variation in Pferden zu untersuchen. Es wird behauptet, dass die Veränderungen im Lebenszyklus und in der morphologischen Variation im Vergleich zum wilden Vorfahren bei Pferden geringer sind als bei anderen domestizierten Tieren, zum Beispiel Hunden oder Schweinen. Empirische Studien, die mehrere Rassen beinhalten, sind jedoch selten. Kapitel 1 hat zum Ziel die Variation der Tragzeitlänge bei unterschiedlichen Pferderassen zu untersuchen und inwiefern diese mit der Körpergrösse zusammenhängt. Unterschiede im pränatalen Wachstum, die sich zum Beispiel durch Unterschiede in der durchschnittlichen Tragzeitlänge äussern, stehen vermutlich in Verbindung mit Grössen- und Formunterschieden zwischen den Rassen. Es wird behauptet, dass die Variation in der Tragzeitlänge bei Pferden besonders gross ist. Einige der ökologischen und genetischen Faktoren, die die Tragzeitlänge beeinflussen sind bereits bekannt, während der Einfluss von Rasse und Körpergrösse wenig untersucht wurde. Die Ergebnisse dieses Kapitels weisen auf einen Einfluss der Domestizierung auf die Tragzeitlänge bei domestizierten Pferden hin, da es signifikante Unterschiede in der durchschnittlichen Tragzeitlänge zwischen den Rassen gibt. Die Körpergrösse hat jedoch keinen Einfluss auf die Tragzeitlänge in Pferden, was demnach auf Unterschiede in der pränatalen Wachstumsrate als Grund für die unterschiedlichen Körpergrössen bei der Geburt hindeutet. Kapitel 2 untersucht den Einfluss der Domestizierung und der streng kontrollierten Zucht auf die Tragzeitlänge bei verschiedenen domestizierten Arten. Da Tragzeitlänge ein wichtiger Faktor für die Industrie ist, wie zum Beispiel in der Milchproduktion, sollte die Variation der Tragzeitlänge bei strenger kontrollierten Produktionstieren, wie Rindern, Schweinen, Schafen oder Ziegen, geringer sein. Des Weiteren wurde die Hypothese geäussert, dass die Variation der Tragzeitlänge in Pferden höher sei als bei anderen domestizierten Arten. Ein Vergleich von Tragzeitlängen aus der Literatur für Produktionstiere und Nicht-Produktionstiere zeigt, dass Produktionstiere eine geringere Variation ihrer Tragzeitlänge haben und
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